WBBSE Solutions For Class 10 History And Environment Chapter 8 2nd Part Of 20th Century: Post-Colonial India (1947-64)

Chapter 8 2nd Part Of 20th Century: Post-Colonial India (1947-64) Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1. Which Department was formed to regroup the Native States?
Answer: The State Department.

Question 2. Who was called ‘The Iron Man of India’?
Answer: Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel.

Question 3. Who was the Viceroy of India when India gained independence?
Answer: Lord Mountbatten.

Question 4. Name a few books which tell us about the plight of refugees who came to India after partition.
Answer: ‘Gandhiji in Noakhali’ by Manoranjan Chowdhury, ‘Jukto Bonger Smriti’ by Annadashankar Roy, ‘Deshbhag Deshtyag’ by Sandip Bandyopadhyay, etc.

Question 5. Who were the members of the J.V.P. Committee?
Answer: Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramaiah.

Question 6. Why was the State Reorganisation Commission formed?
Answer: It was formed to identify the state boundaries in the post-independence period.

Question 7. Which areas were joined together to form the state of Kerala?
Answer: Malabar, Travancore and Cochin.

Question 8. Which states formed the PEPSU?
Answer: Patiala and East Punjab States.

Question 9. How many recognised languages were there in the constitution till 1964?
Answer: 14 recognised languages.

Question 11. Which article of Indian Constitution gives special status to Kashmir?
Answer: Article 370.

Question 12. Which date is known as International Mother Tongue Day?
Answer: 21st February.

Question 13. Name the Operation taken up by Government to free Goa.
Answer: Operation Vijay.

Question 14. Who was the Commander of ‘Operation Vijay’?
Answer: Major J.N. Choudhury.

Question 15. When was Indian Independence Act passed?
Answer: 14th July 1947.

Question 16. When was Junagadh included in India?
Answer: February 1948.

Question 17. When was Hyderabad included in India?
Answer: 26th January 1950.

Question 18. When was State Department formed under Patel?
Answer: 1947.

Question 19. When did India become independent?
Answer: 15th August, 1947.

Question 20. When did Pakistan become independent?
Answer: 14th August, 1947.

Question 21. When did Andra Pradesh emerge as a State of India?
Answer: 1953.

Question 22. When was State Reorganisation Commission formed?
Answer: 1954.

Question 23. When was Andaman and Nicobar Islands declared as a Union Territory?
Answer: 1955.

Question 24. When was Goa included in India?
Answer: 1961.

Question 25. When was All Bengal League Council formed?
Answer: In 1948.

Question 26. Name the first state to be established as a linguistic state.
Answer: Andhra Pradesh.

Question 27. On what basis the states were proposed to be recognised?
Answer: Language basis.

Question 28. What were the observations of the States Reorganisation Commission?
Answer: The SRC had made four observations. The three-tier system of states (parts A, B and C) would be removed, the institution of ‘Rajpramukh’ and special agreement with the former princely states should be abolished; the general control vested in the Government of India by Article 371 will have to be removed and only Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi and Manipur will remain Union Territories and other parts C and D territories will have to be merged with the adjoining states.

Question 29. What were the immediate problems of the influx of refugees from East Pakistan?
Answer: There was a huge pressure on the population of West Bengal, it was difficult to open so many relief camps and rehabilitate so many people, it was a daunting task to find proper livelihood and provide safety for so many refugees; there was massive food shortage which resulted in ‘Food Movement’ and there was also the problem of squatting and illegal occupation of land.

Question 30. Why did Shyamaprasad Mukhopadhyay form the party called ‘Janasangha’?
Answer: Shyamaprasad, who was a central minister, wanted to implement the policy of ‘exchange of people and property’ to solve the refugee problem, while Nehru vehemently opposed him. There was a great debate in the Lok Sabha. Shyamaprasad resigned from the post of the minister after seeing Nehru’s attitude and formed a new party named ‘Janasangha’.

Question 31. What do you understand by the ‘Nehru era’ and ‘Postcolonial Era’?
Answer: The post-colonial era, or the Nehru Era, began on 15th August 1947, the day India became independent. Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India from 1947 to 1964. independence came through riots, the partition of the country and the formation of Pakistan. Many a fault and defect of colonial days kept haunting the country even after independence. Pandit Nehru was at the centre of Indian politics and its Constitution till he died on 27th May 1964.

Question 32. How many Native States were there? What percentage of the total area of the country was it?
Answer: Before independence, there were 562 Native States in India. They constituted 48% of the total territory of the country.

Question 33. What announcement did Attlee make regarding the Native States?
Answer: British Prime Minister Clement Attlee made an announcement on 20th February 1947 that the Native States could maintain their sovereign status if they so wanted.

Question 34. Who is called the Iron Man of India and why?
Answer: Historians felt that Vallabh Bhai Patel was a successful statesman of the highest degree, even greater than Otto Von Bismark of Germany, and named him ‘The Iron Man of India’.

Question 35. What is Azad Kashmir?
Answer: Before independence, Kashmir was in India but the Pakistani raiders occupied l/3rd of the portion of Kashmir and called it ‘Azad Kashmir’.

Question 36. Who are refugees?
Answer: After the independence and partition of India in 1947, a huge humanity of homeless and destitute people had to leave East and West Pakistan in search of livelihood, food clothing-shelter and safety. Those people, who were compelled to leave their homeland and came to India like an avalanche, were called ‘Refugees’.

Question 37. What statement of Muhammad Ali Jinnah encouraged some of the rulers of the princely states to remain independent?
Answer: The princes of the native states also got encouragement from the open statement made by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. On 18 June 1947 he declared that ‘the States would be independent sovereign States on the termination of paramountcy’. The sly hint was that, should they so desire, the princely states could retain their independence.

Question 38. Why did the ruler of Kashmir appeal to India for military assistance?
Answer: Sometime in October 1947, Pathan tribesmen led unofficially by the Pakistan army invaded Kashmir and proceeded towards Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. The Maharaja forthwith appealed to India for military assistance.

Question 39. What was the attitude of the Government of India regarding the rehabilitation of the refugees in West Bengal?
Answer: In the case of rehabilitating the refugees in West Bengal, a step-motherly attitude of the Government of India was noticeable. The refugees were shifted from the platforms of Sealdah station to hastily improvised government camps.

Question 40. When did British Parliament give assent to Indian Independence Act?
Answer: British Parliament gave assent to Indian Independence Act on 18th July 1947.

Question 41. When and under whose leadership was State Ministry formed?
Answer: On 5th July 1947, under the leadership of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, State Ministry was formed.

Question 42. Name the Princely States assembled in Pakistan.
Answer: Khairpur and Bahawalpur were assembled in Pakistan.

Question 43. Which treaties were concluded for assembling princely states into India?
Answer: The treaties concluded for assembling princely states into India were
1. Instrument of accession,
2. Stand still agreement.

Question 44. How many princely States were there in India before independence?
Answer: Before independence, there were 562 princely states in India.

Question 45. Who was the first Indian Governor-General of Independent India?
Answer: Chakravarti Rajagopalchari.

