Chapter 3 A Few Trends Of The Indian Society Economy And Culture From 7th To 12th Century A.D Islam And India
In the country of Palestine, Jesus Christ-the founder of Christianity was born in the town of Bethlehem. To the south of Palestine, there was a country whose land was dry and rugged- almost a desert country.
This country of South-West Asia was Arabia (present Saudi Arab). It is a huge peninsula. In this area, great ancient civilizations like the Sumerians, the Babylonian, and the Phoenicians flourished.
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Vast areas of Arabia are covered with sand. Amidst this desert land, there are some ‘oases’- (fertile land in the desert) surrounded by date-palm trees. In these oases, some farming was done. The coastal region of the Red Sea was fertile.
So people started to settle there permanently and gradually some small towns grew up. Among them, Mecca, Jeddah, and Medina were very prominent.
“A fool may be known by six things, anger without cause, speech without profit; change without progress; inquiry without an object; putting trust in a stranger, and mistaking foes for friends.” -Arabian Proverb.
The Bedouins :
The inhabitants-like the Phoenicians and the Jews, the people of Arabia were also ‘Semetic’ of mixed race. They were divided into two groups-the Bedouins and the city-dwellers. The Arabs who lived in the desert were called the ‘Bedouins’.
They had different superstitions and they believed in demons and ghosts. Most of the Bedouins were nomads moving from one place to another. They were many more in numbers compared to the city-dwellers.
The economic life of the Bedouins:
The Bedouins were hardy, brave, ferocious, and harsh by nature. Their main livelihood was cattle rearing. They would rear horses and camèls and use them for riding from place to place. Their principal foods were dates and camel’s milk and flesh.
Often they would attack the traders who traveled across the desert and looted their belongings, wealth; food, etc. On the other hand, the city dwellers settled down permanently in one place.
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They were involved in trade and commerce with other countries. As a result, a trading organization and administration developed.
Sócio-Religious Life of the Arabs :
The Arabs were divided into many tribes. Each tribe had a leader who was called a ‘Sheikh’. These tribes often quarreled and fought among themselves. Although they were always fighting and plundering, charity and hospitality were their noble qualities.
But Arab women had no dignity in their society. Polygamy was common among the menfolk. Men and women led indisciplined and wayward lives. The Arabs were ‘pagans’ that means ‘idol worshippers’.
They worshipped many gods and goddesses. Each tribe had their own gods and goddesses. The shrines of these gods and goddesses (almost 350 in number) were present in the Kaaba at Mecca.
So Kaaba was a sacred place for peace and pilgrimage of the Arabs. In this holy place, a holy black stone was worshipped along with the other shrines. Besides, the water of the Jam Jam well is considered holy by the Arabs.
Chapter 3 A Few Trends Of The Indian Society Economy And Culture From 7th To 12th Century A.D Hazarat Mohammad 570 To 632 A.D
Early life:
In about 570 A.D. Hazarat Mohammad, the founder of the Islamic religion, was born in the Kuraish family that looked after the Kaaba temple. His father Abdullah had died a few months before he was born.
His mother Amena passed away when Mohammad was only 6 years old. After the death of his parents, his grandfather Abdul Muttalib looked after him. After the death of his grandfather, his poor uncle Abu Taleb brought him up.
Mohammad did not get any formal education in his childhood. But he had a very sharp memory.
Spiritual progress :
Mohammad grew up and became a custodian of the trading activities of a wealthy widow named Khadija Bibi. During this time he traveled widely throughout Arabia and became acquainted with the Jewish and Christian religions.
He also got an opportunity to come in contact with people of different races and religions. Impressed by his efficiency and honesty in his work, Khadija Bibi married Mohammad. At that time he was 25 years old.
Later, Mohammad started meditating deeply in a cave of Hera Mountain near Mecca. Here, at the age of 40 years, he received the message of Allah through Angel Gabriel.
The main essence of this message was, “Only Allah must be worshipped and Mohammad was the godsend conveyer of his message.”
Rise and Popularity of Islam:
Khadija was the first person whom Mohammad told about the divine message and she was the first person to become his disciple. Mohammad started preaching this new religion called Islam and his followers came to be known as Muslims or Musalmans.
‘Islam’ is an Arabic word and it means ‘peace’ and ‘surrender to Allah’. There were many Muslims in Asia and Africa. Later Islam spread to North Africa, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria, Southern parts of Soviet Russia, and China.
Mohammad was against idol worship. This was disliked by the Kuraishs and the other Meccans. They conspired to kill him and hearing it in 622 A.D. Mohammad fled from Mecca to Medina. Medina was then called Yethib.
After the arrival of Mohammad in Yethib, its name was changed to ‘Medinat-El-Nabi’ which means “City of the Prophet”. At that time he was accompanied by his trusted friend and disciple Abu Bakar and a few others.
This journey from Mecca to Medina is called “Hijrat” by the Muslims. The Muslim calendar begins from this year (622 A.D.) and it is called Hejira. Seventeen years later Caliph Omar, introduced the new ‘Muslim Calendar’ which is now called the “Medina Charter”.
Battle of Bader:
The people of Medina gave shelter to Mohammad and embraced his religion. As a result of it a great conflict started between the people of Mecca and Medina.
The people of Medina who gave shelter to Mohammad and helped him to preach Islam were called Ansers (helpers) and the people who left Mecca and went with him to Medina, were called Muhajir (refugees).
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Mohammad established a brotherhood for them. But the conflict between the people of Mecca and Medina continued. Due to this conflict, an open war took place. In the battle of Bader, Mohammad was victorious. But he was defeated in the battle of Ohode.
Treaty of Hodaibia and its impacts:
At last, the treaty of ‘Hodaibia’ was signed ty of Hodal between the two camps, and according to the “Treaty of Hodaibia,” both sides agreed to refrain from warfare activities for the next ten years.
However, the Quraish tribe, at last, violated the conditions of the treaty and again war broke out. In the 8th year of the ‘Hejira’, Mohammad finally defeated them and occupied Mecca in 630 A.D.
There he left Kaaba intact and destroyed all other idols of Mecca. He forgave the inhabitants of Mecca and advised them to accept Islam. He declared Mecca to be the holiest place of pilgrimage for Muslims.
