Chapter 7 Economic Condition And Livelihood First Few Words
So far we have had an idea of the ancient history of India from prehistoric times to the rule of Harshavardhana. We have now an idea of what the Harappan civilization was like. We also now know about the coming of the Aryans, about their literature and religion.
We saw how in the 6th century B.C., sixteen mahajanapadas grew up in northwest India and how four of them became predominant and also saw how one of these four, Magadha became all-powerful and grew up as the first empire of ancient India.
Alexander the Great invaded India in the 4th century B.C. but could not make much headway into the interior of our country.
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Then one by one the Mauryas, the Kushanas, the Satavahanas, the Guptas and the Pushyabhutis built strong kingdoms mainly in the north, north-western and central India.
Now in this chapter, we will give you a picture of the economic condition and economic life of the people during all these years.
Chapter 7 Economic Condition And Livelihood Economic Condition In The Age Of The Mahajanapadas
In the sixth century B.C., i.e. in the age of the mahajanapadas, the mainstay of the people was agriculture. Most of the mahajanapadas flourished in the Gangetic basin.
There was sufficient rainfall in this region. The land, because of the nearness of the Ganges, was fertile. Over and above that, the rivers remained full almost throughout the year.
All this made the land suitable for agriculture. Agriculture was the main vocation of the people. Pali’s texts give us a good and somewhat clear picture of the economic system and economic life of the people.
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The land was divided into several parts according to fertility. Different crops e produced in different seasons Paddy was the principal crop. There were others like sugarcane, wheat, and barley. Land was owned by the richer people.
It was cultivated mostly by landless peasants. Side by side with agriculture, livestock too was an important vocation. There was a time when the animal sacrifice was too common. But cattle were greatly needed for agriculture.
Buddhists and Jains also were very much against animal sacrifice. So gradually there was a steady decline of animal sacrifice.
Other Vocations
Among other vocations were those of artisans and merchants. Towns that grew up were inhabited by many artisans and merchants. We know of several crafts. Ironworks, mainly war weapons and tools like axe, choppers, plowshare, etc.
have been discovered? Iron axes made the clearing of jungles easy and this enabled the expansion of cultivable land. Crafts generally were a hereditary calling. The son learned the art from his father.
In those days several towns flourished as trade centers. Sravasti had links with Varanasi and Kausambi. Ivory goods, pots, textiles, etc. were carried to and from these towns. Other trade centers were Kapilavastu, Kusinara, and Vaishali.
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Trade and commerce had already become important means of livelihood. Trade about this time could flourish because of the use of money. Coins were used in profusion.
Nishka and Karshapana were types of coins Trade was carried both on land and by sea. Metal coins were probably first used in the time of Gautama Buddha. Most coins were silver ones. Some copper coins were found too.
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As trade and crafts developed, there was a steady tendency towards urbanization. Many villages were transformed into towns. Gradually, rich men, princes, traders, administrators, and army men began to live in towns.
People who lived in towns enjoyed more facilities than those who lived in rural areas. The peasants paid a tax of one-sixth of their produce. Royal agents collected tax from peasants. There were both landed peasants and landless ones.
Chapter 7 Economic Condition And Livelihood Economic Condition In The Mauryan Age
It may occur to you what enables us to have an idea of the economic and social condition of ancient India in the Mauryan age. To satisfy your curiosity, we must tell you that there are three main sources for our knowledge of the Mauryan period.
These are the accounts of Megasthenes and other Greek writers, Kautilya’s Arthasastra, and the edicts of Ashoka. Of course, coins are another source.
Economy
As in the previous age, the basis of the economy in the Mauryan age was agriculture. Agriculture was the principal vocation of the people by and large.
The rulers, i.e. the kings kept their eye on irrigation because without sufficient water supply agriculture would not yield sufficient products. A number of rivers flowed in different regions of the empire.
So water could be carried to fields from them. Moreover, sufficient rainfall helped agriculture. We know of different crafts. Artisans were engaged in different crafts and trades.
Textiles, metal works, pottery, leather works, ivory, etc. were the main crafts. Kautilya’s Arthasastra tells us that the rulers were too interested in the economic uplift of the empire.
We are told that about 27 adhyakshas were employed to look after agriculture, crafts, trade, and commerce. Communication on land and sea had improved by that time. This facilitated brisk trade.
A long road was built from Pataliputra to Peshawar. The system of taxation too improved in the Maurya period. Kautilya names a number of taxes that were collected from peasants, artisans, craftsmen, and traders.
The officer called samaharta was in charge of the assessment of tax. Sannidhata was in charge of the state treasury. A number of ports and towns grew up in this period. There was a tendency towards urbanization.
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This in turn went a long way in developing crafts and industries. It is said that punch-marked silver coins were issued by the state as the imperial currency.
These coins bore symbols of the peacock, the hill, and the crescent. It is clear that the main source of income of the state was land revenue. The other source was a tax levied on artisans and traders.