Question 46. Who helped Sardar Patel in assembling the Princely States into India?
Answer: Sardar Patel was helped by Lord Mountbatten, Secretary of State Ministry V.P. Menon and Maharaja Patiyala in assembling the Princely States into India.

Question 47. Which Princely States denied assembling into India?
Answer: Janugadh, Hyderabad and Jammu & Kashmir were the States which denied for assembly into India.

Question 48. When did Pakistan attack Kashmir?
Answer: Pakistan attacked Kashmir on 22nd October 1947.

Question 49. When did Maharaja Hari Singh ask for military help from India?
Answer: On 24th October 1947.

Question 50. When did the Nawab of Hyderabad sign over the Standstill Agreement?
Answer: November 1947.

Question 51. When did Hyderabad accede to Indian Union?
Answer: Indian military forces under the command of General J.N. Chaudhuri entered Hyderabad on 13 September (1949) and by 16th the Nizam surrendered. In November, the Nizam formally joined the Indian Union. This was how Hyderabad was annexed to India.

Question 52. Who resigned against Nehru-Liyaqat Treaty?
Answer: Bengali Cabinet Minister Shyama Prasad Mukherjee and K.C. Niyogi resigned from their posts against Nehru-Liyaqat Treaty.

Question 53. Name two books written by the Bengali writer Taslima Nasrin.
Answer: Two books written by the Bengali writer Taslima Nasrin are
1. Lajja
2. Dwikhandita.

Question 54. When was State Reorganisation Commission appointed?
Answer: State Reorganisation Committee was appointed in December 1953.

Question 55. When was State Reorganisation Bill passed?
Answer: State Reorganisation Bill was passed in November 1956.

Question 56. How many States and Territories emerged after the proposal of the State Reorganisation Commission?
Answer: 16 States & 3 Union Territories emerged after the proposal of the State Reorganisation Commission.

Question 57. How many States and Union Territories were emerged by the proposal of the State Reorganisation Bill?
Answer: 14 States & 6 Union Territories emerged after the proposal of the State Reorganisation Commission.

Question 58. Why was State Reorganisation Commission formed?
Answer: The States Reorganisation Commission (1953) was formed to identify the state boundaries in the post-independence (1947) period. All the Indian states were divided into four categories. There were 9 States in part A, 9 in part B, and 10 in part C and Andaman and Nicobar Islands were kept in part D. States Reorganisation Commission was needed to determine the boundaries of these states.

Question 59. How was Goa included in the territory of India?
Answer: The government of India started ‘Operation Vijay’ on 17-18 December 1961 to free Goa, under the command of Major J. N. Chowdhury, which ended on 19th December. The Indian Army freed Goa, Daman and Diu. In 1961 Goa was included within the territory of India and on 12th August 1987, it became the 25th state of India.

Question 60. Name some books in which the partition of India has been depicted.
Answer: The vivid picture of partition of India has been described in the books like ‘Tamas’ of Bhishma Sahni, ‘Train to Pakistan of Khshwant Singh, ‘Godan’ by Munshi Premchand, ‘Midnight Children’ by Salman Rushdie, ‘Andhra Manik’ of Mahasweta Devi, etc.

Question 61. What was the ‘Dhar Committee’?
Answer: The Constituent Assembly formed ‘The Linguistic Provincial Committee’ in 1948 under the leadership of Justice S. K. Dhar. It was known as ‘Dhar Committee’.

Question 62. What was mentioned in the ‘Nehru-Liakat Agreement’?
Answer: As per this agreement, the Muslims who had left West Bengal and Assam came back in droves. Along with them, Muslims from East Bengal also came to India.

Question 63. What was Sardar Patel’s dual policy of carrot & stick?
Answer: Sardar Patel followed the dual policy of carrot and stick,
1. First, he tried to convice the princes about the advantages they would derive being acceded to India.
2. In the cases where the appeal was not responded to, he did not hesitate to get those acceded through the application of force.

Question 64. State two proposals of the State Reorganisation Commission.
Answer: Of the proposals, two were found to be important. First was to reorganize the states on the basis of the languages of India. Thus, it was hoped, would make administration easier, and would replace the caste and religion-based identities. Second, it was also realized that states formed solely on the basis of linguistic considerations was not to the larger interests of the Indian nation.

Question 65. What is the present figure of States and Union Territories in India?
Answer: Presently the Indian Union consists of 29 States and 7 Union Territories.

Question 66. Name the languages presently mentioned in the eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution.
Answer: Presently, there are twenty-two languages referred to in the Eighth Schedule. The languages are:
1. Assamese,
2. Bengali,
3. Gujarati,
4. Hindi,
5. Kannad,
6. Kashmiri,
7. Malayalam,
8. Marathi,
9. Odia,
10. Punjabi,
11. Sanskrit,
12. Tamil,
13. Telegu,
14. Urdu,
15. Sindhi,
16. Konkani,
17. Manipuri,
18. Nepali,
19. Bodo,
20. Dogri,
21. Maithili and
22. Santhali.

Chapter 8 2nd Part Of 20th Century: Post-Colonial India (1947-64) Short Answer Questions

Question 1. How did Andhra become the first linguistically reorganized state?
Answer:
Organisation of Andhra State: After the accession of the Princely States to India there was the question of their integration which proved to be a difficult task. The integration of the States, however, was effected swiftly by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. After the integration of the States, it was now imperative that the States be reorganized. For after the integration, there was no uniformity among the States territory-wise, population-wise or based on economic viability. On top of these, every unit became multi-lingual.
1. A proposal for the reorganization of States based on uniformity was generally accepted. Yet the opinion in favour of the linguistic state.
2. A strong movement was launched in Andhra in favour of the separation of Andhra from the Madras Presidency. The movement was led by Patti Sriramalu, who was a great freedom fighter. He undertook fast into death over the demand for a separate Andhra State (province). After he expired while on fast for fifty-eight days the movement took a serious turn. Under the situation, the Telegu linguist area was separated from the Tamil-speaking area. Thus was born Andhra Pradesh (1957). At the same time, there emerged Tamil Nadu as a state of Tamil-speaking people.

Question 2. What were the languages in the Constitution until 1964?
Answer:
Languages in the Constitution until 1964: Until 1964 there were 14 recognised languages in the Constitution mentioned in Articles 344 (1) and 351 of the 8th Scheduled of the Indian Constitution. The Home Minister Lai Bahadur Shastri planned to do it. Those are:

(1) Assamese (Assam),
(2) Bengali (West Bengal, Tripura, Andaman and Nicobar),
(3) Gujarati (Gujarat, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu),
(4) Hindi (Bihar, Chandigarh, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand),
(5) Kannada (Karnataka),
(6) Kashmiri, (Jammu and Kashmir),
(7) Malayalam (Kerala, Lakshadweep and Pondicherry),
(8) Marathi (Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu),
(9) Oriya (Orissa),
(10) Punjabi (Chandigarh, Haryana, Delhi and Punjab),
(11) Sanskrit (Uttarakhand),
(12) Tamil (Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar, Pondicherry),
(13) Telegu (Andhra Pradesh, Telengana, Pondicherry),
(14) Urdu (Jammu and Kashmir,
Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar). At present, in the Constitution of Independent India, there are 22 recognised languages. These languages have been recognised in the eigth schedule of the Constitution of India. In 1950, while adopting the Constitution of India, these 14 languages were officially recognised. Hindi and English are recognised as official languages, but nowhere in the Constitution, the term ‘National Language7 has been used. In 1964 there was a demand to have only Hindi as the official language instead of English, but it was not accepted.