He ordered that all Muslims should pray to face to Kaaba in Mecca. Gradually through the spreading of Islam, Mohammad was able to establish political unity among the different tribes. Medina was his capital city. He passed away due to malaria in 632 A.D.
Teachings of Mohammad:
The religion of the Muslims preached by the prophet Mohammad is known as Islam. The word ‘Islam’ means peace or ‘surrender to Allah’.
- Mohammad preached that Allah is supreme and the one and only God. He is the only creator, who has no other form and he is Omnipotent. Only He
- must be worshipped as Mohammad is the prophet.
- The ‘Quran’ and ‘Hadees’ are the two holy books of the Muslims. The divine messages received by Mohammad from Gabriel were compiled in the Quran.
- Hadees is the collection of Mohammad’s teachings. Mohammad preached that all Muslims were equal in the eyes of Allah. Sinners could attain pardon by praying to Allah.
- Mohammad prohibited his followers from gambling and drinking liquor. He also advised his followers to be respectful to the followers of other religions.
According to the Quran, every Muslim must perform the five following duties:
- To read the Kalma (guiding principles);
- To perform Namaz (prayer) five times a day and a special prayer on Friday;
- Roja (fasting throughout the month of Ramzan);
- Haj (to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once, if possible) and
- Zaqat (give alms to the poor and wealthy Muslims must distribute a part of their income among the poor).
The preachings of Mohammad were very effective on the belligerent Arab tribes. As a result, the spread of Islam was easier among them.
Principle of Equality:
- The teachings of Hazrat Mohammad were so simple that even ordinary, illiterate people could understand it easily.
- The religion of Islam did not support any social indiscrimination or rigid caste differences.
- It preached that everybody was equal in the eyes of Allah. The rich and the beggar could stand side by side in a mosque and pray.
- Above all, other tribes defeated in, war and converted to Islam could enjoy the same privileges with the conqueror.
- The ideals of Islam-tolerance and equality among all attracted more and more people to eagerly accept this religion.
- We see that during the time of Mohammad, there were only three to four thousand Muslims in Arabia, and within the next hundred years the Arabs were successful in spreading Islam from the Sindh area in India to the east of Spain in Europe and Morocco in Africa in the west.
- Islam became the most widely accepted religion of the world. The notion of preaching Islam and the idea of conversion were very much important in this respect. Within a few years, Islam became a worldwide religion.
Creation of the post of Caliph :
We have studied earlier that along with the spread of Islam, Mohammad was also successful in establishing political unity among the different Arab tribes. Mohammad’s sons died during his lifetime.
So after his death, the post of ‘Caliph’ was created to represent the political and religious leaders of the Muslims.
The Arabs Conquest of Sind:
The main causes of the Arab conquest of Sind under the leadership of Mohammad-Bin-Kasim in 712 A. D. were as-
- The Arabs had different trade centers in the ports along with the coast of the Indian Ocean. But the pirates of Gujarat. Makran and Sind attacked the ships of the Arabs for a number of times.
- The King of Sind Chach, an orthodox Hindu Brahmin was a despot. He had his capital at Alore (Rori in present times). The feudal lords were also tired of the despotic king. After the death of Chach, his son Dahir also became despotic like his father. So the disturbed feudal chiefs and the common servicemen took the side of the Arabs and encouraged them to fight against Dahir.
- Dahir, the ruler of Sind had given shelter to many enemies of the Khalifa in his own empire. The Arabs attacked Sind out of the arrogance of Dahir.
Sultan Mahmud invaded India 17 times. Jaipal committed suicide by performing “Jauhar Brata” when he was defeated by Mahmud in the 1st invasion in 1000 A.D. Mahmud got many wealth and ornaments, Mahmud defeated Fateh Daud a Shiya Muslim of Karmathian of Multan in 1004 A.D.
He captured Delhi and Nagarkot near Punjab in 1006 A.D. Multan came under the control of Ghazni in 1008 A.D. In 1009 A.D. he captured Narayanpur of Rajasthan and looted the Nagarkot Fort by defeating Fateh Daud and Anandapal in the ‘battle of Oaihind’.
Having been inspired with the information of huge wealth in the Somnath temple of Anhilbara in Gujarat, he attacked and destroyed this temple with 80,000 soldiers in the month of January 1025 A. D.
He again invaded India in 1026 A. D. He was resisted by the Jaths while returning back to Ghazni with huge wealth and ornaments. Probably this was his last invasion. Later he died in 1030 A.D. at the age of 59.
The Invasion of Mohammad Ghori :
Muizzudduin or Shihabuddin who is known in Indian history as ‘Mohammad of Ghur’ started a campaign towards India in 1175 A.D. He was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan III, the king of Chauhan dynasty of Ajmer and Delhi in the 1st Battle of Tarain in 1191 A.D
It was said that Jaichand, the king of the Gharwal dynasty, provocative Mohammad Ghori to declare war against Prithviraj Chauhan, because he kidnapped Samjukta, the daughter of Jaichand, and married her.
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It made Jaichand insulted. Mohammad Ghori fought the 2nd Battle of Tarain in 1192 A. D. against Prithviraj just to take revenge of the earlier defeat. Prithviraj was defeated by Md. Ghori.
Chapter 3 A Few Trends Of The Indian Society Economy And Culture From 7th To 12th Century A.D The Economic And Social Life Of India From 700 To 1200 A.D.
During the period from 700 A.D. to 1200 A.D. the central administration in Indian politics collapsed and may regional power came up. Similarly, many evolutions were found in the field of social and economic aspects.
The cultural life of the Indian population was also influenced deeply by the economic development of India. “Culture is the harmonious development of all the faculties in man”. -Francis Bacon
The impact of religion was great behind this spontaneous change in the life of the people in the post-Gupta era.
Post-Gupta era Social life:
The main specialty of the such social life of north and south India up to the 12th century has different changes in the ancient social structure.
1. Post Gupta Era – Rise of feudal society :
Historians Dr. R. S. Sharma, Dr. D. D. Koshambi, Dr. D. C. Sarkar, Irfan Habib, Dr. B. N. S. Yadav, etc. thought that such a rise of the feudal system of society occurred much prior to the Gupta age.
