WBBSE Solutions For Class 9 History And Environment Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century : Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist AndMonarchial Ideas Introduction

The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered.

So the leaders who played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met in Vienna (1815) to draw up a new map of Europe. However, the spirit propagated by the French Revolution created problems. The concept of nationalism and nation-state was championed by the people. Thus, a conflict between monarchical and nationalist forces arose.

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The conflict ultimately ended in the triumph of liberalism’s overreaction. The Vienna Settlement (1817) restored the old ruling families to their respective thrones. Moreover, it stood for restoration-revolution conditions but the Vienna Congress completely ignored the will of the common people. The people demanded the right to participate in the government.

Thus the was a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals. In monarchical states like France, Austria, and other countries people launched movements for democratic rights. Suppress nationalities like the Germans, Italians, and Hungarians started movements for the establishment of nation-states. Ultimately democracy was established in France. Italy and Germany emerged as nation-states.

Moreover, the hopes and aspirations of the Christian nationalities in the Balkan region gave rise to complex problems. In 1854, the Crimean War broke out. The Treaty of Paris brought an end to it in 1856 but it failed to resolve the Eastern
Question.

In Russia also revolutionary forces were increasingly activities Czar AlexanderIl passed the Emancipation Statute which generated new socio-political and intellectual forces – this clash with the existing political framework of Czarist
absolutism.

The nationalist and democratic ideals of the French Revolution influenced the Greeks and they also started ‘their own struggle for freedom. The Greek struggle for independence began with the activities of secret societies. The Greeks ultimately severed themselves from Turkish domination and came to be recognized as an independent state.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas Very Short Answer Type :

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 1. Which countries constituted the Quadruple Alliance?
Answer: The Quadruple Alliance was concluded among England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia.

Question 2. Who was the President and Secretary of the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: Prince Metternich was the President and Von Gentz was the Secretary of the Congress of Vienna.

Question 3. What is the legacy of the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: The Vienna Congress introduced a new epoch and the germs of future development.

Question 4. Who was Polignac?
Answer: Polignac was the ultra-conservative minister of Charles X of France.

5. Who was the king of France when the July Revolution started in 1830?
Answer: Charles X, the younger brother of Louis XVI and Louis XVIII was the King of France when the July Revolution, of 1830 began.

Question 6. Who wrote ‘Organisation of Labour’?
Answer: Louis Blanc wrote ‘Organisation of Labour’. Its objectives were to organize labor organizations and fight for the right to work.

Question 7. Who popularised in France the maxim of ‘Right Work’?
Answer: Louis Blanc popularised the maxim of ‘Right to work’.

Question 8. Who said, “When France sneezes Europe catches a cold”?
Answer: Prince Metternich, the Prime Minister of Austria.

Question 9. Which year in the history of Europe is known as the Year of Revolutions?
Answer: In Europe, 1848 is known as the Year of Revolutions.

Question 10. Which country of Europe was known as “the Sickman of Europe”?
Answer: Turkey is known as “the Sickman of Europe”.

Question 11. Which was known as the most unnecessary war in the history of Europe?
Answer: Crimean war (1854-1856) is known as the most unnecessary war.

Question 12. “The die is cast and we have made history”- Who said this?
Answer: Count Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, said so. When Austria declared war upon Italy in 1859, Cavour said so because it was his personal triumph to make Austria an aggressor.

Question 13. Name the makers of Italian unification.
Answer: Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel II were the makers of the Italian unification.

Question 14. Name the Pope who helped to unite the Italian unification.
Answer: Pope Pius IX helped to unite Italian unification.

Question 15. What is the name of the Prussian Parliament?
Answer: Diet is the name of the Prussian Parliament.

Question 16. When was Bismarck appointed the Chancellor of Prussia?
Answer: In 1862 Bismarck was appointed the Chancellor of Prussia.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 17. Who said Germany was too narrow for Austria and Prussia?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck said that Germany was too narrow for Austria and Prussia.

Question 18. Which war is known as the Seven Weeks War?
Answer: Austro-Prussian war, of 1866 is known as the Seven Weeks War.

Question 19. With which war the battle of Sadowa or the battle of Koniggratz is associated?
Answer: The battle of Sadowa is associated with the Austro—Prussian war.

Question 20. When did the Franco-Prussian war break out? By which treaty did the war come to an end?
Answer: In 1870 the Franco-Prussian war broke out In 1871. The treaty of Frankfurt, came to an end.

Question 21. When did the Second Empire of France come to an end?
Answer: In 1871 the Second Empire of France came to an end.

Question 22. What were the most important results of the Franco-Prussian war?
Answer: The Franco-Prussian war laid out two important results. In Germany, Italy, and France completely undid the work of the Congress of Vienna.

Question 23. With which war the battle of Sedan is associated? What is its importance?
Answer:
Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871) :
The war helped to complete the unification of Germany.

Question 24. Who was the first Emperor of the United German Empire?
Answer: William I was the first Emperor of united Germany.

Question 25. Who was known as the Czar Liberator?
Answer: Czar Alexander II of Russia is known as the Czar Liberator.

Question 26. By which treaty was the Austro-Prussian war concluded?
Answer: Austro-Prussian war was concluded by the Treaty of Prague in 1866.

Question 27. Who wrote the novel ‘Fathers and sons’ which expressly defined the creed of Nihilism?
Answer: Turgenev’s ‘Fathers and sons’ expressly defined the creed of Nihilism.

Question 28. Who said, “Germany is a satiated power”?
Answer: Bismarck said that Germany is a satiating power.

Question 29. What was Bismarck’s attitude towards England?
Answer: Bismarck carefully kept England out of his European system.

Question 30. When was Bismarck, the Pilot of the German Empire, dropped?
Answer: In 1890.

Question 31. Who was known as the ‘Iron Chancellor’?
Answer: Bismarck.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 32. What was the ordained principle of Kaiser William II’s foreign policy?
Answer: Kaizer William II sought to make Germany a world power.

Question 33. Who inaugurated the new era of Welt Politik (World Policy) for Germany?
Answer: Kaiser William II inaugurated the new era of welt-Politik in Germany.

Question 34. What was the name of United Moldavia and Wallachia?
Answer: Rumania.

Question 35. What was the greatest demerit of the Treaty of Berlin of 1878?
Answer: The Treaty of Berlin (1878) ignored the sentiments of the people of Berlin.

Question 36. What are the modern ideals born of the French Revolution?
Answer: The modern ideals born of the French Revolution are nationalism, liberalism, and democracy.

Question 37. Which period is known as the Age of Metternich?
Answer: 1815-1848 is known as the Age of Metternich.

Question 38. Which dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy?
Answer: The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy.

Question 39. Name the King who was restored to the throne of France according to the ‘Principle of Legitimacy’.
Answer: The King who was restored to the throne of France according to the Principle of Legitimacy, was Louis XVIII.

Question 40. Who were the members of the Concert of Europe?
Answer: The members of the Concert of Europe were Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England.

Question 41. What was the objective of the Principle of Legitimacy of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The objective of the Principle of Legitimacy of the Vienna Congress was to bring back the original ruling dynasties which used to rule in different parts of Europe before the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Question 42. What was the objective of the Principle of Balance of Powers of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The objective of the Principle of Balance of Powers of the Vienna Congress was to reconstitute the map of Europe in such a way that one state could not beat another in the race for power.

Question 43. What was the objective of the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The objective of the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress was to reward those powers which played an important part in the defeat of Napoleon with
the possession of different territories.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 44. Name the countries which were benefitted from the Principle of Compensation.
Answer:
The countries which were benefitted from the Principle of Compensation were:
(1) Austria
(2) Russia
(3) Prussia and
(4) England.

Question 45. What is the ‘Concert of Europe’?
Answer: The Big Four–Austria, Prussia, England, and Russia devised a system known as the ‘Concert of Europe’ to maintain the political arrangement made in the Vienna
Congress and to ensure peace in Europe.

Question 46. Who were the Big Four at the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: The Big Four at the Congress of Vienna were Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England.

Question 47. When did the July Revolution break out in France?
Answer: The July Revolution broke out in France in 1830.

Question 48. Name the countries where the impact of the July Revolution was felt.
Answer: The impact of the July Revolution was felt in Germany, Belgium, Poland, Spain, Portugal, and England.

Question 49. Name the countries which were inspired by the success of the July Revolution.
Answer: The countries which were inspired by the success of the July Revolution were Belgium, Poland, Portugal, Spain, England, ‘Italy, and Germany.

Question 50. Name two leaders of the July Revolution.
Answer: Two leaders of the July Revolution were Thiers and Lafayette.

Question 51. Who issued the ‘July Ordinance and when?
Answer: The July Ordinance was issued by the French emperor Charles X in 1830 (25th July).

Question 52. Name the Bourbon king who was overthrown by the July Revolution in France.
Answer: The Bourbon king who was overthrown by the July Revolution in France was Charles X.

Question 53. Who was Polignac?
Answer: Polignac was the minister of the French King Charles X, who issued arbitrary ordinances like restricting the freedom of the press, diminishing the number of electors
and curbing the voting rights of the people.

Question 54. Which year is known as the ‘Year of Revolutions’ and why?
Answer: The year 1848 is known as the ‘Year of Revolutions’ because of the revolution which broke out in 1848 in France expedited national movements in 15 European
countries.