Question 3. Explain the Kashmir problem.
Answer:
Kashmir Issue:
1. Introduction: Kashmir, a state with an overwhelming majority of the Muslim population under the rule of a Hindu prince, was geographically beneficial to both India and Pakistan. The ruler of Kashmir, Hari Singh did not accede either to India or Pakistan. He was apprehensive of both democracy in India and communalism in Pakistan. He hoped to remain aloof from both and continue to exist as an independent ruler. The popular political forces led by the National Conference and its leader Skeikh Abdullah, however, wanted to join India. The Indian political leaders took no steps to obtain Kashmir’s accession. In line with their general approach, they wanted the people of Kashmir to decide, whether to link their fate with India or Pakistan. In this, they were supported by Gandhi, who declared in August 1947 that Kashmir was free to join either India or Pakistan in accordance with the will of the people.

2. Attack by Kashmir: But Pakistan not only refused to accept the principle of a plebiscite for deciding the issue of accession in the case of Junagadh or Hyderabad, in the case of Kashmir it tried to short-circuit the popular decision through a short-sighted action, forcing India to partially change its attitude in regard to Kashmir. On 22 October 1947, with the onset of winter, several Pathan tribesmen, led unofficially by Pakistani army officers, invaded Kashmir. They rapidly pushed towards Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. The ill-trained army of the Maharaja failed miserably to counter the invading forces who overran Uri and Baramula and reached the vicinity of the capital.

3. Appeal to India for Help: In a panic, on 24 October 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh appealed to India for military assistance. Nehru, even at this stage did not favour accession without ascertaining the will of the people. But Mountbatten, the Governor General opined that under international law India could send its armed forces to Kashmir only after the State’s formal accession to India. Sheikh Abdullah and Sardar Patel too insisted on accession.

4. Accession to India: On 26th October 1947, Maharaja acceded to India and also agreed to instal Abdullah as the head of the state’s administration. Even though both the National Conference and the Maharaja wanted firm and permanent accession, India, in conformity with its democratic commitment and Mountbatten’s advice, announced that it would hold a referendum on the accession decision once peace and law and order had been restored in the valley.

Question 4. Give an account of the inclusion of Hyderabad and Junagadh within India.
Answer:
Inclusion of Hyderabad and Junagarh:
1. Junagadh: Junagadh was an important State in the group of the Kathiawar States. It was bounded by other Indian States except for the South and South-West where the Arabian Sea lies. The State had no geographical continuity with Pakistan. The Muslim Nawab of Junagadh wanted to accede to Pakistan, but his Hindu subjects compelled him to hand over the State to the Government of India. Its merger in the Indian Union was ratified by a plesbiscite. In 1948, the Nawab of Junagadh fled to Pakistan and thus Junagadh was incorporated into India.

2. Hyderabad: Geographically, Hyderabad occupied a pivotal position in the heart of India. The State was surrounded by the Central Provinces in the North, Bombay in the West and Madras in the East and the South. Its population was nearly 60 million and the annual revenue was Rs. 26 crores. Its area was more than 82000 square miles. It had its own coinage, paper currency and stamps. Although the Hindus formed more than 85 percent of the total population of Hyderabad, their representation in the Civil Services and the army was practically nil and the Government machinery was a monopoly of the Muslims. In the State of Hyderabad, the ruler Nizam wanted to maintain his independent identity. The Hindus of Hyderabad revolted against the Nizam. Internal anarchy in the State of Hyderabad made it necessary for the Government of India to take military occupation of it in September 1948. The Nizam formally acceded to India in November 1949. The State was formally incorporated into the Indian Union on 25 January 1950. The administrative re-organisation of 1956 saw the trifurcation of the State and incorporation into the three neighbouring states of Andhra, Mysore and Bombay.

Question 5. What controversies arose regarding the solution of the refugee problem?
Answer:
Refugee Problem: Nehru had told Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy that it was wrong on part of the Hindus to leave East Bengal. According to him, rehabilitation would not solve the problem. Many people, for the sake of argument, said that Nehru did not have the guts to solve the refugee problem properly. He could have told that unless the minority community was allowed to live in East Bengal, there would be war. Moreover, he did not address the problem of East Pakistan in the same way as he did for West Pakistan. Dr. Roy, in a letter to Nehru, expressed his resentment at Nehru’s indifference to the refugee problem of East Bengal and the meagre help that was meted out. The reply which came from Nehru clearly showed his apathy towards the refugees in West Bengal.

Before partition, Congress leaders like Nehru and Gandhi had promised asylum to the refugees if they could not be ensured safety in their own country. However, later on, they completely denied having promised that. Nehru himself said, “Do not come to this country. There will be a disaster if you come and I will not be able to do anything”. If people imposed themselves, they would be identified as ‘foreign guests’ or ‘illegal infiltrators’. So, it would be better to stay back in East Bengal with other Hindu people living there. Sir Jadunath Sarkar, President of a conference of East Bengal refugees at University Institute Hall, said in his speech — “Add this new and dynamic branch to the old and dying tree of the refugees. You will be able to stand up with renewed vigour and prosperity….this will be good for you….merge the populace. Otherwise, you will be doomed and the future of your children will also be bleak.” Sir Jadunath had foreseen something which Nehru did not see or perhaps did not want to see.

Question 6. How was partition depicted in autobiographies and memories?
Answer:
Partition Depicted in Autobiographies and Memoirs: We know the pathetic story of the partition of India from several autobiographical books like ‘Swaralipi’ of Sabitri Roy, ‘Epar Ganga Opar Ganga’ of Jyotirmoyi Devi, ‘Marginal Man’ of Prafulla Chakraborty, ‘Pitamahi’ of Santa Sen, ‘Chere Asha Gram’ of Dakshina Ranjan Basu, etc. Ritu Menon’s ‘Borders and Boundaries: How Women Experienced the Partition of India’, Choudhury Khalikuzzaman’s ‘Pathway to Pakistan, Manik Bandyopadhyay’s ‘SwadhinatarSwad’, Selina Hossam’s ‘Japita Jiban’, Abu Issac’s ‘Suryadighal Ban’, Kaliprasad Mukherjee’s ‘Sikarer Sandhane’, and the novels ‘Nilkantha Pakhir Khonje’ of Atin Bandyopadhyay, ‘Bipasha’ of Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, ‘Ardhek Jiban’ of Sunil Gangopadhyay, ‘Agun Pakhi’ of Azizul Haque and ‘Forgotten Atrocities’ of B. K. Gupta. From some autobiographical books and memoirs like ‘Supunboner Sari’ of Sankha Ghosh, ‘Keyapatar Nouka’ of Prafulla Roy, and essays of Santa Sen, we know the picture of the post-partition of India.