But after the death of Harshabardhan (647 A.D.), the subordinate staff became much more powerful due to the weak administration of the central power. During the time of the powerful rulers, these people were allowed to occupy lands or villages in lieu of their salaries and wages.
The army chief staff or the local rulers enjoyed such lands in a similar manner. At one time, the right over the land became hereditary. As a result, the landlords became the rulers of the area instead of the king.
Chandragupta for the sake of administration appointed many feudal lords. The dominance of these feudal lords increased to a great extent at the time of invasions of Hun leader Torman or Mihirkula or Pushyamitra.
Thus, the landlords and feudal lords became unruly and extremely dominant in the feudal system of society during the period from the 7th century to the 12th century. On the other hand, the condition of the slaves, laborers, and farmers.
Became bad to worse day by day. Prof. Romila Thapar said ‘There was no light of hope in the life of the farmers.’ Hence, many of them were compelled to become criminals for livelihood.
2. Caste system:
The caste system took a very hard shape in the ancient age or the last 500 years of the Hindu age. The society was divided into four classes of people i.e. Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Sudra. This disparity increased gradually.
The Pandits like Raghunandan, Bhababhuti, and Bigyaneswar formulated the norms and principles of the society. Vaishyas and Sudras became the prey of extreme exploitation and social humiliation, though the Brahmin and Kshatriyas enjoyed prestige and status in society.
Sudras and Chandalas were hateful and untouchable. Any interactions with the Sudras was strictly prohibited. There was a system of severe atonement for the Brahmins if by chance, they treaded over the shadow of any Chandala.
Manu said somewhere, ‘Chandalas will stay outside the locality, will dress like a dead body, will use the earthen utensil, will wear the ornaments made of iron, and will tame the ponies.
‘ So the severe caste system became one of the main peculiarities of this society. The Arabian Pandit Alberuni has described about the narrowness and extreme conservatism of the Hindu society in the 11th century in his famous book ‘Kitab-Ul-Hind”.
3. Rise of sub-caste:
In spite of the strict caste system, mixing between Brahmin, Kshatriya, and other castes existed. Though it was true that intercaste marriages in this society was looked upon with grace, yet the mixing of blood did happen.
From thus different subcastes originated. Again, sub-caste originated by dint of different vocations and professions. These were Kumbhakar, Swarnakar (Goldsmith), Tantubai (Weaver) Charmakar (Cobler) Karmakar, Shankha Banik, Malakar, Teli, Rajput Kshatriya, Malla Kshatriya, Barga Kshatriya, Poundra Kshatriya, etc.
The royal employees, who belonged to Brahmins, Kshatriya, and Sudra were known as Kayastha. Among these, there were Kulin Kayastha and Karan Kayastha. There were other communities also in the south like Albar, Naynar, Enadi, Ballal, etc.
The influence of the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas was comparatively less in the Brahmin-dominated south Indian society. According to Dr. Ramsharan Sharma, caste identity was done by the degree of wealth and not by birth. As a result, the origin of sub-castes was not as complicated as was found in the north.
4. The status of women:
The women did not have any social status or independence in that patriarchal pattern of society. They were literally slaves to men. According to Prof. Sukumari Bhattacharya, the Pundits used to take out distorted meanings of the religious texts as measures of exploiting and oppressing women.
It was mentioned in Matsyapuran that disobeying or wayward women should be beaten by bamboo or rope. Even there were plenty of advice of dissolution them. Within this social structure, there was absolutely no scope of women to become self-sufficient.
The systems of early marriage, Polygamy, burning of Sati, or dowry system, etc. were very much there. Widow marriage and women’s education were not looked upon in good sense and spirit. The married women used ‘Shankha’ and ‘Sindur’.
The women of the south were much more respectful. A queen of the Rastrakuta family used to rule. The aristocratic princesses and other ladies of the royal court showed much efficiency in painting, dancing, singing, fine arts, poetic performances, and also administrative activities.
Women’s right to property was also recognized. But in certain cases, some women in the north used to get a better status.
5. The system of Devdasi:
One of the main specialties of the society of ancient India was the system of ‘Devdasi’. The unmarried girls of high families, who were experts in dancing and singing, were dedicated to the temple.
This was known as the ‘Devdasi system’. Plenty of stories are found in the Mahabharata, Puran, and even in the ancient inscription about the devadasi, who were deployed to the services to Gods.
Basically, this system existed in Gujarat, Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, and entire south India. Hiuen Tsang found such Devdasi in the Surya temple of Multan. (629 A.D.). In 867 A.D. Abu-Jaid-al-Hasan, an Arabian Traveller saw Devdasi in the same Indian temples.
Some 500 Devdasis used to dance and sing throughout the day in the Somnath Temple of Gujarat. According to researcher U. N. Ghosal, there were about twenty thousand Devdasis in 4000 temples in Gujarat.
Sri Chaitanya Dev gave ‘Diksha’ to a Devdasi of Jagannath Temple of Puri. An unknown Geographer of the tenth century wrote in his book ‘Hudud-ul-Alam’ that it was seen in a temple that at least thirty Devadasis were dancing around the idol inside a temple.
It was generally customary to keep Devdasi in every temple in the Chola dynasty. The number of these Devdasi increased in the tenth-eleventh century. In big temples, there were even 1700 to 2500 Devdasi.
In the 11th century, Alberuni found in India that Devdasis were being used as prostitutes. The money earned by them through this process were accepted by the temple authorities. Sometimes this money was spent for the maintenance of the Army.
Towards the end, it became normally detrimental to society and temples became unholy.
6. Slavery system:
One of the main specialties of the ancient social structure was slavery. Slaves were found plenty in south Indian societies. Many people became slaves either voluntarily or for extreme poverty.
Any son of a slave woman became a slave by birth. The slaves were engaged in household jobs or temple jobs.
The export trade of India became extremely hampered due to the decline of the Roman empire in the west and the Muslim empire of Iran. Import of gold and silver in India decreased.
Within the 8th to 10th century, the gold deficit in north India increased like anything. In the 10th century, this trade and commerce got a new life. At this time, the import of gold increased in India.
The ports of Saptagram and Tamralipta on the east coast and Cambe, Debal, Thana, Soprab, and Kuilon ports in the west coast became very important.