Question 55. What was the period of the ‘July Monarchy’?
Answer: The period of the July Monarchy was 1830-1848.

Question 56. Name the countries which were influenced by the February Revolution.
Answer: The countries that were influenced by the February Revolution were Germany, Italy, Austria, Hungary, Denmark, Netherlands, etc.

Question 57. In which year Louis Napoleon declared himself the ‘Emperor of France’?
Answer: In 1852 Louis Napoleon declared himself the Emperor of France.

Question 58. Which country stood in the way of unity and democracy in Italy?
Answer: Austria stood in the way of unity and democracy in Italy.

Question 59. Name the leaders who played the most important part in the unification of Italy.
Answer: The leaders who played the most important part in the unification of Italy were Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 60. Which treaty ended the Battle of Sadowa?
Answer: The Battle of Sadowa ended with the treaty of Prague. 5

Question 61. In which year and by whom was the Battle of Sedan fought?
Answer: The Battle of Sedan was fought in 1870 between Prussia and France.

Question 62. In which year and by whom was the Battle of Sadowa fought?
Answer: The Battle of Sadowa was fought in 1866 between Prussia and Austria.

Question 63. In which year and by whom was the treaty of Villafranca signed?
Answer: The treaty of Villafranca was signed in 1859 between Austria and France.

Question 64. Name the only state which was independent before the unification of Italy.
Answer: The only state which was independent before the unification of Italy was Piedmont-Sardinia.

Question 65. Name one secret society established during the Italian unification movement.
Answer: Carbonari was a secret society established during the Italian unification movement.

Question 66. Who established Young Italy?
Answer: Young Italy was established by Mazzini.

Question 67. What is Carbonari?
Answer: Carbonari was a secret society of Italy that aimed to unite Italy into a single state, achieve liberty and drive the Austrians out of Italy.

Question 68. When was the Italian unification completed?
Answer: The Italian unification was completed in 1870.

Question 69. Name the countries where the impact of the July Revolution was felt.
Answer: The impact of the July Revolution was felt in Belgium, Poland, Spain, Portugal, England, Italy, and Germany.

Question 70. What is ‘Pan-Germanism’?
Answer: ‘Pan-Germanism’ means the idea or sentiment of a united German people which developed in Germany under the influence of poets, philosophers, and historians like Bohmer, Fichte, Hegel, Hausser, etc.

Question 71. Who was the real architect of the unification of Germany?
Answer: The real architect of the unification of Germany was Bismarck.

Question 72. When was the Second Republic established in France?
Answer: Second Republic was established in France in 1848.

Question 73. Who became the emperor or ‘Kaiser’ after German unification?
Answer: The Prussian King William I became the emperor or Kaiser after German Unification.

Question 74. In which year was the treaty of Frankfurt signed?
Answer: The treaty of Frankfurt was signed in 1871.

Question 75. What is the ‘Confederation of the Rhine’?
Answer: Napoleon Bonaparte formed forty-nine states of the former three hundred states in Germany and inaugurated a federal administrative system in Germany known as the Confederation of the Rhine.

Question 76. Who followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’.

Question 77. Who was called the ‘Red Shirts’?
Answer: Garibaldi’s followers were called the Red Shirts.

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 78. Who was Count Benedetti?
Answer: Count Benedetti was the ambassador of the French King Napoleon III to the Prussian emperor William I.

Question 79. Who was the general of the Red Shirt volunteer force?
Answer: The general of the Red Shirt volunteer force was Garibaldi.

Question 80. What is the other name of the ‘Balkan’ region?
Answer: The other name of the Balkan region is Near East.

Question 81. Name some nationalities living in the ‘Balkan’ region.
Answer: Some nationalities living in the Balkan region were Greek, Serb, Romanian, Albanian, Bulgarian, etc.

Question 82. In which year and by whom was the Treaty of San Stephano signed?
Answer: The Treaty of San Stephano was signed in 1878 between Russia and Turkey.

Question 83. In which year and by which treaty did Turkey accept the independence of Greece?
Answer: Turkey accepted the independence of Greece through the Treaty of London in 1832.

Question 84. Why was the war between England, France, and Russia in 1854 known as the Crimean War?
Answer: The war between England, France, and Russia in 1854 was known as the Crimean War because it was fought in the Crimean peninsula in Southern Russia.

Question 85. When was the Crimean War fought?
Answer: The Crimean War was fought during 1854-56.

Question 86. Which region is known as the ‘Balkan’?
Answer: The ‘Balkan’ means the hilly region between the Aegean Sea and the Danube river.

Question 87. Name one socialist leader of Europe.
Answer: One socialist leader was Louis Blanc.

Question 88. What are the modern ideals born of the French Revolution?
Answer: The modern ideals born of the French Revolution are nationalism, liberalism, and democracy.

Question 89. Which period is known as the Age of Metternich?
Answer: 1815-1848 is known as the Age of Metternich.

Question 90. Who was the real architect of the unification of Germany?
Answer: The real architect of the unification of Germany was Bismarck.

Question 91. Name one socialist leader of Europe.
Answer: One socialist leader was Louis Blanc.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas 2 Marks Questions And Answers :

Question 1. Name some of the leading diplomats of Europe who met in Vienna.
Answer:

The leading diplomats who assembled at Vienna were Prince Metternich, the Prime Minister of Austria, Czar Alexander of Russia, Castlereagh, the Foreign Minister of England, and Talleyrand, the clever diplomat of France.

Question 2. What were the three guiding principles of the Congress of Vienna?
Answer:

The guiding principles of the Congress of Vienna were :

(1) Balance of Power
(2) Legitimacy and,
(3) Rewards to the victors at the expense of the vanquished.

Question 3. What arrangements did the Congress of Vienna do for Germany’s political settlement?
Answer: Germany was formed into a loose confederation of thirty-nine States whose affairs were to be conducted by a Federal Diet under the presidentship of Austria.

Question 4. What arrangements were made by the Congress of Vienna for the settlement of the Italian political problems?
Answer: In Italy, Austrian interests determined the territorial arrangements. Austria herself received Lombardy and Venice while rollers connected with the Austrian imperial family were restored to their thrones of Parma Madona and Tuscany. The Papal States were re-established. Naples was restored to the Bourbon king Ferdinand and Genoa was annexed to Sardinia. Thus Italy became a mere geographical expression.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 5. Why has the Congress of Vienna been harshly criticized?
Answer: The Congress of Vienna ignored the principles of nationalism and democracy. By its policy also the interests of the smaller States were sacrificed and the bigger ones benefitted.

Question 6. What arrangements were made to make Vienna Settlement permanent?
Answer: Two different organizations were formed to make the Vienna settlement permanent. The first was the Holy Alliance sponsored by Czar Alexander I of Russia, and the second was the Concert of Europe based upon the Quadruple Alliance of big four powers, viz. Russia, England, Prussia, and Austria.

Question 7. What was the nature of the Holy Alliance?
Answer: The Holy Alliance was not a treaty and so had no building force. It was politically useless because of its vagueness. Charity and love are not capable of being defined in diplomatic terms. The Holy Alliance was a hobby of Alexander and came to an end with his death in 1825.

Question 8. What is the importance of the Holy Alliance in the subsequent history of Europe?
Answer: The importance of the Holy Alliance lies in the fact that it had the germs of the idea of international cooperation for peace, which in future found expression in the international peace movement of the Hague Conference.

Question 9. What is the importance of the Concert of Europe? What was its aim?
Answer: The Concert of Europe was the first experiment in internationalism. Its aim was to maintain peace and order in Europe and check the revolutionary ideas.

Question 10. Whom did the Allies restore on the throne of France after the battle of Waterloo? How long did he rule in France?
Answer: After the battle of Waterloo the victorious Allies restored the rule of the Bourbon dynasty in France in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI. Louis
XVIII ruled in France from 1815 to 1824.

Question 11. How did Louis XVIII, the King of France want to rule his kingdom? What was the result?
Answer: Louis18 clearly realized that the restoration of the royal line did not mean the restoration of the Old Regime and that concessions must be made to the new spirit. He, therefore, granted a Charter to his people, ensuring them a Constitutional Government.

The Charter established a Parliament of two Houses a Chamber of Peers, appointed for life, and a Chamber of Deputies, elected by a very limited body of voters. The Constitution though falling short of the aspirations raised by the Revolution, was a liberal one, indeed more liberal than France had at any time enjoyed.

Question 12. What was the July Ordinance issued by Charles X ? What were its results?
Answer: At the instance of the reactionary Chief Minister, Polignac, Charles X issued four Ordinances on July 26, 1830. This Ordinance suspended the liberty of the press, dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, changed the electoral system, and reduced the number of voters. When the news of the Ordinance reached Paris, the people immediately broke out in revolt.

Question 13. What was the result of the July Revolution in France?
Answer: At the outbreak of the July Revolution Charles X fled and abdicated in favor of his grandson. But the people passed over his claims and set up a provisional Government with Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Louis Phillippe was offered the crown which he accepted under the title of the King of France.

Question 14. Indicate the time span of the July Monarchy. Who ruled during that time?
Answer: The July Monarchy ruled in France from July 1830 to February 1848. Louis Philippe ruled France in that period.