Taxes were collected in both cash and kind. There were granaries that stored crops for helping the people in times of distress.
Chapter 7 Economic Condition And Livelihood Social Condition
Historians tell us that caste stringency eased a little in the Maurya Period. We do not find any reference to the caste differences in the account of Megasthenes.
The Indian society, then, according to Megasthenes, was divided into 7 classes according to vocation or profession. These were-
- The Brahmins (or philosophers),
- The peasants,
- Hunters,
- Shepherds and herdsmen,
- Craftsmen,
- Soldiers,
- Supervisors and amateurs or ministers.
There were also washermen, barbers, and physicians. The liberty of women was limited. The woman’s place was in the inner apartment of the house. The immolation of the widow was not unknown.
Polygamy was common for men and not for women. Of course, the Buddhists were more liberal in their attitude towards womenfolk. Men in those days wore long pieces of cloth similar to today’s dhoti.
Women covered the upper part of their bodies with scarves. Both woolens and silk cloths were in use. Men sometimes wore turbans. Rich people wore ornaments of gold and precious metals.
Chapter 7 Economic Condition And Livelihood Social And Economic Condition In The Kushana Age
The Society
We notice quite some changes in the Kushana age. About five hundred years have passed since the days of the Mauryas. So such changes are only natural.
Society in the Kushan age was more or less affluent and prosperous. Religious disunity was somewhat less disturbing than in the previous ages.
Caste and social order rules (called Varnashrama) were considerably rigorous. The Vedic Chaturashrama or the four stages of life of a Hindu was rigorously followed too.
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Foreigners who came to India at about this time often lived here permanently and were merged into Indian society. The family was the basis of social life.
The father was the head of the family. So society was patriarchal. Kanishka convened a Buddhist Council in order to remove disunities among Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhists.
The Mahayana sect received royal patronage and so its influence in the society increased.
Economic Condition
Political and social stability led to a better economy. The situation. helped economic activities. Agriculture was, as in the previous ages, the main profession of the people.
But there were more varied agricultural products now. Apart from paddy, wheat, and barley, there were cotton plants and silk also. The cultivation of silkworms is known to have flourished then.
Crafts were associated with the making of gold, silver, lead, copper, brass, and iron. Precious stones or jewels were quite a in vogue. In the Telangana region of Andhra, iron manufacturing made great progress.
Because Kadaphises I and II came from central Asia, they kept up trade relations with China. Trade with China and other central Asian countries increased in the reign of Kanishka.
In his reign, there were trade relations with Rome and some south-east Asian countries too. Economic affluence in this period is proved by the fact that gold coins were then struck and issued for the first time in India.
Indian society in the eye of Megasthenes
Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador who came to India with Seleukos. Megasthenes wrote that there were seven classes of people in India then.
They were the pundit or Brahmin, the peasant, the livestock farmer, huntsmen, artisans, soldiers, and spies. The kings ruled with help of amateurs or ministers.
Megasthenes remarked that India never experienced famines. Both his contemporaries and later writers have said that much of what Megasthenes wrote was incorrect.
Irrigation system in ancient India
Good harvest depended on a good supply of water. In ancient India, the rulers made sure that the agricultural fields had a sufficient water supply. That was necessary for a good crop.
So only rainfall was not enough in dry seasons, water was carried from rivers to the fields. This system was known as the ‘setu.’ The Kushans did much to improve irrigation.
The Guptas often dug ponds. Both the rulers and the people dug ponds for the good of cultivation. We can mention the name of Lake Sudarshan.
This lake was probably dug in Kathiawar in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. This lake was of great use till the Gupta period. This shows the awareness of rulers about irrigation.
Chapter 7 Economic Condition And Livelihood Social And Religious Condition In The Satavahana Age
The four Varna system of the Hindus, namely, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra, was continued in the Satavahana rule. Gautamiputra Satakarni claimed that he re-established the system which had fallen into disorder.
The Brahmins received royal favour. The rulers made land grants to them. This does not mean that the Buddhists were deprived. They too received land grants.
The Satavahana period saw the development of crafts and trade. Among the artisans, the most prominent were Gandhi as v.ho dealt in perfumes.
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The Satavahana society was matriarchal. Most men bore the name of their mothers. Even the king was named after his mother. Two examples are Gautamiputra and Vasishthiputra.
The Satavahana rule was a period of social peace and security and economic prosperity. The kings were patrons of art and culture. Stupas and chaityas were built in different places.
Such monuments were built in Nagarjunakonda, Karle, and Amaravati.
Advent of Cities
The first cities in ancient India grew up in the northwest. The Harappan civilization saw the advent of several cities. Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Lothal, and Kalibangan were some of the important cities.
The extensive town planning of Mohenjodaro shows advanced thinking. That is why it is said that the Harappan civilization was an urban civilization.