The business tie-up developed between India and Ceylon, Burma, Africa, Kambuja, Champa, Malay, etc. The overseas such relationship also grew with China, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Central Asia by land routes.
The merchants of Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandya states used to trade outside via the ports like Mahabalipuram, Kaveripattanam, and Karikal. The articles used for export were mainly sandalwood, spices, camphor, and ivory goods.
For the sake of commercial activities, the chole kings developed guilds or co-operatives called ‘Manigrams’ (big) and ‘Nagaram’ (small).
1. Chole Kings Coinage system:
As a medium of exchange, the use of coins is quite old in this country. There was gold and silver coins in the Gupta age. There was a use of Dinar (gold coin) and Rupak (silver coin) in ancient Bengal.
But during the Pals the gold and silver coins decreased and the use of the Narayani coins, copper coins, and Kari, made of silver increased. During the Sen age, Puran and Kapardak Puran coins were in use.
Economic prosperity was proved by the use of the gold coin ‘Kashu’ in the Chola age.
2. Chole Kings Money lending business:
Money lending businesses developed with the growth of trade and commerce side by side. According to Prof. Romila Thapar, the money lending business developed from trade and commerce and guild.
Brahmins were charged interest @ 2% and Sudras were charged @ 5%. Though the Rastrakutas and Chowhans initially fixed the rate of interest at 25% and 30% respectively but later the rate of interest was reduced to 15%.
The temples of south India also participated in trade, commerce, and money lending business. Thus the economic condition was passing through ups and downs from the 7th to the 12th century.
Due to the cultural upsurge in ancient Bengal, there had been a remarkable change in Pala and Sena ages. The impact of this cultural improvement was noticed in Indian history in the 7th century.
The culture of Bengal reached extreme excellence from-7th the to the 12th century. Through the path of economic advancement and social evolution, the culture of Bengal reached the top of prosperity.
A new wave came in the different cultural activities like language, religion, literature, science, sculpture, architecture, painting, art, and education.
3. Religion:
The Pala kings were the devotees of Buddha and the Sena kings were the devotees of Brahmanya. There had been a change in Buddhism in the 8th and 9th centuries.
At this time, due to the infiltration of ‘Mantra’ and ‘Tantra’ in the religion, different religious theories like Bajrajan, Sahajjan, Tantrajan, Kalchakrajan, etc. came up.
Again, due to the mixing of Buddhism and Brahmannya, ‘Abadhutmarga’ and ‘Baulmarga’ also developed. So the influence of Buddhist Baul or Sahaja increased.
A widespread worshipping of the Buddhist God Tara and Hindu Gods like Shiva, Kali, Durga, Saraswati, etc. was introduced. Along with the Buddhist monasteries, the number of Hindu temples started increasing.
Education: The famous university during the Pala age was Nalanda University. This was recognized as one of the main Buddhist education centers in Asia. The entire maintenance of this university was undertaken by the Pala kings.
Due to the extreme patronage of the Pala kings, Odantapuri, Vikramshila, Somepuri, Devikot, Jagaddal, etc. became the best education centers. Atish Dipankar Srigyan was a student of Odantapuri University when its principal was Shilrakshit.
Dharmapala built one university in Bhagalpur in Bihar. Its name was Vikramshila University. There were 107 monasteries and 6 colleges under this university. The main chancellor was Sri Abhayakar Gupta.
Subjects like Buddhist philosophy, logic, grammar, medical science, and astrology were taught in this university. Among the eminent teachers, Dipankar Srigyana, Ratnakar Shanti, Sridhar, Buddhagyan-pada, Kalyan Rakshit, etc. were important.
For about 400 years, this university continued proudly. Somepuri University was also quite famous. Dharmapala established 50 religious institutions also. Hiuen Tsang and Khemendra the poet of Kashmir thought that Bengalees were very interested in education.
4. Development Of Language:
The three main languages of literature were Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Sourasena Apabhrangsha. Magdhi Apabhrangsha, the language of the common people played an important role in the development of the Bengali language.
The best poet in the Apabhrangsha language was Sayambhu. Bouddha Siddhacharyas in the Pala age wrote the Charyapadas in the 11th-12th centuries. The paragraphs of Chaupau lyrics were written by Luipad, Bhusukapad, Shantipad, Shabarpad, Arahapad, Khnyapad, etc.
In 1916 A. D. Mahamahopadha Haraprasad Shastri published the Charyapad in Bengali. The name of that book was “Hajar Bachharer Purana Bangla Bhasay Bouddha Gan-O-Doha.
” One quotation of ‘charyachrjabinishchay’ under this was “Kahap givi meli achhahu kees. Berila pora chow dish. Apna manshey harina bairi”….. That is whom to accept and whom to reject? There is an uproar around the enemy of a deer is his own flesh.”
5. Improvement of literature:
This age is called the ‘golden age of Bengali literature’. It was known from the Haricharita, written by Pandit Chaturbhuj, that the Brahmins of Barendrabhumi were quite efficient and expert in Puran and grammar.
The books written by the pandits in the age were Herashastra by Bhabadev Bhatta, Ramcharita by Sandhyakar Nandy (Satire), Dayabhag by Jimutbahan (Hindu law), Kadambari Kathasagar by Avinanda, ‘Nayakandali’ by Sridhar Bhatta, ‘Mudrarakhas’ by Vishakdutta (800 A.D.)
‘Ravanbadh’ by Bhatti (7th Century) Nabasahasanka Charita by Padmagupta in the 11th Century (Biography of Malab king) Naikarshacharit by Sriharsha in the 12th Century.
Besides this, there were poems by Bhartrihari, Uttarammcharit, and Malati-Madav by Bhahabbuti, Karpur Manjari by Rajsekhar in the 10th Century, and also ‘Bal Ramayana’ by him. Being moved by the scholarly quality of Dhoi, Laxmansena presented him with the title ‘Kabiraj Chakravarty’.
The eminent scholars during the Pala age were Maitreya Rakshit, Jinendrabuddhi, Sarvananda, etc. Incidentally, it may be said that the names of Pragnyabarman, the writer of the Tantrik text, and Atish Dipankar, the writer of the Bajrajjan text worth mentioning.