Question 15. To which dynasty did Louis Philippe belong? Why was he called ‘Citizen king’?
Answer: Louis Philippe belonged to the House of Orleans. As Louis Philippe was dependent on the middle class for support, the Orleanist Monarchy became a middle-class monarchy run on a limited franchise for the benefit of the middle class. The angered other parties in derision gave Louis the derisive sobriquet ‘Citizen King’.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 16. When did Socialism begin to appear in the political ideas of France? What was its immediate effect in France?
Answer: ‘Socialism’ bred from industrialism began to make headway in France during the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848). Socialism became a potent factor in the Revolution of 1848 which overthrew the Orlean Monarchy.

Question 17. What was the immediate cause of the French Revolution of 1848?
Answer: The immediate cause of the French Revolution of 1848 was the king’s refusal to allow any further extension of the franchise. Guizot, the Prime Minister of Louis Philippe, denied listening to any proposal of electoral reform. Theirs and his followers organized a series of reform banquets in order to stir up the people in favor of the extension of the franchise.

Guizot was dismissed by the king but the people were not satisfied and a riot broke out in Paris. Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to England and the Revolution was complete.

Question 18. When was the Second Republic of France formed? Who was the head of the Second Republic of France?
Answer: In 1848, after the February Revolution of France, the so-called Second Republic of France was formed. Lamartine headed the Second Republic of France.

Question 19. Name some of the leaders of France who brought a political change to France in 1848.
Answer: The leaders who brought a political change in France in 1848 are Ijunartine, Louis Blanc, Theirs, etc.

Question 20. Name the parties which opposed the Government of Louis Philippe.
Answer: Except for the Party of Constitutionalists, all the other political parties in France were against the accession of Louis Philippe. The Legitimists wanted a Bourbon Prince on the throne and considered Louis as a usurper, who belongs to the Or leans family.

The Bonapartists recalled the glories of Napoleon and had no love for a King whose foreign policy was timid and peaceful. His moderate policy and refusal to allow any further extension of popular influence estranged the Republicans. Moreover, there was another new force hostile to Louis Philippe. This was Socialism. Socialism became a potent factor in the Revolution of 1848.

Question 21. Which Monarchy was known as the July Monarchy? When did it come to an end?
Answer: The Monarchy established by Louis Philippe in France in 1830 was known as the July Monarchy. July Monarchy came to an end by the February Revolution of 1848.

Question 22. What were the repercussions of the July Revolution of France in Europe?
Answer: The July Revolution in Paris found its echo in many of the States of Europe. It was the signal and encouragement for widespread popular movements all over Europe and destroyed the whole structure created by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815.

The success of the Parisians in obtaining a Constitutional Government was a triumph for liberation and the voice of the people was everywhere on behalf of freedom and self—government in Belgium, Germany, Italy, Poland, and England.

Question 23. What was the main cause of the revolt in Belgium in 1830? What was its result?
Answer: The July Revolution in Paris awakened the first responsive echo in Belgium. The Belgians protested against their artificial union with Holland by the Congress of Vienna. As a result of the revolt of the Belgians, Belgium became a separate kingdom with Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as its king in 1831. The independence of Belgium is an important victory of the principle of nationality and was the first breach in the Vienna settlement, the first conspicuous example of the abandonment of the system of Metternich.

Question 24. What was the importance of the July Revolution (1830) in Europe?
Answer: The July Revolution of France (1830) was an event of resounding importance in Europe. It secured the independence of Belgium, established a Constitutional Monarchy in France, and helped the cause of Parliamentary reform in England.

Question 25. What was the result of the February Revolution in 1848?
Answer: The triumph of the democratic revolution in France in 1948 sent a thrill of hope throughout Europe and released the ’ ..tup feelings of liberalism everywhere. It was the signal for the widest -as Ad far-reaching popular movement all over Europe. It was so strong in Central-“Europe that for a time it swept everything before it and Prussia and Austria, bulwarks of absolutism, were shaken to their very foundations.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 26. Which period of Europe is called the “Era of Metternich” and why?
Answer: The period from 1815 to 1848 in the history of Europe is known as the “Era of Metternich” because his reactionary political ideals were predominant in the course of the history of the continent

Question 27. What do you know of the Frankfurt Parliament?
Answer:

Frankfurt Parliament

A National Parliament (Vor Parliament) was elected by universal alignment at Frankfurt in Germany in 1848 to draw up a Constitution for United Germany. Austria was excluded from it and Prussia was given a prominent position which showed the future trend of German politics and German unity of Prussia.

Question 28. Who promised to assume the leadership of the movements of Germany? Why did he refuse it later on?
Answer: Frederick William of Prussia promised to assume the leadership of the movements for a United Germany. The Constitution as framed by the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848 provided for a single hereditary emperor to rule over all of Germany and a Legislature of two Houses.

The Crown was offered to the Prussian King but Frederick William refused it. He refused it for two reasons: firstly, because it might lead to war with Austria which would not submit to the second position in Germany; and secondly, because he disliked the idea of receiving a Crown from a revolutionary assembly that had a doubtful right to make the offer.

Question 29. What is Zollverein? What is its importance?
Answer:

Zollverein

In 1818 on the initiative of Prussia was established the Zollverein or Customs Union by which Prussia and the neighboring States were included under one economic system based upon free trade. The members of the Union established free trade among themselves by removing their respective tariff walls and thus came to have a common fiscal policy.

By 1850 nearly all the States of Germany except Austria joined the Zollverein and Prussia found herself at the head of a comprehensive economic Union. The political value of solidarity of the economic interests of the German States was very great. It turned men’s eyes from Austria to Prussia and constituted a real preparation for German unity under Prussian leadership. The commercial union became a precursor of the political Union.

Question 30. What was the result of the political uprising in 1848 in Austria?
Answer:

Result of the political uprising in 1848 in Austria

The popular insurrection first broke out in Austria’s capital Vienna. There a turbulent mob of students and workingmen clashed with the imperial troops. At first shock, Metternich was compelled to flee to England. Emperor Ferdinand I was forced to grant a liberal Constitution guaranteeing freedom to the press, civil liberty, and Parliament. But when the popular insurrection started all over the Austria-Hungarian Empire, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his nephew Francis.

Question 31. What do you know of ‘Carbonari?
Answer:

Carbonari

Carbonari (‘burning charcoal’) was a secret political organization of Italy that fostered the ideal of nationalism and fomenting insurrections.

Question 32. Who founded Young Italy? What were its ideals?
Answer: In 1831 Mazzini established a society called Young Italy. God, the People, and Italy were the cries of the society; education and literary propaganda and, if necessary, revolution were its methods the conversion of an idea into a popular cause was its achievement.

Question 33. What do you know about Charles Albert?
Answer:

Charles Albert

Charles Albert, the king of Piedmont Sardina, declared war against Austria in 1848. But he was defeated at the battle of Novara in 1849. Sick at heart Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II. The defeat of Novara shattered the hopes of the Italians and marked the beginning of the reaction. Victor Emmanuel II ruled Italy from 1849 to 1878.

Question 34. What was the result of the Revolution of 1848?
Answer:

Result of the Revolution of 1848

The result of the revolutionary movements of 1848 was extremely disappointing to the liberals. Reaction triumphed everywhere, the old Government slipped back into the old grooves. But it should be noted that the revolution was not a total failure. The political earthquake of 1848 had shaken the foundation of autocracy all over Europe, and the succeeding generations were encouraged to strike effective blows at the tottering structure.

Question 35. What was the general nature of the Revolution of 1848?
Answer:

The general nature of the Revolution of 184

The Revolution of 1848 was distinctly a republican movement strongly colored by socialistic ideas. It was the joint product of political and economic causes.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 36. What do you know of Carlsbad Decrees? Who issued them?
Answer:

Carlsbad Decrees

In 1819 Metternich arranged a conference of German princes at Carlsbad where it was agreed to suppress liberal movements. The Conference passed a number of decrees by which the Press was put under strict censorship, the universities were placed under Government control and the student societies were suppressed. It was also forbidden to grant any Constitution inconsistent with the monarchical principle.

Question 37. What do you know of Hetairia Phalke?
Answer:

Hetairia Phalke

In the first quarter of the 19th century the Greeks, under the rule of the Turks, were touched by the new ideas of freedom which awakened their aspiration for national independence. In 1849 they founded a secret society known as the Philke Hetairia with the object of disseminating nationalist doctrines and fostering insurrection against the Turks.

Question 38. Why were Decemberists so-called?
Answer: In Russia, the turning point in relations between the monarchy and the nation came in 1825, with the so-called Decemberist Revolt. Before his death, Czar Alexander I intended that his younger brother Nicholas should succeed him, although Constantine was next in the line of succession. Thus, an absurd situation arose in which Nicholas at St. Petersburg proclaimed him Emperor, and Constantine declared himself Emperor at Warsaw.

For nearly several weeks in December 1825, the throne remained vacant. The secret societies seized the chance to stage a revolt against the army at St. Petersburg with the aim of summoning a national assembly. But the plotters had no clear plan or organization and had made adequate preparations. So, they were crushed with great severity. As the revolt took place in the month of December, it is known as Decemberist Revolt.

Question 39. Why did the Crimean war break out? By which treaty it came to an end?
Answer: The Crimean War broke out in 1854. It came to an end with the treaty of Paris in 1856.

Question 40. Why is the Crimean war called the watershed of European history?
Answer: The Crimean war occupies a peculiar place of importance in the history of ‘Europe. It re-opened the Eastern question and renewed the divergent interest of the powers in the Near East. What was more serious, it was the prelude to the most momentous developments of the nineteenth century.