Later, towns grew up in north India in the sixth century B.C. Champa, Rajagriha, Shravanti, Varanasi, Kaushambi, and Kushinagar were the most important among them.
Sometime later Mathura, Mahasthangarh, and Taxila in the northwest and, Kaveripattam in the south were important towns. Most of these towns and cities were centers of trade and commerce. Art and culture too developed in the cities.
Chapter 7 Economic Condition And Livelihood Social And Economic Condition In The Gupta Age Economic Condition
We get an idea of the economic and social condition of the Gupta period from the account of Fa-Hsien, the Chinese traveler. As in the previous age, in the Gupta period too, agriculture was the main livelihood of the people.
Paddy was the principal crop. Others were cotton, mustard seed, indigo, and sugarcane. In south India, coconut and various spices were produced in huge proportions.
Fa-hsien tells us that there was a decline in foreign trade in the Gupta period. Till AD 550 India exported silk to Rome. But after that our trade with Rome declined because Rome then began to import silk from China.
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The rise of priestly landlords was an important feature of this period. The rulers gave away lands to Brahmins and Buddhists. These lands were tax-free. Agricultural laborers were employed to till these lands.
This system was called ‘agrahara’. Gold and silver coins were struck in the Gupta period. This points to the economic prosperity of the kingdom.
The guild system was very much in use then. Artisans and craftsmen of the same trade were organized into a guild. Thus there were blacksmiths’ guilds, goldsmiths’ guilds, etc.
The people who produced anything paid tax or revenue to the ruler. Land revenue amounted from one-sixth to one-fourth of the produce. The tax was also realized from miners and traders.
Villagers were sometimes compelled to work in lieu of tax. This was some kind of tax in kind.
Social Condition
The caste system was in vogue but it was not too strictly observed. Brahmins and Kshatriyas were treated more leniently than Vaishyas and Shudras. Most Shudras were engaged in agriculture, livestock farming, and crafts.
The condition of the Chandals was very abject. They had to live away from the village or town. They were treated as untouchables. As in the previous ages, in this period too, the father was the head of the family.
Thus the family was patriarchal. Women’s position was. secondary.
Religion and Culture
The Guptas ruled for nearly two hundred years. This period is a glorious time in the history of ancient India. Some historians call it a ‘golden age’.
Others say that although the Gupta age was a period of social and cultural prosperity, it is too much to call it a ‘golden age’.
The Gupta rulers were patrons of the Sanskrit language. This resulted in the development of Sanskrit literature. Kalidasa, a great Sanskrit poet, and dramatist flourished in this period.
Another illustrious man of literature of this period was Sudraka. Sculpture, painting, and architecture developed greatly. The sculpture was based mostly on religious themes.
Buddhist subjects and Puranic subjects found a place in Gupta sculpture. Architecture too made remarkable progress. The Ekalinga temple of Satana is an example.
Cave architecture and cave painting were important features of the Gupta age. The most illustrious examples are the Ajanta, Ellora, and Udayagiri cave architecture and cave painting.
The Guptas were patrons of Hinduism. Under the Gupta rulers, Hindus were favored while the other religions suffered.
Fa-hsian’s account
The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsian, who was formerly known as Fa-hien, came to India in the reign of Chandragupta II. He has left an account of India as he saw it. He wrote that India then was a prosperous country.
People generally lived in peace. The Chandals, of course, were a neglected class. They were untouchable and lived outside the towns or cities. Pataliputra was the most important city.
There were also other cities in Magadha. Although the rulers were patrons of Hinduism, Fa-hsian noticed a number of Buddhist monasteries also.
Account of Xuan Zhang
Xuan Zhang was a Chinese pilgrim. He was formerly known as Hiuen Tsang. He came to India in Harshavardhana’s reign. He left an account known as Si-yu-ki.
Xuan Zhang stayed in India in Harsha’s kingdom for about 8 years. He has said that generally there was peace and security in the country, although he suffered at the hands of dacoits more than once.
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India was a warm country and there were eighty kingdoms. The land in the north and east was fertile. Rainfall was sufficient for a good crop.
Paddy and wheat were the chief agricultural crops. There were caste systems and caste differences. Kanauj was the most important city.
The people in general were interested in art and culture. Harshavardhana, he says, was a benevolent ruler and often made gifts to poor people.
WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History
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- WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History Chapter 1 The Idea Of History
- WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History Chapter 2 Primitive Man In The Indian Sub Continent
- WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History Chapter 3 Ancient History Of The Indian Sub Continent
- WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History Chapter 4 Ancient History Of The Indian Sub Continent
- WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History Chapter 5 Indian Sub Continent In The 6th Century BC
- WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History Chapter 6 Expansion Of Empire
- WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History Chapter 7 Economic Condition And Livelihood
- WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History Chapter 8 Culture In ancient India
- WBBSE Notes For Class 6 History Chapter 9 India And The Contemporary World