Atish Dipankar wrote 200 Buddhist texts by staying in Tibet for thirteen years. Among the novelists in the Sena age, Halayudha for his novel ‘Mimansha Sarvashya’ and ‘Brahman Sarvashya’ was worth mentioning.
Other writings were ‘Bratasagar’ ‘Pratishthasagar’ ‘Acharyasagar’, ‘Dansagar’, and ‘Abdhutsagar’ by Ballalsena. ‘Harilata’ and ‘Pintridayita’ by Aniruddha Bhatta, ‘Pavandut’ by Dhoi, ‘Chandrachur Charit’ by Umapati Dhar and ‘Geetgovinda’ by Jaydeva.
The last line of Geetgovinda was the line written by Srikrishna. It was ‘Smaragarala khandanang momo shirasi mandanong dehi padapallava mudarang’. The Geetagobinda, ‘Tikasarbasya’ of Sarbananda, Aryasaptashati, of Gobordhanacharya, ‘Sanskrita Kosh’ of Sridhar Das, Sadukti Karmamrita, etc. were really famous and classical.
6. Medical Science:
The texts relating to medical science were ‘Madhavnidan’ by Madhabkar, ‘Siddhayoga’ by Brinda, ‘Ayurbed Dipika’ by Chakrapani Dutta, and Bhanumati, Shabdachandrika, ‘Chikitasasamgraha’ by the author, “Sharirvidya” and “Chikitsashastra” Grantha by Surpala and Bangasena, ‘Shabdapradip’ and ‘Brikhyayurbed’ and Louha Paddhati are the classical creations in Medical science.
Banbhatta, Vaskaracharya (Born in 1118) Aryabhatta II, Kalyan Barman, Sridhar, Mahavira, Balbhadra, etc. became very famous by writing books are mathematics and astrology.
7. Art and sculpture:
Somepuri of Bengal, a sculpture of Paharpur, Odantapur, Vikramshila. etc. were brilliant examples of art and sculpture. Different art lovers of Tibet and Suvarnabhumi of south-east Asia imitated the methods of sculpture of different Vihar and temples.
There was mention of constructing temples by the method of ‘Sarbatabhadra’ a theory in Vastushipla. Dr. Niharranjan Ray said “The Temple of Paharpur is the greatest art of Bengal.
Its existence is seen as the most in all ‘Sarbatabhadra’ sculptures. It is noticeable in the field of sculpture. The terracotta art of the Pala age proves its originality. There were two famous sculptors- Dhiman and his son Bitapala.
It is mentioned in a contemporary script about the art of Somepuri Mahavihar “It is only the place to visit in the eyes of the world.” The idols made of Ashtadhatu and Blackstone were examples of the creativity of the highest order.
Many idols or models made of Blackstone carry evidence of excellent sculpture in the Pala age. Many models of women and Gods in a variety of postures are inscribed beautifully in terracotta art. There were many great artists in the Sena age.
Among those, Shulapani of Barendrabhumi demands special reference. Other talented artists were Karnabhadra, Vishnubhadra, Tathagatasagar, Sutradhar, etc. ‘Ballalbari’ was a glaring example of the architect.
8. Painting:
The degree of efficacy and expertise of painting can be known from viewing many pictures of ‘Ashta Sahasrika Pragyaparamita’ written in the time of Rampala. These paintings were made on the basis of Bajrajan and Tantrajan during the Pala age.
A very fine black or red line was painted around the picture. Dr. S. K. Saraswati has done a lot of research work on the paintings of Palas. Many documents and records are conserved in the archives of Cambridge Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal and in the Bovellien library of Oxford.
9. Casteism:
The Pala rulers were Buddhists and the Senas were Brahmins. Society developed based on Brahmana ideals. In Bengal, the society was divided into different castes like Brahmanas, Kayasthas, Vaidyas, and Sudras.
During this period some new castes like Kayastha, Vaidya, and Kaibartas originated. Ballalasena introduced the ‘kulin’ caste system among the Brahmans, Vaidyas and Kayasthas. (Kulin system was based on the status and glory of the high-caste families).
The society was based on a caste system as well as the ‘Kulin family’ system. As a result, there were too many divisions in society. The social life was full of rituals and celebrations.
Buddhists, Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva), and Vaishnavas (worshippers of Vishnu) co-existed happily. Various rituals like marriage and other religious festivals were celebrated with great merriment and pomp.
10. Place of Women:
Women had no special status in society, but they had the right to get an education. Sometimes widows were forced to accept sati and they had to burn themselves on their dead husband’s pyres.
Polygamy (having several wives) was prevalent among the males of high-caste society. Widow re-marriage was condemned in the high caste. However, it was prevalent in the lower castes.
11. Dress and ornament:
The men wore a dhoti and the women wore saris. Other than that men and women also used shawls. They also wore various types of ornaments made of gold, silver, diamonds, and pearls.
Men used wooden sandals. Women adorned themselves with bindis, and kajal, put flowers in their hair, smeared sandalwood powder on their bodies, and put ‘alta’ (red dye) on their feet to beautify themselves.
12. Food habits, amusement, etc.:
The people of Bengal were fond of food. The Bengali food consisted of rice, fish, meat, vegetables, fruits, milk, and ghee. Drinking wine was prevalent but the habit of drinking was looked down upon.
Among the people hunting, wrestling, chess-playing, the game of dice, and gambling were their recreation. Ordinary people traveled by boats and bullock carts. The rich would use horses and elephants to go from place to place.
Bengal flourished under the Palas and Senas. Agriculture was the main occupation of the Bengalees. Industry and commerce also prospered during this period. Bengal showed remarkable advancement, especially in the field of textile, sculpture, and jewelry.
In Europe and other parts of Asian countries, there was a great demand for cotton clothes of Bengal. Various commodities were exported by ships. Tamralipta and Saptagram were famous as important ports.
13. Education System:
The Palà and Sena kings were great patrons of learning and encouraged the spread of education. With their support, there was unprecedented progress in the field of education and literature.
Sanskrit and Prakrit were the mediums of learning. The Bengali language developed from Prakrit. Hymns in Bengali composed by a sect of Buddhists,. were the oldest known specimens of Bengali literature.
Under the patronage of the universities of Nalanda and Sarnath, and the initiative of the Pala kings, new universities were set up at Odantapuri, Vikramshila, and Sompuri. The universities of Vikramshila and Sompuri were established by Dharmapala.