Its events left a trail of consequences in the unification of Italy and Germany in the estrangement of Russia and Prussia. Hence, it has been remarked that the Crimean war was in a general sense the watershed of European history.

Question 41. Who proposed the partition of Turkey? What was British policy on this point?
Answer: Nicholas, the Czar of Russia, proposed something like a joint Anglo-Russian partition of the Turkish Empire. He suggested that England might have Egypt and Crete while Russia might occupy Constantinople, although not in proprietary right. England declined to fall in with the scheme of partition. The maintenance of the integrity of Turkey was the traditional policy of England and there was no desire to alter it.

Question 42. What was the prelude to the Crimean war?
Answer:

Prelude to the Crimean war

A quarrel broke out between the Latin monks and the monks of the Greek church ever the custody of the Holy places of Jerusalem. France had a traditional right to the guardianship of the Holy places. Czar Nicholas I, as the head of the Greek church, championed the cause of the Greek monks. Turkey attempted a compromise that satisfied neither side and it precipitated a crisis in the Turkish Empire in 1854.

Question 43. Why did Napoleon III, the French Emperor come to champion the cause of the Latin monks?
Answer: Napoleon III wanted to signalize his accession to the French throne with a spectacular foreign policy that was likely to reconcile the French people to his rule. A war with Russia in support of the Latin monks would suit the purpose nicely.

It would please the clerical party in France, whose support Napolean III considered essential to his purpose. Moreover, it would maintain the prestige of France in the East, which had sunk low owing to the timid policy of Louis Philippe. Above all, a victory over Russia would gratify French national pride by avenging the humiliation of Moscow.

Question 44. What were the political ideas of Mazzini?
Answer:

Political ideas of Mazzini

Mazzini was the prophet of Italian unity. Mazzini was an idealist. This belief he communicated to the people with a religious ardor which made its appeal irresistible. Italy united, and republican was the all-absorbing passion and ideal. Mazzini stirred the people and kindled their enthusiasm for greater success.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 45. Name the countries which joined Turkey against Russia in the Crimean war.
Answer: The names of the countries that joined the war for Turkey were England and France. After the outbreak of war Piedmont-Sardinia also joined Turkey.

Question 46. What is ‘Vienna Note’?
Answer:

‘Vienna Note’

When the dispute between France and Russia over the Holy places in Jerusalem precipitated a crisis in the Turkish Empire in 1854, diplomacy made a last attempt to prevent the outbreak of hostilities. England, France, Prussia, and Austria met at Vienna and drew up a declaration known as the Vienna Note. It asserted the need of protecting the Christian subjects in Turkey. The Note was presented both to Russia and Turkey. Russia accepted the Note but Turkey rejected it and war became irresistible.

Question 47. What were the most important results of the Crimean war?
Answer:

The most important results of the Crimean war were:

(1) Liberation of Italy;
(2) Rupture of good feeling between Russia and Austria and,
(3) Good understanding between Prussia and Russia.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 48. What are the effects of the Crimean war in Russia?
Answer:

The effects of the Crimean war in Russia

The Crimean war affected Russia deeply. At home, it led to a series of reforms carried out by Czar Alexander II, the most important of which was the emancipation of the Serfs. Abroad it gave a new turn to Russian expansion. The expansion checked in Europe was transferred to Central Asia where she began to push forward with great strides.

Question 49. What do you know of the Compact of Plombieres?
Answer:

The Compact of Plombieres

In 1858 Napoleon III of France and Count Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia met at Plorilbieres, wherein a secret meeting the fate of Italy was decided. By the compact of Plombieres, it was agreed that Napoleon III would join Sardinia in the event of war with Austria and make her free from the Alps to the Adriatic. But at the price of his aid Napoleon III was to receive Savoy and Nice.

Question 50. What do you know of the treaty of Villafranca?
Answer:

Treaty of Villafranca

Amid the Austro-Italian War (1859) Napoleon 3 suddenly called a halt and without consulting his allies, arranged the terms of treaties with Austria at Villafranca (1859). Their terms were ratified by the Treaty of Zurich. By the terms of the treaty of Villafranca, it was settled that Austria was to cede Lombardy to Sardinia but retain Venetia.

The rulers of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena who have been expelled by their subjects on the outbreak of war were to be restored and an Italian Federation was to be formed under the Presidency of the Pope.

Question 51. What do you know of the March of the Thousand?
Answer:

March of the Thousand

In 1960 Garibaldi mailed to Sicily, leading his famous expedition of the Thousand. Within three months Garibaldi was the master of the island and proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emanuel II. Never had such a rapid conquest by such a handful of men been known in the pages of history.

Question 52. Whom do you regard as mainly responsible for the unification of Italy?
Answer: Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, fathomed clearly the political situation of Europe, and by three diplomatic masters strokes he completed his mission; first by sending 17000 soldiers to the Crimean war, second by signing the Treaty of Plombieres with Napoleon III and third by assisting secretly Garilbaldi’s venture.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 53. When did United Italy occupy Rome?
Answer: During the Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871), after the defeat of France in the battle of Sedan, French troops withdrew from Rome and Victor Emmanuel II seized the opportunity to occupy Rome which became the capital of united Italy. Before the occupation of Rome by united Italy Turin was the capital of united Italy.

Question 54. How was the Italian unification completed?
Answer: Italy’s unification was completed by Mazzini’s moral enthusiasm, Garibaldi’s sword, Cavour’s diplomacy, and Victor Emmanuel II’s tact and good sense.

Question 55. Who was known as the ‘Man of Blood and Iron’ and why?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, was known as the ‘Man of Blood and Iron’ because he believed that not by speeches and resolutions of the majority are the great questions of the day were to be decided but by the policy of ‘blood and iron’, which means the use of arms. For this, his policy is known as the blood and iron policy.

Question 56. Name the war after which Italy got Venetia and Rome. What were the effects of the Austro-Prussian War on Italy?
Answer: By the terms of the Treaty of Prague after the battle of Sadowa in 1866, Italy had acquired Venetia and thereby advanced one step further towards her complete union. Thus she got rid of her greatest enemy and was within sight of the national goal—the acquisition of Rome which she occupied after the battle of Sedan.

Question 58. In which year, they enacted the Edict of emancipation?
Answer: In 1861 Tsar Alexander II of Russia, better known as the Czar Liberator, promulgated the Edict of Emancipation. By it, serfdom was abolished throughout the Russian empire. This ended the legal jurisdiction of the lords over the serfs who became personally free.

Question 59. What were the main reforms of Alexander II of Russia?
Answer:

The major reforms of Alexander II were:

(1) Emancipation of the serfs,
(2) Creation of local councils or Zemstvos and
(3) Radical reorganization of the law courts.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 60. Why was the Czar Liberator Alexander II a target of the attack of Nihilists?
Answer: The Nihilists expected much more liberal reforms from Czar Alexander II of Russia. But he failed to satisfy them and, therefore, he became their target.

Question 61. What were Zemstvos? How were they formed?
Answer:

Zemstvos

District Local Councils of Russia created by the reforms of Czar Alexander II were known as the Zemstvos. These were formed by the representatives elected by the people representing all classes of the community.

Question 62. What is Mir? What were its functions?
Answer:

Mir

Mir is a village community that, according to the Edict of Emancipation promulgated by Czar Alexander II of Russia, was to parcel the lands of the village among its resident peasants.

Question 63. What is Nihilism? What were the motives of Nihilism?
Answer:

Nihilism

The followers of Nihilism are called Nihilists. Nihilism is a spirit of absolute negation and of barren criticism. In short, Nihilism would not bow before any authority and would not accept any principle unproved. They wanted to find a state of reason.

Question 64. Who wrote ‘Napoleonic Ideas’? What were its contents?
Answer: In 1839 Louis Napoleon, (Napoleonic II] of France) wrote and published‘Napoleonic Ideas’ Napoleonic Ideas maintained that the great Napoleon stood for order, authority, religion, the welfare of the people at home, and national glory abroad. Napoleonic Ideas proved a very useful agency of propaganda and served to discredit the dull mediocrity of the Orleanist regime of Louis Philippe.

Question 65. When was the battle of Sedan fought? What was its result?
Answer: The battle of Sedan was fought in 1870-1871. In this battle, France was totally defeated and as a result, the unification of Germany was completed. The Prussian King became the Emperor of the United German Empire.

Question 66. What is Kultur kampf ?
Answer:

Kultur kampf

Within a short time after the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck became involved in a protracted struggle with the Catholic church. This conflict has been dignified by the name of Kultur Kampf, which meant struggle for civilization. It arose from the almost inevitable opposition of the Catholic church to the German empire in which Protestant Prussia was supreme.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 67. What is the May Laws? What were its repercussions?
Answer:

May Laws

In 1873, Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany passed the May Laws which enjoined compulsory civil marriage and declared that all candidates for the priesthood should be German citizens educated in German public schools and universities and that no bishop or priest might be appointed without notification to the Government which reserved the right to veto the appointment Pope Pius IX declared the laws null and void and the Catholics offered an obstinate resistance to this policy of persecution.

Question 68. How did Bismarck intend to improve the social condition of working men? What was its importance?
Answer: By slow and gradual degrees Bismarck instituted a comprehensive scheme of insurance against the vicissitudes of life, such as compulsory insurance against accidents, sickness, old age, etc. The policy is known as State socialism and it was Bismarck’s chief contribution to the solution of the social question of the time. In this respect, he was a pioneer.