Annadashankar Roy, in his book ‘Jukto Banger Smriti’ or Memories of Undivided Bengal, said, ‘Provincial Government was like the beginning of another Muslim rule’. Sandip Bandyopadhyay wrote in his book ‘Deshbhag Deshtyag’ or Partition and Leaving the Country that after partition 90 Sikh women, led by a single Sikh lady, committed suicide by jumping into a well, to save themselves from being murdered or raped. Raja Singh killed 25 young girls, along with his own daughter, in order to save their honour. Punjab and Rawalpindi resembled living hell after partition. We come to know about post-partition riots, murders, torture of women and sorry tales of the refugees from the memories of Kalidas Nag. Books such as ‘Dhakar Chithi’ or Letters from Dhaka by Saralananda Sen, ‘Udbastu’ or Refugees by Hiranmoy Bandyopadhyay, ‘And the Uprooted’ the book written by Kanti Pakrashi, etc. bring out the emotional history of that time in front of the present generation. The vivid picture of partition of India has been described in books like ‘Tamas’ of Bhishma Sahni, ‘Train to Pakistan of Khushwant Singh, ‘Godan’ of Munshi Premchand, ‘Midnight Children’ of Salman Rushdie, ‘Andhra Mani’ of Mahasweta Devi, etc.

Question 7. Write a note on the accession of Junagadh into India.
Answer:
Junagadh:
1. Introduction: Junagadh, a state on the southwestern end of Gujarat, consisted of the principalities of Manavadar, Mangrol and Babriawad. The Arabian Sea stood between it and Pakistan, and over 80% of its population professed Hinduism. Possibly on the advice of his Dewan, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, prominent in the Muslim League, the Nawab of Junagadh Mahabhat Khan acceded to Pakistan.
2. Announcement of Accession: They announced the accession on August 15, 1947, when Pakistan had come into being. When Pakistan confirmed the acceptance of the accession in September the Government of India expressed outrage that Muhammad Ali Jinnah would accept the accession of Junagadh despite his argument that Hindus and Muslims could not live as one nation. Patel believed that if Junagadh joined Pakistan, the communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would exacerbate.
3. Plebiscite: Patel gave Pakistan time to void the accession and hold a plebiscite in Junagadh. Samaldas Gandhi formed a democratic government-in exile, the Aarzi Hukumat (in Urdu : Aarzi: Temporary, Hukumat: Government) of the people of Junagadh. Eventually, Patel ordered the forcible annexation of Junagadh’s three principalities. Junagadh’s court, facing financial collapse and no possibility of resisting Indian forces, first invited the Aarzi Hukumat, and later the Government of India to accept the reins. A plebiscite was convened in December, with approximately 99 of the people choosing India over Pakistan.

Chapter 8 2nd Part Of 20th Century: Post-Colonial India (1947-64) Long Answer Questions

Question 1. What was the response of the princely states to the call of Sardar Patel to accede to the Indian Union? How did Junagadh accede to the Indian Union?
Answer:
Introduction: It was Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel who, with great skill and diplomacy, successfully completed the accession of the princely states with the Indian Union. Sardar Patel followed the dual policy of carrot and stick.
1. First, he tried to convince the princes about the advantages they would derive from being acceded to India.
2. In the cases where the appeal was not responded to, he did not hesitate to get those acceded through the application of force.

Response of the Princely States: Of the princely States that made active response to the call of Sardar Patel, mention may be made of Bhopal, Coochbehar, Tripura, Manipur, etc. Also, a number of states merged with the neighbouring provinces. These were: the princely state of Myurbhanj merged with Orissa (present Odisa), Kolhapur joined with Bombay, and Benaras with Uttar Pradesh. In a similar manner, many other small states acceded to India. By 15 August 1947 excepting the states of Junagadh, Jammu-Kashmir princely states joined India.

Accession of Junagadh: Junagadh was an important State in the group of the Kathiawar- States. It was bounded by other Indian States except the South and South-West where the Arabian Sea lies. The State had no geographical continuity with Pakistan. The Muslim Nawab of Junagadh wanted to accede to Pakistan, but his Hindu subjects compelled him to hand over the State to the Government of India. Through a plebiscite, it took the decision to merge with the Indian Union. In 1948, the Nawab of Junagadh fled to Pakistan and thus Junagadh was incorporated into India.

Accession of Hyderbad: Geographically, Hyderabad occupied a pivotal position in the heart of India. The State was surrounded by the Central Provinces in the North, Bombay in the West and Madras in the East and South. Its population was nearly 60 million and the annual revenue was Rs. 26 crores. Its area was more than 82000 square miles. It had its own coinage, paper currency and stamps. Although the Hindus formed more than 85 per cent of the total population of Hyderabad, their representation in the Civil Services and the army was practically nil and the Government machinery was a monopoly of the Muslims. In the State of Hyderabad, the ruler Nizam wanted to maintain his independent identity. The Hindus of Hyderabad revolted against the Nizam. Internal anarchy in the State of Hyderabad made it necessary for the Government of India to take military occupation of it in September 1948. The Nizam formally acceded to India in November 1949. The State was formally incorporated into the Indian Union on 25 January 1950. The administrative reorganisation of 1956 saw the division into three parts of the State and incorporation into the three neighbouring states of Andhra, Mysore and Bombay.

Question 2. Write in short about the initiative undertaken for the rehabilitation of the refugees.
Answer:
1. Introduction: The partition of the country brought about many problems for India in its wake. One the such tough problem was the rehabilitation of refugees who had come both from Eastern and Western Pakistan. India had hardly won her freedom when she was partitioned. One of her parts was cut off and a new country, known as Pakistan, was created out of it.
2. Chaos and Anarchy: Soon there a reign of fear, fire, slaughter and murder in both parts. There was utter chaos and anarchy. Communal frenzy was at its highest pitch. There was unprecedented violence and bloodshed and massacre on a large scale. Within a short period about 5,00,000 people, both Hindus and Muslims were killed and millions were reduced homeless. Decency was thrown to the winds and most inhuman acts were committed.
3. Migration of Refugees: As a result of these riots, an unending flow of refugees began to pour into India from Pakistan. Soon this refugee problem became one of the major immediate problems facing free India. As many as 8.5 million people migrated to India.
4. Help to Refugees: Migration on such a vast scale was unprecedented in world history. Even the Second World War had not created a problem of such magnitude. But our national leaders did not lose heart and proved equal to the task. Both the Government and the people rendered all possible help to these refugees. India’s problems were not only to give immediate relief to the displaced persons but also to resettle them in gainful occupations
5. Rehabilitation Programme: The Rehabilitation Ministry, which was specially created for this purpose, did great work in this respect. The economy of the task meant a great strain on the country’s economy which was already crippled by war and partition. But India tackled this problem quite successfully. Relief camps were opened to give food and shelter to displaced persons. It was followed by a planned programme of rehabilitation. These refugees were accommodated in evacuee houses and newly constructed huts in urban areas. New townships and colonies were started for displaced persons.
6. Economic Assistance: Loans were given by the State Governments for starting businesses and industries. Vocational training centres were established to give vocational and technical training to the refugees. Lacs of displaced persons were provided with gainful employment in services and trades. Scholarships, fee concessions, etc. were given to the refugee students. Financial help was given to educational institutions imparting education to refugee students. The government also started industries in the new townships. Agriculturists were given loans to help them resume their vocation. Those who had left the urban immovable property in Pakistan were given compensation. Various schemes were sanctioned for the selling up or expansion of medium and small-scale industries.
7. Conclusion: By these vigorous measures, the problem of rehabilitation which had threatened to ruin the economy of the country, was brought under control in about three years’ time.