The University of Vikramshila was the most famous one besides Nalanda University. The Buddhist scholar Atish Dipankar was the principal of this University. During the reign of Nayapala, his fame spread far and wide. He was a follower of the Mahayana sect of Buddhism.
He was invited by the king of Tibet for the spread and reformation of Buddhism in Tibet. Atish Dipankar went to Tibet and spent the rest of his life there. Under the Pala and Sena kings, Sanskrit literature made remarkable progress in Bengal.
The ‘Ramcharita’ was an important historical poetic composition written by Sandhyakar Nandy who was a poet in the court of Rampala. This composition has a double meaning. It gives an account of Sita’s rescue by Ramachandra.
And it also depicts how Rampala regained North Bengal-the land of his forefathers, after defeating Kaivartya king Bhima. Aniruddha Bhatta the spiritual teacher of Ballalasena wrote two books namely ‘Harilata’ and ‘Pitredayita’ discussing different festivals and rituals of the Hindu religion.
Other than these, ‘Danasagara’ and ‘Adbhutasagara’ written in Sanskrit by Ballalasena, are two important creations of this period. Ballalasena himself was an exceptional scholar of Hindu scriptures.
His son, Lakshmanasena too was a poet and a learned man. He completed the ‘Adbhutasagara’ that his father could not complete. The five jewels of Lakshmanasenas court were Saran, Dhoyi, Umapatidhar, Gobardhan, and Jayadeva who helped to enrich the literature of the period.
The poet Dhoyi had written a book of poems called ‘Pavanduta’ similar to Kalidasa’s ‘Meghduta’. Jayadeva was an eminent poet of Lakshmanasena’s court. He was born in a village named Kenduli located on the banks of the Ajay river. He was a Vaishnav.
Jaydeva composed the famous ‘Gitagovinda’ describing the activities of Lord Krishna and Radha. The beautiful lyrical form of this legend has been depicted in the ‘Gitagovinda’ which was a famous poet and is immortal.
In fact, there is a myth that one day Lord Krishna appeared as Jayadeva and completed the couplets of the Gitagovinda. The renowned scholar of law, Jimutbahana wrote his famous book of the law “Dayabhaga”.
During the rule of the Pala kings. Halayudh, the Chief Justice in Lakshmanasena’s court was a renowned scholar. He authored a book named ‘Brahmansarvaswa’ explaining the sacred vedic hymns.
15. Progress in Science :
Ayurveda (traditional Hindu science of medicine as taught in Atharvaveda) was highly developed in the Pala and Sena Ages. During this time, Chakrapani Dutta the famous Ayurveda specialist was born.
He wrote the book ‘Chikitsa Sangraha’ which contains the interpretation of the methods of treatment by Charaka and Sushruta, the founders of Ayurvedic treatment. Chakrapani Dutta also wrote the ‘Dravyaguna Sangraha’, a book about Ayurvedic treatment.
The art and architecture of this period were proof of the excellent skills of the artisans of this age. The construction of monasteries and temples, stone and metallic idols of Hindu deities and Lord Buddha, and the ‘terracotta’ art bear the evidence of their highly developed workmanship.
The ruins of the monasteries and viharas at Odantapuri, Vikramshila, and Sompuri revealed the highly advanced architecture of the Pala and Sena Ages. The statues engraved on the walls of the vihara at Sompuri in particular were novel.
Dhimana and his son Vitapala were two famous sculptors and artists of this age. Someshwara achieved great skill in engraving alphabets on stone. Shulapani was a renowned artist of the Sena period.
He was also a scholar of Hindu laws. The ‘Sarvatabhadra school of art’ was highly developed in this period.
Chapter 3 A Few Trends Of The Indian Society Economy And Culture From 7th To 12th Century A.D Two Universities Were Established By The Pala Kings
1. University of Odantapuri :
This university was established near the maha vihara at Nalanda, by Gopala the founder of the Pala dynasty in Bengal. Probably his son Dharmapalȧ completed the construction of this university. The students could study here without paying any fées.
Buddhist scriptures, philosophy, etc., were taught here. When Dipankar Shrignan was a student of this university, Silarakshita was it’s principal.
2. University of Vikramshila:
This world-famous university near present-day Bhagalpur was built by Dharmapala. This university could accommodate 150 teachers and 3000 students who came from all over the country and abroad.
Here more than a hundred teachers taught Buddhist scriptures, logic, philosophy, grammar, astronomy, medicine, etc. The University of Vikramshila was as famous as Nalanda University. It was the holy place of the Mahayana sect of Buddhism.
Many students of this university went to Tibet for the spread of Buddhism. Among the principals of the University of Vikramshila, Abayakar Gupta, Ratnakar Shanti, Dipankar Shrignana, Buddhajnanpada, Shridhar, and Kalyan Rakshit were famous scholars.
At the end of the 12th century A.D., the soldiers of a Turkish general named Iktiyaruddin Mohammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, who was a general of Mohammad Ghori plundered this university and reduced it to ruins in 1203-05-A.D.
Chapter 3 A Few Trends Of The Indian Society Economy And Culture From 7th To 12th Century A.D Nalanda University
Rules and regulations:
During the period of Kumaragupta I (415-455 A.D.), the son of Chandragupta II, the Nalanda University was built in the Nalanda District of Bihar. The meaning of the word ‘Nalanda’ is knowledge or thirst for knowledge.
In that sense, Nalanda University was the best education center. This free and residential university was run by government sponsorships. The system of admission test was there. This test was very tough.
But once admitted, no student could go back to home for a period of a minimum of 7 to 8 years. The students were awarded degrees and diplomas after the successful completion of the course.
The Buddist pandits used to call this institution as “The Oxford of the Mahayana Buddhism”.
International Importance:
The students from south India and other parts of India used to come here to study in this University. Even students from central Asia, China, Tibet or south-east Asia used to come here. Harshabardhan used to bear all costs from his royal treasury.
At this time while learning for some time, Hiuen Tsang noticed that there were at least 10,000 students in this University. There were 1510 teachers and scholars to teach the students.
The Bengali Pandit Shilabhadra was the Principal of this University. Pragyamitra was an eminent teacher.