Question 69. What were the main objectives of the foreign policy of Bismarck?
Answer: Bismarck sought to maintain peace in order to consolidate his newly created empire. So he tried to isolate France and maintain a friendship with Austria and Russia.

Question 70. What do you know of Dreikaiserbund or Three Emperors’ League? When did Russia withdraw from the League?
Answer: Bismarck arranged a meeting in 1872 between the Emperors of Austria, Russia, and Germany in Berlin. The meeting of the three Emperors resulted in the entente known as the Dreikaiserbund or the Three Emperors’ League. It was not a treaty of the alliance but an announcement to the world of the intimate and cordial relations between the three powers.

Though not a treaty, the political significance of the Dreikaiserbund was important. It meant that Austria had forgiven Sadowa and accepted the exclusion from Germany and she no longer mediated revenge. At the time of the Berlin Treaty (1878), Germany showed special care for the interest of Austria and Russia left Dreikaiserbund in disgust.

Question 71. What was the cause of conflict between Kaiser William II and Bismarck?
Answer:

The cause of conflict between Kaiser William II and Bismarck

The cause of conflict between Kaiser William II and Bismarck was really one for power, the question being whether the Hoheuzollem dynasty or Bismarck should rule. As Bismarck declined to accede to the Emperor’s order, he was forced out of office in 1890. Thus fell the ‘Iron Chancellor’, undoubtedly one of the greatest but one of the least attractive men of the century.

Question 72. Could Bismarck, a believer in the policy of “blood and iron”, maintain it all through?
Answer: After the unification of Germany in 1871, Bismarck abandoned the policy of blood and iron and mainly followed a policy of peace and appeasement to maintain the change in the political system of Europe already made.

Question 73. What do you know of the Treaty of San Stefano, 1871?
Answer:

Treaty of San Stefano, 1871

The Treaty of San Stefano, which Russia forced upon Turkey, practically decreed the dissolution of the Turkish Empire. According to the treaty, the Sultan of Turkey was to recognize the independence of Serbia and Montenegro. But the most striking feature of the treaty was the creation of Big Bulgaria which was to be an autonomous State tributary to Turkey and was to extend from the Danube to the Aegean and from the Black sea to Albania. It was revised by the treaty of Berlin, in 1878.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 74. What do you know of the Treaty of Berlin?
Answer:

Treaty of Berlin

The extension of Russian influence in the Balkans was prejudicial to England’s interest and so she demanded a revision of the Treaty of San Stefano by a Congress of European powers.

The Congress met at Berlin in 1878 by which the following arrangements were made :

(1) Montenegro, Serbia, and Rumania were declared independent of Turkey
(2) The Big Bulgaria of the Treaty of San Stefano was divided into two parts
(3) Austria was allowed to administer Bosnia and Herzegovina
(4) England secured the control of Cyprus and,
(5) The Sultan of Turkey in his turn, promised to protect his Asiatic subjects.

Question 75. Who played the role of ‘honest broker’ in the time of the Berlin Treaty?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck played the role of the honest broker at the time of the conclusion of the Berlin Treaty.

Question 76. What did Napoleon do to unify Italy?
Answer: Before the conquest of Napoleon Italy was divided into small petty kingdoms, mostly ruled by foreign rulers. When Napoleon conquered Italy he united the different provinces of Italy and enforced his laws known as Code Napoleon. He drove away the feudal lords and built roads to unite different parts of Italy.

Question 77. What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Legitimacy?
Answer: According to the Principle of Legitimacy, the new king Louis XVIII of the Bourbon dynasty ascended the French throne and the House of Orange was restored to the throne of Holland. The House of Savoy was restored to the kingdom of Piedmont in Italy and the Pope was restored to his papal kingdom. The rulers of small kingdoms overthrown by Napoleon were also brought back to their respective territories.

Question 78. What were the main weaknesses of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The system built at Vienna Congress (1815) did not last long.

Its main weaknesses were :

(1) It completely ignored the will of the people. The people did not forget the lessons of the French Revolution and demanded that the Government should be formed so as to derive its right from the will of the governed.

(2) Moreover, in some countries like Germany and Italy, people who spoke the same language and were members of the same nationality were compelled to live in separate states into which the countries were artificially divided.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 79. What led to the summoning of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor, in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered. So, the leaders who had played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met in Vienna (1815) to reconstruct the political map of Europe devastated by Napoleonic warfare.

Question 80. Who first protested against the system of 1815 and why?
Answer: The first protest against the system of 1815 came from the youths and students of Germany. They wanted to overthrow the system, according to which the country was divided into a number of separate states. They also resented the cruel laws under which they suffered.

Question 81. What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Balance of Powers?
Answer: In order to ensure that peace prevailed in all of Europe, it was decided at the Vienna Congress that the power of different countries of Europe should be balanced so that no country could become powerful enough to threaten another country. France was responsible for disturbing the peace of Europe.

Therefore, it was necessary to control her power. Keeping in view the idea of permanent peace in Europe, the power of Bavaria, Holland, Saxony, Sardinia, and Prussia was increased.

Question 82. What was the ‘Metternich System’?
Answer:

‘Metternich System’

From the year 1815 to 1848, the Austrian Minister Metternich was the most commanding personality in Europe. He was the central figure of European diplomacy. He represented reaction in its extreme form and was the enemy of both democracy and nationalism. His policy was the maintenance of the status quo keeping things as they were.

Hence he set himself to resist all demands for reforms, all struggles for national independence, and all aspirations for self-government. He aimed at making Europe go back to the condition prevailing before 1789.

Question 83. What were the four ordinances issued by Charles X in 1830?
Answer:

The four ordinances issued by Charles X in 1830 were:

(1) Suspending the liberty of the press
(2) Dissolving the Chamber of Deputies
(3) Changing the electoral system
(4) Ordering fresh elections.

Question 84. What do you mean by ‘July Monarchy’?
Answer:

‘July Monarchy’

Louis Philippe was nominated by the French Parliament to be the constitutional monarch of France in 1830. His monarchy is also known as the ‘July Monarchy’ because of its installation as a result of the Revolution that took place in the month of July.

Question 85. Why is the period between 1815 to 1848 known as the ‘Era of Metternich’?
Answer: Metternich was the most influential man in Europe from 1815 to 1848. After the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte in the Battle of Waterloo, Metternich became the central figure not only in the politics of Austria but in the politics of the whole of Europe. Owing to his unlimited influence, the period of 34 years (1815-1848) is called the ‘Age of Mettermich’ in the history of Europe.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 86. What was the condition of Italy before unification?
Answer:

Italy, before unification, was a divided country.

(1) Besides Piedmont and the island of Sardinia, which were ruled by an Italian king in the north, the different parts of Italy were occupied by one or the other country.
2) Central Italy was ruled by the Pope, who was the head of the Church as well as of the Roman empire.
(3) Austria occupied the northern part of Italy.
(4) The southern part of Italy which included Naples and the island of Sicily was under the rule of the King of Naples.
(5) Besides, many smaller parts of Italy were ruled by the princes of Austria.

Question 87. What was ‘Young Italy’?
Answer:

‘Young Italy’

Joseph Mazzini was an inspiring leader of Italy. He founded a party known as Young Italy in 1832. He had immense faith in the power and strength of the Italian youths. Young men up to the age of forty could be its members.

Question 88. What were the wars waged by Bismarck for the unification of Germany?
Answer: Bismarck waged three wars for the unification of Germany. These were the Danish war (1864); Austro-Prussian War (1866) and Franco-Prussian War (1870).

Question 89. What was the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’?
Answer:

Policy of ‘Blood and Iron’

According to Bismarck, the greatest obstacle to German unity was Austria. He used to say that the greatest question of the day would be decided not by speeches and majority resolutions but by a policy of ‘blood and iron’. His motto was to oust Austria from Germany if possible by diplomacy, if necessary by ‘blood and iron’ or war.

Question 90. What is Phalke Hetaira?
Answer:

Phalke Hetaira

The Greeks were under the subjugation of Turkey and they fought for independence. The struggle of the Greeks originated in the activities of the Phalke Hetaira (a secret society for friendly brotherhood) formed in Odesa (now in Ukraine) in 1814. Its main object was to spread the doctrine of liberty and expel the Turks from Europe. They aimed to revive the old Greek empire of the east.

Question 91. Why was the Ottoman empire so named?
Answer: During the period between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries Turkey was a dominating power. The Turkish empire included vast areas of Europe and Africa and was known as the Ottoman empire after the name of one of her Amirs, Othman.

Question 92. What were the provisions of the Treaty of Adrianople?
Answer: Russia defeated Turkey in the Battle of Navarino and forced the Treaty of Adrianople on Turkey in 1829. According to the terms of this treaty, Turkey recognized the independence of Greece. Russia got Wallachia and Moldavia. Russia also acquired commercial and political rights in some territories in Asia.

Question 93. Did Czar Alexander II really liberate the serfs?
Answer: Czar Alexander 2 passed the ‘Emancipation Statute’ in 1861 which abolished serfdom in Russia and came to be known as ‘Czar the liberator’. However, in practice, the peasants were not liberated. The ownership of land was denied to them and was vested in the hands of ‘mirs’. The serfs were subjected to the village mirs instead of the lords who exploited them in various ways.