Question 3. Give an account of the initiative and controversies regarding the inclusion of the native States within India.
Answer:
Integration and reorganisation of States:
Introduction: The Cabinet Mission Plan recognised the right of the Princely States, on the lapse of the British Paramountcy, to “enter into a federal relationship with the succession of Government or Governments, or failing this, enter into particular political arrangements with it or them”. The Mountbatten Plan and the Indian Independence Act did not change this arrangement. The Act declared that “the suzerainty of His Majesty over the Indian States lapses, and with it all treaties and agreements in force on that date .” On 15th August 1947 the States were, therefore, theoretically free either to join India or Pakistan or to “enter into particular political arrangements with either of them”.

Views of Congress and Mountbatten: This was the legal position. But the Congress did not recognise ‘the right of any State in India to declare its independence and to live in isolation from the rest of India’. The Congress invited the Princes to make their States ‘democratic units in the Indian Union, thereby serving the cause of their people as well as of India as a whole. In the National Provisional Government, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel headed the States Department. Patel and his chief aid V. P.

Menon appealed to the sense of patriotism of Indian Princes and urged them (i.e., used the tactics of Persuasion-cum-Pressure) to join the Indian Union based on the surrender of three subjects of Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication. On his part, Lord Mountbatten played a very positive role when he threw the weight of his personality of an office behind the policy of Patel. An ‘Instrument of Accession’ was drawn up which was acceptable to the Princes. To the appeal of the Congress leaders Vallabh Bhai Patel and Menon, the Princes responded promptly and by 15 August 1947 all States (136) within the geographical limits of India—except Kashmir, Junagadh and Hyderabad—acceded to the Indian Union.

Accession of Junagadh: Hyderabad and Kashmir did not agree to sign an ‘Instrument of Accession Act’ with India. Junagadh was an important State in the group of Kathiawar States. It was bounded by other Indian States except the South and South-West where the Arabian Sea lies. The State had no geographical continuity with Pakistan. The Muslim Nawab of Junagadh wanted to accede to Pakistan, but his Hindu subjects compelled him to hand over the State to the Government of India. Its merger in the Indian Union was ratified by a plesbiscite. In 1948, the Nawab of Junagadh fled to Pakistan and thus Junagadh was incorporated to India. Accession of Hyderabad: Geographically, Hyderabad occupied a pivotal position in the heart of India. The State was surrounded by the Central Provinces in the North, Bombay in the West and Madras in the East and South. In the State of Hyderabad, the ruler Nizam wanted lo maintain his independent identity. The Hindus of Hyderabad revolted against the Nizam. Internal anarchy in the State of Hyderabad made it necessary for the Government of India to take military occupation of it in September 1948. Tlie Nizam formally acceded to India in November 1949. The State was formally incorporated into the Indian Union on 25 January 1950.

Accession of Kashmir: The most important trouble spot was Kashmir. Kashmir, a state with an overwhelming majority of the Muslim population under the rule of a Hindu prince was geographically contiguous to both India and Pakistan.
But Pakistan not only refused to accept the principle of a plebiscite for deciding the issue of accession in the case of Junagadh or Hyderabad, in the case of Kashmir it tried to short-circuit the popular decision through a short-sighted action, forcing India to partially change its attitude in regard to Kashmir. Attacks by Pakistan: On 22 October 1947, with the onset of winter, several Pathan tribesmen, led unofficially by Pakistani army officers, invaded Kashmir. They rapidly pushed towards Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. The ill-trained army of the Maharaja failed miserably to counter the invading forces who overran Uri and Baramula and reached the vicinity of the capital. In a panic, on 24 October 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh appealed to India for military assistance. Nehru, even at this stage, did not favour accession without ascertaining the will of the people.

India’s Military Interference: But Mountbatten, the Governor General opined that under international law India could send her armed forces to Kashmir only after the State’s formal accession to India. Sheik Abdullah and Sardar Patel too insisted on accession. On 26th October 1947, Maharaja acceded to India and also agreed to instal Abdullah as head of the state’s administration. Even though both the National Conference and the Maharaja wanted firm and permanent accession, India, in conformity with its democratic commitment and Mountbatten’s advice, announced that it would hold a referendum on the accession decision once peace and law and order had been restored in the valley.

The intervention of the U.N.O: Fearful of the dangers of a full-scale war between India and Pakistan, the Government of India agreed, on 30 December 1947, on Mountbatten’s suggestion, to refer the Kashmir problem to the Security Council of the U.N.O., asking for the vacation of aggression by Pakistan. The Security Council declared a ‘Cease Fire’ and appointed observers along the ‘Cease Fire Line’ which was later transformed into the ‘P.L.C.’, i.e., the Permanent Line of Control (31 December 1948). Kashmir remains a state within the Indian Union, although Pakistan retains her de facto control over the area which Pakistani troops occupied in 1947.

The problem of Integration of States: The integration of the States into new India’s political and administrative structure was one of the most complex problems facing independent India. Many small States which were too small for a modem system of administration were merged with adjoining provinces, i.e., 39 States of Orissa and Chattisgarh became part of either Orissa or Central provinces. For geographical and administrative reasons Baroda and Kolapur were made parts of Bombay province; Gujrat State was also merged with Bombay province. The second form of integration of 61 states was the formation of seven central administrative areas. In this category came the states of Himachal Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur, Bhopal, Billaspurand Kutch. The third form of integration of States was the Kathiawar, United States of Matsya, Union of Vindhya Pradesh and Madhya Bharat, Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), Rajasthan and United States of Cochin- Travancore.

French and Portuguese Territories: The Unification of India was still incomplete without * the French and Portuguese enclaves. The French authorities were more realistic when they ceded Pondichery and Chandennagore to India on 1 November 1945. However, the Portuguese Government maintained its hold on the enclaves of Goa, Daman and Diu. Indian authorities, however, maintained that Goa was one the remaining outposts of colonialism. When negotiations and persuasions did not move the Portuguese Government, units of the Indian Army had to be mobilized and Goa, Daman and Diu were liberated on 19 December 1961.

Question 4. Give an account of the initiative and controversies about the reorganisation of states on a linguistic basis.
Answer:
The organisation of States on a Linguistic Basis:
Introduction: The linguistic policies of the Nehru Government (1947-64) raised a lot of controversies. After the transfer of power, there was a demand for demarcating the state boundaries on the basis of the language spoken by the people of that area. Nehru was not agreeable to this demand.