The subjects:
15 subjects were taught in this University, each student had to learn all the subjects at a time. The subjects were Buddhist philosophy, Veda, Grammar, Logic, Astrology, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, Geography, History, Ayurveda; Pali, Sanskrit, etc.
There were big libraries and archives for the benefit of the students. The library was divided into three parts-Ratnaranjak, Ratnadadhi, and Ratnasagar. The student-teacher relationship was excellent.
Fall of Nalanda:
Sometimes, discussions went on up to midnight regarding the subjects. Apart from the schedule of study, seminars were held on any topic or subject. Students has separate bedrooms. A separate study room and drawing room were there.
There was a very strict discipline which both students and teacher had to follow. According to Hiuen Tsang, Nalanda University was the best educational institution in Asia.
Unfortunately, Baktyar Khalji, during his invasion in Bengal and Bihar, destroyed this university mistaking it as a fort, and burnt the library. This university is only the remnants of old memory, prestige, and the ruins of wonder.
Chapter 3 A Few Trends Of The Indian Society Economy And Culture From 7th To 12th Century A.D Rise Of Rajput Race
Rajput Age:
The word ‘Rajput’ is distorted from of ‘RAJPUTRA’. According to poet Banabhatta, the high families of Kshatriyas are called Rajput.
The period from 647-1192 A.D. i.e. from the death of Harsha to the Muslim invasion, is called the Rajput age. Historians are of different opinions in respect to the rise of Rajput.
Different opinion:
Ancient opinion-According to the proverbs, Rajputs belong to the dynasty of Chandra and ‘Surya’. It can be known from the book “Prithwiraj Raso” written by Brahmin poet Chand Bardoi that Vashistha Muni performed the yagnas in Mount Abu for want of warriors.
As a result, the Rajput heroes like Pratihar, Paramar, Chowhan, Chalukya, Kalchuri, Sholanki, etc. born from the fire of that yagnas. This theory is called “Agnikul Theory”.
Dr. Gourishankar Hirachand Ojha has accepted this theory in his book ‘History of Rajputana’ though modern historians reclined to accept this theory.
Modern opinion:
The historians like Dr. Bhandarkar, William Crook, and Col. Todd thought that the Rajput race was originated from a foreign race. Col. Todd told in his book “Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan” that the Sakas, Huns, Kushan, and Gurjara people started marrying Indian girls while residing there.
In course of time, the descendants of these foreigners became very strong and courageous, These offsprings were known as Rajputs: For this reason, Dr. V. A. Smith also called the Rajputs as “Mixed race”.
Hence Smith commented, “The term Rajputas, as applied to a social group, has no concern with race, meaning descent or relationship by blood.”
Chapter 3 A Few Trends Of The Indian Society Economy And Culture From 7th To 12th Century A.D Atish Dipankar
Atish Dipankar Srigyana was born in Bikrampur in East Bengal in 980 A.D. He studied in Odantapur University built by Dharmapala with free ship.
Later he became a devotee of the Buddhist religion under the guidance of Bouddha Pandit Shil Rakhsit who was also the principal of that University. Shil Rakhsit himself gave him the title “Dipankar Srigyana”. His original name was ‘Chandragarbha’.
After being christened, his name became Atish Dipankar. Again he was known as Atish or Gyani to the people of Tibet. From that time, he became famous as Atish Dipankar Srigyana instead of Chandragarbha.
Atish Dipankar became the principal of Vikramshila University at the age of 19. Atish came to Tibet with the request of Tibetian king Ye-Shesh-Hode after staying for a long period as principal in this University near Bhagalpur in Magadha.
He died in Tibet in’ 1050 A.D. after propagating Buddhism for 13 years here. He was buried here with respect and homage. Atish Dipankar wrote 200 texts in all on the basis of Buddhism in 13 years.
The famous text is Bajrajan Sadhan. But the majority of the texts were written on the basis of Mahajan Buddhism.
‘Vikramshila University :
The Pala king Dharmapala built the Vikramshila University near Bhagalpur. This University was next to Nalanda University. The name Vikramashila originated from the title of Dharmapala. This was one of the main centers for studying Buddhism.
Atish Dipankar Srigyana was the principal of this University. There were almost 3000 students in his time. This was a residential institution and the education, accommodation, etc. were absolutely free of charge.
The subjects taught in this University were Buddhist Philosophy, Hindu Philosophy, Logic, Nyaya, Grammar, Astrology, Medical science, Tantra, etc. The teachers were like Sridhar, Kalyan Rakshit, Abhayakar Gupta, Buddhagyanapad, Ratnakar Shastri, Dipankar Srigyana, etc.
There were 114 teachers in this institution. This University was surrounded by a high wall. 107 monasteries and six education centers were under it.
Dr. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar said, “The name ‘Mahavihar’ was perfect and appropriate.” This University, being the wonderland of history was destroyed by Bakhtiar Khilji in the 12th century.
Borobudur:
The word Borobudur means ‘several Buddha’. The ‘Borobudur’ Buddhist Stupa is situated in Java island of south-east Asia. Shailendra kings of Java Constructed this ‘Stupa’. This was built in between 750-850 A.D.
This is situated at the top of a large mountain. This was built by curving the mountain in imitation of Pallava art. The design was exactly in the pattern of the step Pyramid in Egypt or Mexico. There were altogether 1000 pinnacles in this stupa.
The pinnacle in the middle was comparatively larger. The temple consisted of 9 steps on the mountain. A large bell-shaped stupa was atop the Hill. Amongst these steps, the lower step was 120 meters in length and 120 meters in width.
There were 436 models of Buddha engraved on the walls. The stories of the Mahabharata, Purana, etc. were also engraved. The total area of this stupa was 400 sq. ft. The stupa was built as per the Indian form of art based on Buddhist culture.
This is ever-beautiful because of its most refined artwork and ornamentation like Pallava art. Dr. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar has rightly said “Borobudur is referred to as the 8th wonder of the world.”
An advanced History of India. Unfortunately, this was destroyed by the Turky Muslims in 1474 A.D. After a long time since it was greatly damaged UNESCO has recently started renovating this temple.