Question 94. Which period is known as the ‘Age of Conferences’? What were the conferences held during this period?
Answer: The period between 1815-1825 is called the ‘Age of Conferences’ in the history of Europe.

Five Conferences were held during this period. These were :

(1) Aix-Ia-Chapelle (1818)
(2) Troppau (1820)
(3) Laibach (1822)
(4) Verona (1822)
(5) St. Petersburg (1825)

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 95. What is the importance of the July Revolution of 1830?
Answer:

Importance of the July Revolution of 1830

The July Revolution of 1830 is one of the most important events in the history of France. From the following facts, it can be proved that the July

Revolution was an event of utmost importance :
(1)After -the July Revolution, a constitutional monarchy was established in France under Louis Philippe in place of the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons.
(2) Before the July Revolution, the aristocracy and the clergy of France used to enjoy unlimited rights and privileges. However, after the July Revolution, all these classes were deprived of their privileges.

Question 96. How was Rammohan Roy influenced by the July Revolution?
Answer: The July Revolution of 1830 in France bore a rich legacy for the people of the world during the 19th and 20th centuries. This was because the ideals of liberty, equality, liberalism, and democracy became popular among the people. These ideals spread rapidly from France to other countries of the world. Rammohan Roy, the ‘first modern man of India’ was greatly influenced by the July Revolution. He took an intense interest in the July Revolution which he viewed as a triumph of liberty.

He celebrated the success of the July Revolution in France. He was an internationalist and supported the cause of freedom everywhere. Deeply influenced by the ideals of the Revolution Rammohan Roy thought of monarchy and its absolutism as great evils.

Question 97. What was the Frankfurt Parliament?
Answer:

Frankfurt Parliament

The national leaders of German established a Parliament at frankfurt in Germany in 1815 whose members when elected on the basis of a universal adult franchise. The main function of this Parliament was to frame a constitution for Germany to achieve political unity and liberty and establish a popular government in place of the government of absolute monarchy.

According to the decisions of the Frankfurt Parliament, the crown of a united Germany was offered to Frederick William. But he refused this offer. His view was that he should not receive the crown as a gift from the representatives of the people. He believed in the unification of Germany through sheer force.

Question 98. Which treaty was concluded after the Crimean War? What were the provisions of the treaty?
Answer: The Treaty of Paris (1856) was concluded after the Crimean War (1854).

According to the provisions of the treaty

(1) England, France, and Austria admitted Turkey to the European family of states.
(2) The Sultan of Turkey promised to improve the condition of the Christians living in Turkey.
(3) Russia and Turkey returned the conquered provinces to each other.
(4) Russia promised not to interfere in the internal affairs of Turkey.

Question 99. How did the Crimean War lay the foundation for the unification of Italy?
Answer: The Crimean War (1854) laid the foundation for the unification of Italy. Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont, was a great diplomat. He wanted to unify Italy but, at the same time, he knew that Italy could not be unified without driving out Austria from Italy and that was quite impossible without foreign help.

He wanted to put the Italian question on an international platform. He, therefore, sent his soldiers to the Crimean War in support of the Allies. He soon achieved success in his object when he was invited to the Treaty of Paris. He succeeded in gaining the sympathy of the Allies.

Question 100. What is the significance of the Greek War of Independence?
Answer:

The Greek war of Independence is a landmark in the history of Europe.

(1) It showed that the resolutions of the Congress of Vienna were impractical and that national forces could not be checked by reactionary guiding principles.
(2) The Greek War of Independence was a great blow to the Metternich system.
(3) The European powers were attracted to the near east for the first time.
(4) They felt that each had a common interest in the region. They also felt the need to free the Christian states from oppressive Turkish rule.

Question 101. How would you criticize the Emancipation Statute of 1861?
Answer:

The Emancipation Statute of 1861 passed by Alexander II, the Czar of Russia, was criticized on the following grounds :

(1) The nobles resented the loss of land. The Act also deprived them of the services of the serfs.
(2) The edict did not fulfill the expectations of the serfs. The ownership of land was denied to them and was vested in the hands of ‘mirs’.
(3) The serfs were subjected to the village mirs instead of the lords.
(4) The annual installment of redemption money payable to the Government by the serfs in addition to other taxes put a heavy burden on them.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas 4 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Why was there a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals after 1815?
Answer: The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor, in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered. So the leaders who played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met at Vienna (1815) which completely ignored the will of the people.

The people did not forget the lessons of the French Revolution and demanded that the Government should be formed so as to derive its right from the will of the governed. Moreover, in some countries like Italy and Germany, people who spoke the same language and were members of the same nationality were compelled to live in separate states into which these countries were artificially divided.

Thus the aspirations of the people were twofold :
(1) democratic or liberal which aimed at winning the people the right to participate in the Government, and
(2) nationalist which was the outcome of the people’s desire to form themselves into a unified state. As a result, there was a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals after 1815.

Question 2. What do you know as ‘Ems Telegram’?
Answer:

Ems Telegram: The French King sent his ambassador Count Benedetti to the Prussian Emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohen Colle. the dynasty would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain the Prussian Emperor William. I was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refuses to make such a promise to Benedetti. A repo no the whole matter Was sent to Bismarck by telegram (13th July 1870). Known as 5my Telegram in European history.

Change in a telegram by Bismarck: Bismarck immediately found an opportunity to read his ‘Ems Telegram’, Shortening the text of the telegram on Purpose, Bismarck public the same in the next day’s paper. As a result of the change of words effected by Bismarck, the whole meaning of the telegram stood changed beyond recognition. The published matter appeared to indicate that the French ambassador, Benedetti had been insulted by the Prussian Emperor.

Consequence: This infuriated the Frenchmen and a strong public opinion was created in France Fora a war with Prussia. When France declared war against Prussia on 15th July 1870, it was Bismarck’s diplomacy that carried the day. Bismarck was always ready for the fray, he was just seeking an opportunity. As an aggressor, again France could not secure the support of any European power. But Prussia with the help and cooperation of Italy and Austria was able to resist the French attack. The battle that followed between France and Prussia in 1870 is known in history as the Battle of Sedan.

Question 3. “The Vienna Treaty was a reasonable and statesmanlike settlement.” Write in support of the Vienna settlement. Or, In what ways was the Vienna Congress successful?
Answer:

“The Vienna Treaty was a reasonable and statesmanlike settlement.”

It is generally said that “The Congress of Vienna made mistakes both of omission and commission”.In spite of the mistakes,

This conference proved very useful in the following ways:

(1) It was the first occasion when the representatives of almost all the countries of Europe gathered to solve international problems.
(2) It saved Europe from the continental wars for a period of about forty years. No war was fought for about 40 years, i.e., 1815-1856.
(3) It abolished the inhuman system of slavery. The diplomats passed a resolution and made an appeal to abolish slavery.
(4) Thus it may be concluded that although the Vienna Congress committed many mistakes yet it is true that it was “an honest attempt to prevent future war and the best that could have been derived in 1815.”

Question 4. What decisions were taken regarding France at the Vienna Congress (1815)?
Answer:

The following decisions were taken regarding France at the Vienna Congress (1815).

(1) The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy. Louis XVIII of the Bourbon dynasty was placed on the throne of France.
(2) France was asked to pay the war expenses amounting to seventy million francs.
(3) 150,000 soldiers of the allied countries would stay in France till the full payment of the war expenses had been made.
(4) France was to go back to her boundaries as in 1789 and sacrifice all lands conquered by Napoleon.
(5) States like Holland, Piedmont, Prussia, and Austria bordering France were strengthened so that France would moe be able to disturb the European order in future years.
(6) France was required to restore all the historical artifacts and works of art which Napoleon had brought to France from different parts of Europe.

Question 5. What was the contribution of Mazzini to the Italian unification movement?
Answer:

The contribution of Mazzini to the Italian unification movement

Mazzini was considered the prophet of the Italian movement for unification. He was the founder of the Young Italy movement. He founded a party known as Young Italy in 1832. He had immense faith in the power and strength of the Italian youths. Young men up to the age of forty could be its members.

The objectives of Young Italy were as follows :

(1) Italy should be unified as one nation.
(2) Austria should be driven out of Italy.
(3) Republic should be established in Italy.
(4) In the war against Austria foreign help. was not necessary.
(5) Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only. The mass uprising organized by the Young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure due to a lack of organization and a plan of action among the rebels. His greatest contribution was that he could make the Italians realize that it was possible to have the dream of the unification of Italy materialized.

Question 6. What were the main objectives of the Quadruple Alliance?
Answer:

The Allied powers — Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia signed a document in 1815 which was called the ‘Quadruple Alliance’.

Their main objectives were :

(1) To unitedly oppose the attempts of Napoleon and his descendants to grab the throne of France
(2) To take united action, if necessary, in order to prevent the growth of the spirit of revolution in the European countries.
(3) To strictly implement the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in all countries of Europe.
(4) To make united attempts to maintain peace and order in Europe.

Question 7. Give an account of ‘the February Revolution in France (1848).
Answer:

The February Revolution in France

Louis Philippe. came to the throne of France on 30th July 1830. After coming to the throne of France, Louis Philippe introduced some liberal reforms. He introduced the freedom of the press and declared France to be a secular state. He could not satisfy the different political parties of France and failed to keep pace with their ideals and aspirations.