Selection of Hindi as National Language: The Constituent Assembly decided to declare Hindi as the National language, winning the voting by one vote only. Nehru implemented the decision, but controversy kept haunting him. Big industrialists belonging to Hindu, Parsi and Jain communities felt that by declaring Hindi as the National language, the Government was aiming at developing a centralised power structure in India. The Constituent Assembly formed ‘Linguistic Provincial Committee’ in 1948 under Justice
S. K. Dhar. It was known as the ‘Dhar Committee’. In 1948, J. V. P Committee, comprising of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramaiah was set up. It was the duty of the committee to re-organise the Indian states on a linguistic basis and without any controversy. On 1st April 1949, the committee submitted its report saying that ‘No state will be formed right now on the basis of language’. In the report of the Linguistic Provinces Commission, it was informed that ‘The narrow demand for linguistic provinces should be subdued till India becomes a Nation’.

Agitation of South Indians: TheTelugu speaking Gandhian leader Patti Sriramalu, without paying any heed to these recommendations, started fasting with a demand to form a separate state of Andhra Pradesh with the 11 Telugu-speaking districts of Madras. Nehru was not much perturbed, instead, he was quite displeased. When Sriramalu died while fasting, on 15th December 1952, his followers started rioting in the Telugu-speaking districts. So, the Centre was compelled to form a separate state of Andhra Pradesh on 18th December 1952.

Formation of Gujrat and Maharashtra: States Reorganisation Commission was formed to reorganise the states. The important members of this Commission were Justice Faza! Ali, Hridaynath Kunjur and K. M. Panikkar. In 1956 Indian Parliament ended all controversies and passed the States Reorganisation Act. As per this Act, 14 states and 6 centrally administered areas were formed on a linguistic basis. Telangana area from Hyderabad was joined with Andhra Pradesh in 1956. Andhra Pradesh emerged as Independent India’s first state formed on a linguistic basis. Similarly, Gujarat was separated from Maharashtra in 1956 for the same reasons. Malabar, Travancore and Cochin were joined together to form the state of Kerala.
States Reorganisation Commission rejected the demand to separate the Gujarati and Marathi-speaking areas of the state of Bombay. This again resulted in great turmoil. Finally, Bombay was joined with the state of Maharashtra and Maharastra was recognized for the Marathi-speaking people and Gujarat was formed for the Gujarati-speaking people.

Union of Smaller States: During the linguistic reorganisation of states, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel joined the smaller native states with their neighbouring states. PEPSU was formed with Patiala and East Punjab States. In the same way, the union of Saurashtra, Rajasthan and Central Province was done. However, since Manipur, Tripura and Nepal were not joined with any state, they continued to be the responsibility of the Central Government. Though some problems were solved through the reorganisation of states, but all the issues with the multilingual character of the country could not be solved.

Operation Vijay: The government of India started ‘Operation Vijay’ on 17-18 December 1961, to free Goa, under the command of Major J. N. Chowdhury, which ended on 19th December. The Indian army freed Goa, Daman and Diu. In 1961 Goa was included within the territory of India and on 12th August, 1987 it became the 25th State of India.

Question 5. How did the Government of India try to solve the language problem after independence?
Answer: The language problem: The language problem was the most divisive issue in the first twenty years of independent India, and it created the apprehension among many that the political and cultural unity of the country was in danger. The Indian constitution recognizes twenty-two major languages, including English and Sanskrit. In addition, there is a myriad of languages spoken by the tribals and others, with or without their own scripts. The model that independent India has adopted is not that of assimilation into or suppression of the many languages by any one of them.

The problem posed to national consolidation by linguistic diversity has taken two major forms. These are discussed here in two separate sections:
1. The dispute over the official language of the union and
2. The linguistic reorganization of the states.
The Official Language: The controversy on the language issue became most virulent when it took the form of opposition to Hindi and tended to create conflict between Hindispeaking and non-Hindi-speaking regions of the country. The dispute was not over the question of a national language, that is one language which all Indians would adopt after some time, since the whim that one national language was essential to an Indian national identity had already been rejected overwhelmingly by the secular majority 6f the national leadership.

Recognition by the Constitution: According to the constitution, Hindi in Devanagari script is the official language of the Union and the international form of Indian numerals is to be used for the official purposes of the union. The constitution also authorised the continued use of the English language up to 25 January 1965, after which parliament could further consider the issue.

Official Language Act: Drawing authority from the constitution, the official Language Act, of 1963 further provided for the continued use of English, in addition to Hindi for the official purposes of the union and also for the transaction of business in parliament. It also provides that English shall be used for purposes of communication between the union and a state which has not adopted Hindi as its official language.

Hindi Became an Alternative Medium: Lai Bahadur Shastri, Nehru’s successor as Prime Minister, was unfortunately not sensitive enough to the opinion of non-Hindi groups. Instead of taking effective steps to counter their fears of Hindi becoming the sole official language, he declared that he was considering making Hindi an alternative medium in public service examinations. This meant that while non-Hindi speakers could still compete in the all-India services in English, Hindi speakers would have the advantage of being able to use their mother tongue.

Agitation of South Indians: Many non-Hindi leaders in protest changed their line of approach to the problem of the official language. While previously they had wanted a slowing down of the replacement of English, now they started demanding that there should be no deadline fixed for the changeover. Some of the leaders went much further. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and C. Rajagopalachari, for example, demanded that the constitution should be amended and English should be made the official language of India. As 26 January, 1965 approached, a fear psychosis gripped the non-Hindi areas, especially Tamil Nadu, creating a strong-anti Hindi movement. On 17 January, the DMK organized the Madras State Anti-Hindi Conference which gave a call for observing 26 January as a day of mourning.

Coming of Indira Gandhi in the Debate: With the death of Lai Bahadur Shastri in January 1^66, Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister. As she had already won the trust of the people of the South, they were convinced that a genuine effort would be made to resolve the long-festering dispute. Other favourable factors were Jan Sangh’s mutiny Post of their anti-English fervour and the SSP’s acceptance of the basic features of the agreement worked out in 1965.

Amendment of Act: Despite facing economic problems and the weakening of the Congress’s position in Parliament in the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi moved the bill to amend the 1963 Official Language Act on 27 November. The Lok Sabha adopted the bill on 16 December 1967 by 205 to 41 votes. The Act provided that the use of English as an associate language in addition to Hindi for official work at the Centre and for communication between the Centre and non-Hindi states would continue as long as the non-Hindi states wanted it, giving them full veto powers on the question. A virtually indefinite policy of bilingualism was adopted. The parliament also adopted a policy resolution laying down that the public service examinations were to be conducted in Hindi and English and in all the regional languages with the provision that the candidates should have additional knowledge of Hindi or English.

Educational Aspect: The Government of India took another important step in 1967. On the basis of the report of the Education Commission in 1966, it was declared that Indian languages would ultimately become the medium of education in all subjects at the university level, though the time frame for the changeover would be decided by each university to suit its convenience.
Conclusion: After many twists and turns, a great deal of debate and several agitations, small and big, and many compromises, India had arrived at a widely accepted solution to the very difficult problem of the official and link language for the country. Since 1967, this problem has gradually disappeared from the political scene, demonstrating the capacity of the Indian political system to deal with a contentious problem on a democratic basis, said in a manner that promoted national consolidation.