Chapter 3 A Few Trends Of The Indian Society Economy And Culture From 7th To 12th Century A.D Expansion Of Indian Culture In South East Asia
The relationship between south-east Asia and the culture of Ancient India is very old. Due to encouragement from the Indian merchants, travelers, pandits, and kings, the Indian culture expanded up to the different islands of southeast Asia.
So, the countries like China, Burma, Sumatra, Java, Siam, Bali, Borneo, Kambuja, Ceylon, etc. of south-east Asia are collectively known as the “Greater India”. The Indian Religion, literature, science, philosophy, art, and sculpture, flourished in the culture of south-east Asia.
From the texts of Jatakas, Periplus of the Erythraean sea, Kathasaritsagar, Kathamala, Brihatkatha, Katha Kosh, Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, etc. we can know many things about the cultural relationship of south Asia with India.
Burma:
The expansion of Indian culture occurred in Burma during the regime of Asoka. Sanskrit and Pali languages were the languages of Burmese literature. People like Brahmin, Bouddha, Shaiva, and Vaishnavas used to live here.
There were Hindu colonies in Pegu and Arakan. Many Buddhist monasteries and pagodas were constructed here. This state became independent in the 16th century. The important king by Indian names were Harivikram, Suryavikram, Aniruddha, Tribhubanaditya, etc.
Siam:
The relationship between India and Siam developed in the 3rd century. Initially, this state was a feudal state under the “Funan” empire. This state became independent in the 16th century. An Indian named Indraditya ruled here for a long time.
Many people of this place were believers in. Hinayana Buddhism. The present name of Siam is Thailand. The tradition of Indian culture is found here. This is well known as a Hindu colony.
Champa :
The Champa island of southeast Asia is situated in northeast of Kambuja. It is mentioned in history that an Indian name of ‘Srimar’ established the Champa estate in the 2nd century. This state was in existence for thirteen hundred years i.e. 2nd to 15th century.
Sanskrit was the official language of this state. In spite of the domination of the Brahminical religion, Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, and Buddha were equally respected in this state. The pattern of daily life, dresses, and social and religious customs were developed with the imitation of the Indians.
Some historians think that the name of Champa estate had been originated from the name of Champa city of Bihar. The important kings of Champa were-Haribarman, Rudrabarman, Srijayindrabarman, Jaiparameshwardeva, etc.
According to the historian Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, “There were many flourishing cities in Champa and the whole country was adorned with beautiful temples, both Hindu and Buddhist.” These kings were all interested in Indian culture.
Kambuja:
The Kambuja (Presently known as Kampuchea) was situated on the south of Indo-China. It is known from the Chinese source that an Indian Brahmin named ‘Kaundinya’ established this island in the 2nd century.
Thousands of Brahmins, coming from India, used to do yagnas and other rituals, throughout the day. Chinese people called it “Fu-nan.” The Cambodian kings expanded their kingdom up to Vietnam, Laos, Thailand (Siam), Malay, and Burma starting in the 7th century.
The Kambodian kings like Jaibarman I, VII, Jashobarman, and Suryabarman II were quite scholarly in Hinduism. With their efforts, the Indian culture developed a lot.
Vishnu temple of Ankorvat:
King Suryabarman II built the Vishnu temple of Ankorvat (1113-45 A.D.) in Angkor Thom, the capital of Kambuja. But his nephew Dharanindrabarman (1152-81 A.D.) completed the said temple.
This temple was built in the form of Pallava art. The shape of the temple was stepped like just like the step pyramids of Egypt and Mexico. It was surrounded by a 650ft wide moat. On the western side, there was a 36ft wide stone footpath.
The height of the porch was 800 ft from east to west and 675 ft from north to south. The apex of the temple was 213 ft. There were the images like Nataraj Shiv, (Kiratbeshi) Mahadeva, Arjuna, Jama, Chitragupta, Pragyaparamita, and other images also although there was the main Vishnu image inside the temple.
There are excellent sculptures on the walls of eight high pinnacles, a staircase, and the walls. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar said. “Ankorvat in every sense is a wonder of the world.”
Shiva temple of Bayon:
Ankortham the capital of Kambuja state was 2 miles long and 2 miles wide surrounded by a moat 330 ft wide. There were 5 main gates to enter the city. The main road of the city was 100 ft wide.
A Shiva temple was situated at the center of Bayon, one of the best cities in the world. Jaibarman VII built this biggest Shiva temple. There are 40 pinnacles in this pyramid-shaped three-storied temple.
4 models of Shiva are curved in each pinnacle. The pinnacle in the middle is almost 45 mt high. It is completely covered by gold.
Malay peninsula :
The Indian state had been developed from the 2nd century in the Malay peninsula. Within the eighth century, a large Shailendra empire was developed with the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Borneo islands. According to the Arabian writers, the average, daily income of this empire was 200 mounds of gold.
Though the relationship with the Chola kings was a bit bitter, they maintained a good relationship with the Palas and as a gesture, Shailendra king Balaputradev constructed a Buddhist monastery in Nalanda and donated five villages for its maintenance.
As per the instructions of their Kulaguru Kumara Ghosha. The kings of this place constructed a temple of Goddess Tara in Java island. Kumara Ghosha made the Shailendra kings the devotees of Buddha.
Sumatra, Bali and Borneo :
Srivijay dynasty ruled Sumatra island from the 3rd to 8th century. After that, it went under the control of the Shailendra kings in the 8th century. According to Itsing, thousands of Buddhist monks used to live here. Fa-Hien visited Java in 414 A.D.
At that time the Hindu religion was very flourishing. Bali is situated on the eastern side of Java. People of this place used to worship Hindu Gods and Goddesses. The society was classified into four groups.
Borneo island is the longest among the east Indian islands. During the 1st to 15th century, the Hindu religion and culture flourished a lot in this place. King Mulabarman of this place used to respect the Brahmins. He thought that cow conservation was a holy job.
Srilanka:
When Mahendra and Sanghyamitra came to the royal court of the Ceylonese king Tissoa during the period of Asoka, they made him a follower of Buddha. The influence of Indian culture in the field of religion, language, and literature.
Art and culture of this place though there was the dominance of Chola and Chalukya. Thus a keen relationship was developed with the different islands of south-east Asia.
Historian Ramesh Chandra Majumdar said, “The Indians put more value on the cultural conquest and no price was reckoned too high so long as this great mission was fulfilled.”