Popular discontent gradually increased and a movement under the leadership of Thiers started. People demanded the end of the monarchy in France. Guizot, the Prime Minister was not in favor of any administrative reforms. As the popular agitation took a serious turn, Guizot was dismissed from office. An armed Clash took place on 23rd February in front of the house of the deposed Minister Guizot in which many agitators were killed. This happened in the month of February and came to be known as the February Revolution. Louis Philippe abdicated and France was declared a ‘Republic’.

Question 8. Explain the concept of the nation-state.
Answer:

The concept of the nation-state

The emergence of nation-states brought in a new life force.in the political life of the world. It had its beginning in Europe in the modern period. Nationalism, however, was a consequence of the French Revolution and Napoleonic warfare in Europe.

Nation-State: When a group of people living in a particular geographical area, speaking the same language combine together as ‘one people’, distinct from others, under a powerful: king, a nation-state may be said to have developed. Various factors account for the growth of nation-states.

(1) In the middle ages the powerful feudal lords weakened the kings by limiting their powers. Some of the contemporary monarchs tried to control the feudal lords but they failed miserably. Due to the decay of feudalism towards the end of the middle ages, the feudal lords were no longer able to oppose the power of the kings. Thus was possible the emergence of nation-states.

(2) The Christian church which earlier opposed royal power now became a supporter of a powerful monarchy. By defending the royal power the church helped the growth of nation-states.

(3) Support of the middle class to the kings was another important factor in the growth of nation-states. The financial support of the wealthy middle class made the kings more and more powerful.

(4) The aforesaid causes jointly helped in giving rise to a number of nation-states under powerful kings.

(5) By uprooting feudalism and weakening the power of the church politically independent nation-states paved the way for a new modern political system. The beginning of nationalism and the Divine Right of kingship (or absolute monarchy) dates from such times.

(6) The first two nation-states under strong monarchies were England and France.

Question 9. Explain the term nationalism and its development in modern Europe.
Answer:

Nationalism: All over the world political life is commonly taking place in the form of nationalism. Yet historians on nationalism like C.J.H. Hayes and Hans Kohn admit that no satisfactory single definition of nationalism is possible. Generally speaking, nationalism is the sense of unity felt by people who share the same history, language, and culture.

Nationalism was the root cause behind it and provided fuel to many of the struggles for unification as also as independence. In the nineteenth century, nationalism became more intense for the people who had already become united like the British, French, Spaniards, and others.

(1) Factors Helping Nationalism: The development of national consciousness or nationalism took place mainly due to absolute monarchy. The monarch became the symbol of national unity and independence. It was around the institution of monarchy that nationalism accumulated. Besides, the rise of national patriotism was also reflected in the rise of vernacular literature.

(2) Emergence of Modern Nationalism: The period of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars was particularly fruitful for the evolution of modern nationalism in Europe. The French Revolution united all classes of people and inspired loyalty in them toward the country.

Hayes has pointed out that a sudden spurt of nationalism was one of the most impressive features of the French Revolution. During that time new symbols of nationalism were created in France. The Frenchmen wore liberty caps and, equipped with primitive weapons, rushed to the war front. Troops from different parts of the country sang a new hymn of freedom, La Marseillaise that later on became the national anthem of France. ,

(3) Napoleon Bonaparte and Nationalism: In the process of empire building, the French troops led by Napoleon invaded the different countries of Europe. The people whose countries had been defeated and annexed started to feel the emotion of nationalism. Napoleon was not a believer in nationalism. Yet he had raised the banner of nationalism and so he led the French army to conquer countries one after another.

In fact, the Napoleonic Empire was built by extinguishing the liberties of many peoples. Not only that, by creating a new unified state for the Italians, Poles, and some of the Germans, Napoleon unintentionally inspired nationalism amongst them. After the downfall of Napoleon, the reorganization of Europe under the Vienna Settlement didn’t give much emphasis on the newborn idea of nationalism.

Question 10. What were the aspirations of the people of Europe after 1815?
Answer:

Aspirations of the Peoples of Europe After 1815: The French Revolution and Napoleon had a tremendous influence on the minds of the people of Europe. People cherished the ideas of democracy and nationalism. But both nationalism and democracy were given a setback due to the arrangements made in the Vienna Congress. The people landed in a world of repressive autocrats. In the years following 1815, the aspirations of the people were mainly twofold—nationalist and democratic. The people who were yet to achieve unity were enthusiasts and felt happiness by the very hope of it.

The popular aspirations turned towards unity or independence. Germany and Italy are two such examples. In countries where national unity and independence had already been achieved, the people’s struggles were directed toward the achievement of democratic principles and institutions. France, Spain, Russia, and England are the countries that belonged to the second type.

Question 11. What were the objectives of the Metternich system?
Answer:

The Metternich System: As the Vienna Congress had vanquished the principle of nationalism, its effect was bound to be temporary. Yet Metternich, the Chancellor of Austria, through his ‘system’ or arrangement, commonly known as the Metternich System sought to give permanence to the settlement made in the Vienna Congress.

The objectives of the ‘system’ were:

Preservation of the arrangements made in the Vienna Congress; Refrainment from Liberalism and Nationalism; and Preservation of the monarchy.

(1) As a believer in monarchy, Metternich considered monarchy as the only natural form of Government. According to him, only the presence of a king ruling at the length of the society could guarantee social order. Alongside preserving the system of monarchy Metternich also took steps to prevent the growth of the liberal and nationalist ideas released by the French Revolution.

(2) Metternich devised the Vienna Congress to convince the big powers that there was a revolutionary conspiracy in Europe against the monarchical system and he succeeded in it. This amounted to a threat to the existence of monarchical supremacy.

(3) Metternich formed a Quadruple Alliance of the big powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England) at the Vienna Congress. Thus, he virtually built up a ‘police system’. The intention was to oversee the preservation of the monarchical predominance and prevention of the spread of the ideas of liberalism and nationalism.

Question 12. What was the importance of the February Revolution?
Answer:

Importance of the February Revolution: The February Revolution was successful in the same matters. Its most important consequence was that it was finally successful in overthrowing the reactionary Metternich System. The System had been silencing the waves of nationalism all over Europe since 1815.

The Revolution of 1848 also proved that ideas couldn’t be destroyed easily. The forces of liberalism and nationalism released by the French Revolution worked their way through the artificial iron shell with which the conservative diplomats kept it covered for a time.

In Germany and Italy, the Revolution of 1848 unified the people and deepened nationalist sentiments. In Germany, the liberals summoned a national assembly at Frankfurt, elected on the basis of adult suffrage. The Foundation of the Frankfurt Parliament was just the beginning of the greater goal of German unification.

The nationalist struggle in Italy revealed that Piedmont-Sardinia should be the center wherefrom the movement for Italian unification should begin. Italy was previously divided and weakened but the feeling of nationalism revived it as a result of the Revolution of 1848. In Hungary, the liberals affected a revolution in their country. Press was freed and the vestiges of feudalism were abolished. A liberal Government was established. Hungary emerged as a free national state.

Question 13. What were the contributions of the Young Italy movement?
Answer:

Young Italy: In 1848 when the tidal wave of the Revolution in France swept over Europe Young Italy, under the leadership of Mazzini, organized a mass uprising in many parts of Italy, But the Young Italy movement fizzled out for lack of organization and coordination among the rebels.

Role of Mazzin: Giuseppe Mazzini founded a youth organization called Young Italy in 1831. He created the mental climate that was so necessary for building a new united Italy and it is for this that he is remembered rightly as the pioneer in the movement for a united independent Italy. The mass uprising organized by young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure.

The objectives and program of Young Italy were as follows:-

(1) Italy should be unified as one nation.
(2) Austria should be driven out of Italy.
(3) Republic should be established in Italy.
(4) In the war against Answertria foreign help was not taken.
(5) Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only.

Role of Cavour: After the failure of the Young Italy movement, the leadership of the Italian unification passed on to Count Camillo Cavour.

His objectives were as follows:

(1) Cavour wanted to make the problem of the unification of Italy a European question.
(2) Cavour decided to drive out Austria from Italian soil with the help of foreign powers.
(3) He believed that Italian unity was possible only under the leadership of Piedmont – Sardinia. Thus, when Victor Immanuel II, king of Piedmont Sardinia, appointed Cavour as the prime to his dream of a united Italy following principal stated above.

Contributions: Young Italy’s uprising of 1848 showed the unpractical nature of Mazzini/s program. Yet the movement expressed the nationalist aspirations of the Italian people. The frustrated people rose from a slough of despair. The disunited people of Italy realized that their independence was not merely an elusive dream. Mental strength was created among the Italians which was so necessary for building a new united Italy.

Question 14. Write about the spurt of nationalism in Serbia.
Answer:

The spurt of nationalism in Serbia

Serbia lost her independence a long time back. They remei’.ed under Turkish rule until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Though King Alexander 1889 granted a liberal constitution, yet failed to win the support of the people to his side, and political unrest went on unabated. The rebels in 1903 placed one Peter on the throne and restored the Constitution of 1889.

Under Peter, the Serbians concentrated on a nationalistic policy that would bring all the Serbs of the Balkans. into one large state. But the dream of a larger Serbia could not be realized without a conflict with Austria-Hungary. The movement, therefore, turned revolutionary and directed against the integrity of Austria-Hungary. Thus it became the most dangerous ‘irredentist’ (advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity) problem in Europe.