Question 6. How did the idea of the linguistic reorganization of States become popular? When was the state of Andhra created?
Answer:
Introduction: The reorganization of the States on the basis of language, a major aspect of national consolidation and integration, came to the forefront almost immediately after independence and partition in 1947. The boundaries of provinces in pre-1947 India had been drawn in a haphazard manner as the British conquest of India had proceeded for nearly a hundred years. With the involvement of the masses in the national movement after 1919, the Indian National Congress undertook political mobilization in the mother tongue and in 1921 amended its constitution and reorganized its regional branches on a linguistic basis. Since then, the Indian National Congress repeatedly committed itself to the redrawing of the provincial boundaries on linguistic lines. It was, therefore, more or less universally assumed that free India would base her administrative boundaries on the linguistic principle.

New Policy: The national leadership had second thoughts on the subject immediately after independence. The national leadership felt that the most important task for the present was to consolidate national unity; and any effort was undertaken immediately to redraw the internal boundaries might dislocate administration and economic development, intensify regional and linguistic rivalries, unleash destructive forces, and damage the unity of the country. Hence, while still committed to linguistic states, Nehru and other leaders accorded the task of redrawing India’s administrative map a low priority. The task, they felt, could wait for some years.

The decision of the Constituent Assembly: The question of the linguistic reorganization of India was, however, raised quite early in the Constituent Assembly. Consequently, the Constituent Assembly decided not to include the linguistic principle in the constitution. But public opinion was not satisfied, especially in the South, and the problem remained politically alive. To appease the vocal votaries of the linguistic states, the Congress appointed a committee (JVP) in December 1948 consisting of Jawaharial Nehru, Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya, President of the Congress, to examine the question afresh. This committee advised against the creation of linguistic states for the time being, emphasizing on unity, national security and economic development as the needs of the hour.

The decision of the Congress: Yet, the Congress leadership refused to oppose any popular demand. In the JVP report, as well as afterwards, the Congress leadership laid down that where the demand for a linguistic state was insistent and overwhelming and where other language groups involved were agreeable to it, a new state could be created if possible. The JVP report was followed immediately by popular movements for the reorganization of states all over the country, which persisted with varying degrees of intensity till 1960.

Case of Andhra and Tamil Nadu: During British rule, the Andhra territory was merged with the Tamil-speaking Madras Presidency. They accept that a strong case for the formation of Andhra out of the Madras Presidency existed, particularly as the leadership of Tamil Nadu was agreeable to it. But it did not concede the demand immediately, because the two sides could not agree on which State should take Madras (Chennai) city. The Andhra leaders were unwilling to concede Madras even though on linguistic as well as geographic grounds it belonged to Tamil Nadu.

Patti Sriramalu: On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter, Patti Sriramalu, undertook a fast unto death over the demand for a separate Andhra which expired after fifty- eight days. His death was followed by three days of rioting, demonstrations, hartals and violence all over the Andhra region. The Government immediately gave in and conceded the demand for a separate state of Andhra, which finally came into existence in October 1953. Simultaneously, Tamil Nadu was created as a Tamil-speaking state.

Conclusion: The success of the Andhra struggle encouraged other linguistic groups to agitate for their own state or for the rectification of their boundaries on a linguistic basis. Nehru was not in favour at that time of continuing with the redrawing of India’s internal administrative boundaries, but he was too much of a democrat to sternly and consistently oppose the demands. What concerned him were the timing, the agitation and violence with which linguistic provinces were being demanded and the harsh antagonism between various sections of the Indian people which underlay these demands. The creation of the state of Andhra is the first example of the division of India on a linguistic basis, and it has undoubtedly promoted the movement for such a division of India.

Question 7. What do you know of the States Reorganization Commission?
Answer:
Introduction: The reorganisation of the states on the basis of language, a major aspect of national consolidation and integration, came to the forefront almost immediately after independence. The boundaries of the provinces in pre-1947 had been drawn in a haphazard manner during British rule. No heed was paid to linguistic or cultural cohesion so most of the provinces were multilingual and multicultural. The dispersed princely states had added a further element of heterogeneity. But the leaders of the Indian National Congress felt the importance of the linguistic states as administrative units and since 1919, the Congress repeatedly committed itself to the redrawing of the provincial boundaries on linguistic lines.

J.V.P. Committee: The question of the linguistic reorganization of India was, however, raised quite early in the Constituent Assembly. But the Constituent Assembly decided consequently not to incorporate the linguistic principle in the constitution. But public opinion was not satisfied, and the problem remained politically alive. To appease the public, the Congress appointed a committee (JVP) in December 1948 consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel and PattabhaiSitaramayya, President of the Congress to examine the question afresh. The committee advised against the creation of linguistic states, for the time being, emphasizing on unity, national security and economic development as the needs of the hour. Yet, the Congress leadership would not oppose any popular demand and they tacitly supported the demand for a separate state for the Telegu people. The demand had been popular for nearly half a century and had the support of all political parties. Andhra as a separate state finally came into existence in October 1953. Simultaneously, Tamil Nadu was created as a Tamil-speaking state.

States Reorganization Committee formed: The success of Andhra’s struggle encouraged other linguistic groups to agitate for their own state or for rectification of their boundaries on a linguistic basis. To meet the demand halfway and to delay matters, Nehru appointed in August 1953 the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC), with justice Fazi Ali, K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as members, to examine ‘objectively and dispassionately’ the entire question of the reorganization of the states of the Union. Throughout the two years of intensive work, the Commission was faced with meetings, demonstrations, agitations and hunger strikes.

Report of the Committee: The SRC submitted its report in October 1955. While laying down that due consideration should be given to administrative and economic factors, it was recognized for the linguistic principle and recommended redrawing of state boundaries on that basis. Despite the strong reactions to the report in many parts of the country, the SRC’s recommendations were accepted, though with certain modifications, and were quickly implemented.

States Reorganisation Act: The States Reorganisation Act was passed by parliament in November 1956. It provided for fourteen states and six centrally administered territories. The Telangana districts of Hyderabad state were transferred to Andhra. Kerala was created by merging the Malabar district of the old Madras Presidency with Travancore-Cochin. Certain Kannada-speaking areas of the states of Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and Coorg were added to the Mysore state. Bombay state was enlarged by merging the states of Kutch and Saurashtra and the Marathi-speaking areas of Hyderabad with it.

The reaction of the Opposition: The strongest reaction against the SRC’s report and the States Reorganisation Act came from Maharashtra. The Opposition parties, supported by a wide spectrum of public opinion—students, farmers workers, artists, and businessmen—organized a powerful protest movement. Under pressure, the government decided in June 1956 to divide the Bombay state into two linguistic states Maharashtra and Gujarat with Bombay city forming a separate, centrally administered state. Nehru now reverted in July to the formation of a bilingual, Greater Bombay. This move was, however, opposed by the people of both Maharashtra and Gujarat.

Bombay Issue: In view of the disagreement over Bombay city, the government took the decision and passed the States Reorganisation Act in November 1956. But the matter could not rest there. In the 1957 elections, the Bombay Congress scraped through with a slender majority. As Congress president, Indira Gandhi reopened the question and was supported by the Presidents. Radhakrishnan. The Government finally agreed in May 1960 to bifurcate the state of Bombay into Maharashtra and Gujarat, with Bombay city being included in Maharashtra, and Ahmedabad being made the capital of Gujarat.

Punjab Issue: The other state where an exception was made to the linguistic principle was Punjab. In 1956 the states of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab which, however, remained a trilingual state having three language speakers—Punjabi, Hindi and Pahari— within its borders. In the Punjabi-speaking part of the state, there was a strong demand for carving out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi-speaking state). While the Hindu communalists opposed the demand for a Punjabi Suba by denying that Punjabi was their mother tongue, the Sikh communalists put forward the demand as a Sikh demand for a Sikh state, claiming Punjabi written in Gurmukhi as a Sikh language. Even though the demand was supported by the Communist Party and a section of Congress, it had got mixed up with religion. But Nehru as also the majority of the Punjab Congressmen felt that the demand for Punjab state was basically a communal demand for a Sikh majority state ‘dressed up as a language plea’. Nehru and the Congress leadership were clear that they would not accept any demand for the creation of a state on religious or communal grounds.

Conclusion: Thus, after many years of continuous strife and popular struggles the linguistic reorganization of India was largely completed, making room for greater political participation by the people.

Question 8. What were the problems that cropped up due to the exodus of refugees? What measures were taken by the government to solve those problems?
Answer:
Refugee Problem: At the time of partition, because of the exodus of refugees, some immediate problems cropped up. For example 1. There was huge pressure on the population of Bengal in particular and India in general.
2. It was difficult to open so many relief camps.
3. There were problems in rehabilitating the refugees
4. It was a daunting task to find proper livelihood for and provide safety to so many refugees.
5. Massive food shortage took place, which culminated in the ‘Food Movement’ (1959).

The Government addressed the refugee problem on a war footing. For example, houses were constructed, shops were set up, and employment arrangements were made for them. The initiative was taken by the Government to get back any property which they had to leave behind in East Bengal. It should be mentioned that even after ‘The nehru-Liakat Agreement’ (Delhi Agreement) of 1950, the influx of refugees to India continued. After this agreement, the Hindu refugees came in smaller numbers, but it did not stop altogether.

As per this agreement the Muslims, who had left West Bengal and Assam, came back in droves. Along with them, Muslims from East Bengal took the decision to return to India. Nehru himself took initiative to return their movable and immovable properties back in East Bengal. Nehru did not have much confidence in Dr Bidhan Chandra Roy, the then Chief Minister of West Bengal. The controversy started when Nehru did not take much interest in returning the properties of the Hindu refugees that they had abandoned in East Bengal. Perhaps, Nehru was interested in keeping the Muslims in good humour because of the ongoing Kashmir issue. The government had established a huge refugee colony in Dandakaranya, Madhya Pradesh, just like the refugee colonies of Jadavpur, Baghajatin, Gangulybagan and Bijoygarh in Calcutta.

There used to be long queues for everything in the refugee colonies, starting from getting an eligibility certificate, to the distribution of aid and getting vaccinated against cholera and other diseases. The 946 colonies which were set up couldn’t at all accommodate all the refugees. Some of the people were sent to Government camps, but those camps too also suffered from a scarcity of space. When Dr Bidhan Chandra Roy became the Minister in Charge of Relief and Refugee Rehabilitation, he solicited the help of Hironmoy Banerjee to address the problem immediately. These were, in short, the measures taken by the Government to solve the refugee problem.

Question 9. State the partition plan stated by Lord Mountbatten.
Answer:
Mountbatten’s Plan: The indirect inclination to grant Pakistan was witnessed in the Cabinet Mission Plan, which motivated the Muslim League. The Congress, on the other hand, was apprehended a kind of Civil War between Hindus and Muslims in the event of failure to accept the demand of a separate Pakistan. There was hectic lobbying from both sides to influence the British minds about their respective demands. When the country was in the grip of communal flux, the British government decided to quit India on a fixed date. The British Prime Minister Atlee declared, “His Majesty’s Government wishes to make it dear that it is their definite intention to take necessary steps to effect the transference of power to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than June 1948”. This statement of Atlee posed a challenge to Indian statesmanship to prepare to receive the power, which the British were anxious to hand over and quit.

Lord Wavell was recalled and Lord Mountbatten was appointed the new Viceroy whose main task was to restore peace among the two warring sections, namely the Congress and the League. Descended from the royal family of England, and endowed with a genial personality, Mountbatten had an abundance of tact and goodwill. By the end of March 1947, Lord Mountbatten arrived in India as the Viceroy who started consultations with all important political leaders including Gandhi and found that a compromise between the Congress and Muslim League was impossible on the basis of United India, which led him to the alternative of achieving on the basis of a partition of the country. After a rapid series of 133 interviews with political leaders, he came to the conclusion that the Cabinet Mission framework could not be implemented. Mountbatten realized that the partition of India was inevitable. V. K. Menon, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel suggested that the power be transferred to two Central governments of India and Pakistan on the basis of the grant of Dominion Status. Gandhi urged Nehru not to accept partition. Finally, Mountbatten put his plan for the partition of India on 2 June. Congress accepted it.

The following are the features of the Plan:
1. The Country would be divided into two dominions namely, India and Pakistan.
2. The Constitution passed by the Constituent Assembly will not be applied to the regions which were not prepared to accept it.
3. The Plan envisaged the principle of self-determination for those parts of India which did not desire to remain within the Indian Union, provided that right was also granted to those parts of the provinces which desired to remain in the Indian Union.
4. According to this principle, the Punjab, Bengal, Sindh, Baluchistan, NWFP and the Muslim majority district of Sylhet in Assam were given the right to decide whether or not to remain in the Indian Union.
5. In Sindh, the Assembly was to vote as a whole for the decision. In Baluchistan, a joint meeting of the representative institutions was to be held for the purpose.
6. There would be a referendum in the Frontier Provinces and in the district of Sylhet.
7. The Hindu majority districts of Bengal and Punjab were also given rights. In Punjab and Bengal, the representatives of the Muslim and Non-Muslim majority districts of their respective Legislative Assembly were given the right to decide separately whether they wanted to join India or Pakistan.
8. In the event of a decision for the partition of the provinces of the Punjab, Bengal and Assam, Independent Boundary commissions were to be appointed to fix the dividing lines between two dominions, namely the Indian Union and Pakistan.
9. Both the States were to be accorded the Status of a Dominion at the beginning with full right to leave the British Commonwealth at a later date if they chose.
10. The princely states would have the option to join either of the two dominions or to remain independent.
11. The British Parliament would pass an Act for the transfer of power before 15 August 1947. As the Plan was accepted by Congress and the Muslim League, Lord Mountbatten proceeded to implement the same. The Hindu majority districts of the Punjab and Bengal decided to remain with the Indian Union. The N. W. F. P., Sindh, Baluchistan and the Muslim majority districts of the Punjab, Bengal and Sylhet decided to join Pakistan.

WBBSE Solutions for Class 10 History and Environment