Question 15. “The real purpose of the Congress of Vienna was to divide among the conquerors the spoils taken from the vanquished.” – Discuss
Answer:

“The real purpose of the Congress of Vienna was to divide among the conquerors the spoils taken from the vanquished.”

According to the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress (1815), the old ruling families were brought back to their respective thrones. The Congress generally followed the rule of restoring to everyone, prince or duke, the territory which had been his before 1789. Care wag, however, was taken so that each of the big four powers Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England got additional territories.

(1) England: England got Malta, the Ionian Island in the eastern Mediterranean, Heligoland, Trinidad and Mauritius, Ceylon, and the Cape of Good Hope.

(2) Austria: Austria was compensated for the loss of Belgium by getting the Italian possessions of Lombardy and Venetia and, she also received Tyrol, Salsbury, and Illyria

(3) Prussia: Prussia got the northern part of Saxony, Posen, Thorn, Danzig, the Rhine area, and West Pomerania.

(4) Russia: Russia got one-fourth part of Poland and also got compensation in Finland and in the Turkish province of Bessarabia.

Question 16. Discuss the basic principles of the Vienna Congress.
Answer:

After the downfall of Napoleon, a conference of the heads of the European countries was held at Vienna, the capital of Austria in 1815.

The basic principles of the Vienna Congress were:

(1) The Principle of Legitimacy
(2) The Principle of Balance of Powers and
(3) The Principle of Compensation.

The Principle of Legitimacy: According to this principle, it was decided that those rulers who had been driven from their states and had been deprived of their thrones should be reinstated. In other words, the diplomats of the Vienna Congress did not recognize any political: change that had occurred in Europe after 1789. They were determined to bring back the Europe that existed before the French Revolution.

The Principle of Balance of Powers: The diplomats of the Vienna Congress decided that the powers of the different countries should be balanced so that no country could threaten another. It indicated balancing the neighboring kingdom of France with the latter in such a way that France would not be able to disturb the European order of 1815 in the coming years.

The Principle of Compensation: According to this principle, it was decided that those states which had helped the allies against Napoleon were to be rewarded, but those which had supported Napoleon were to be punished. Moreover, it was also decided that those kingdoms should be compensated that had either been destroyed or had suffered losses because of Napoleon. Since the allies had taken an active ” part in the downfall of Napoleon, it was also decided to compensate them by giving them some new territories.

Question 17. Criticism of the work of the Vienna Congress.
Answer:

The Vienna Cc ingress (1815) was convened with the declaration of high morals and principles. It was expected that the settlement of the Vienna Congress would
prove valuable for the establishment of peace based upon a just division of power. But it has been remarked that it was a symbol of the reaction, conservatism, and selfishness of big powers.

It was criticized on the following grounds :

(1) The principles adopted at the Vienna Congress were overlooked by the diplomats. The Principle of Legitimacy was not applied in many states like Naples, Saxony, and Genoa. Each representative was eager to grab as many provinces as he could.

(2) The representatives of the Vienna Congress did not represent the common people. Congress ignored the feelings of the common people and did not respect their rights of the people.

(3) Congress ignored the feelings of nationality. They divided many states and annexed them to one another without keeping in their minds the idea of nationality. The rulers rearranged Europe according to their own desires; disposing of it as if it was their own personal property.

(4) The Congress ignored the feelings of the revolution. The feelings of liberty, equality, and fraternity were ignored while undertaking the great work of the reconstruction of Europe.

Question 18. What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Compensation?
Answer:

According to the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress, it was decided that those states which had helped the Allies against Napoleon, were to be rewarded. But those states which had supported Napoleon were to be punished.

(1) As England played the most important role in bringing about the defeat of Napoleon, England received the lion’s share of compensation. England got Malta, the Ionian Islands in the eastern Mediterranean, Heligoland, Ceylon, Trinidad, Mauritius, and the Cape Colony in Africa.

(2) Russia got most of the Polish territory, Finland and Bessarabia, and the Turks and a major part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

(3) Prussia got Swedish Pomerania, some Polish territory, about two-fifth of Saxony, and large districts of the Rhine.

(4) Austria was given Venetia and Lombardy in Italy as compensation for the loss of Belgium. It got Tyros from Bavaria and Illyrian provinces along the Eastern coast of the Adriatic.

(5)It was also decided that those states which had supported Napoleon were to be punished. Poland was punished. This big country was divided into three parts and given to Russia, Prussia, and Austria respectively.

(6)As the King of Denmark had helped Napoleon against the Allies, Denmark was punished. Norway was snatched away from her and given to, Sweden.

Question 19. What were the main features of Czar Alexander II’s Emancipation Statute?
Answer:

There were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising 50% of the total population. The condition of the serfs was miserable. They were treated like animals by their masters. Czar Alexander II passed the ‘Emancipation Statute’ in 1861 and abolished serfdom.

The main features of the ‘Emancipation Statute were as follows:

(1) The Russian serfs were declared free. They were granted civ rights equal to that of the free peasants.
(2) All the rights of the lords on the serfs ceased to exist.
(3) The serfs were granted full freedom. The liberated serfs could own property, engage in business, and were free to marry at their will.
(4) The landed estates of the lord were to be divided into two parts. The serfs would get 50 of the land they used to cultivate under the lords.
(5) The serfs must pay the landlord for the land received from him. Since the serfs had no money to pay, the Government would advance the money to the lords on behalf of the serfs. The serfs were to pay back to the Government in 49 installments.
(6) The land was not vested with individual serfs, but the village mirs got the land and controlled it.

Question 20. What was the contribution of Garibaldi to the unification of Italy?
Answer:

The contribution of Garibaldi to the unification of Italy

Garibaldi was a famous patriot of Italy. He was influenced by the ideas of Mazzini and he joined Young Italy. In 1860 the people of Sicily rose in revolt against their King Francis II of Naples. The rebels requested Garibaldi to help them. Garibaldi decided to come ahead to help the Sicilians. An army of volunteers was organized at Genoa with one thousand of them wearing red shirts.

Therefore, they were called the ‘Red Shirts’. On 5 May 1860, the Red Shirts under the leadership of Garibaldi went to Sicily. It was called ‘Expedition of the thousands’. It seemed that the campaign would fail, for the King of Naples had 24,000 troops in Sicily and about 100,000 in Naples.

But fortune favored Garibaldi. The army of Sicily was badly defeated by the soldiers of Garibaldi. Now he decided to take Naples also. In spite of a big army, the King of Naples could not fight with Garibaldi and fled. Garibaldi took possession of Naples. After freeing Sicily and Naples from the autocracy of Francis II, Garibaldi decided to attack Rome in order to complete the unification of Italy.

But Cavour did not allow this because he apprehended that Garibaldi’s increased strength would be an impediment to Italian unification under the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia. Garibaldi accepted the proposal and gave up all the conquered provinces in favor of Victor Emmanuel II.

Question 21. What is Ems Telegram?
Answer:

Ems Telegram

In 1869 the Spanish throne became vacant. Leopold of the Prussian Hohenzollern family was invited by the Spaniards to become the King of Spain. With the possibility of both Prussia and Spain coming under the rule of the Hohenzollern family, the balance of power in Europe was threatened. In these circumstances, France put tremendous pressure on Spain, as a result of which Leopold declined the offer.

Not satisfied with this, Napoleon III, the French king, sent his ambassador Count Benedetti to the Prussian emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohenzollern dynasties would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain. The Prussian emperor William was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refused to make such a promise to Benedetti. A report on the whole matter was sent to Bismarck by telegram (13th July 1870). Bismarck immediately found an opportunity after reading this famous ‘Ems Telegram’.

Bismarck abridged the telegram in such a way that it appeared to the French that their ambassador Benedetti was insulted and it appeared to the Prussians that their King was insulted. Bismarck had the abridged telegram published in the newspaper. This infuriated the French. An outcry for a war against Prussia grew and the war was declared by France on 19th July 1870.

Consequence: This infuriated the Frenchmen and a strong public opinion was created in France for war with Prussia. When France declared war against Prussia on 15th July 1870, it was Bismarck’s diplomacy that carried the day. Bismarck was always ready for the fray, he was just seeking an opportunity. As an aggressor, again, France could not secure the support of any European power. But Prussia with the help and cooperation of Italy and Austria was able to resist the French attack. The battle that followed between France and Prussia in 1870 is known in history as the Battle of Sedan.

Question 22. What do you know as ‘Ems Telegram’?
Answer:

‘Ems Telegram’

The French King sent his ambassador Count Benedetti to the Prussian Emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohenzollern dynasties would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain. The Prussian Emperor William I was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refused to make such a promise to Benedetti. A report on the whole matter was sent to Bismarck by telegram (13th July 1870), known as Ems Telegram in European history.

Change in a telegram by Bismarck: Bismarck immediately found an opportunity after reading this ‘Ems Telegram’, Shortening the text of the telegram on purpose, Bismarck published the same in the next day’s paper. As a result of the change of words effected by Bismarck, the whole meaning of the telegram stood changed beyond recognition. The published matter appeared to indicate that the French ambassador, Benedetti had been insulted by the Prussian Emperor.

Consequence: This infuriated the Frenchmen and a strong public opinion was created in France for war with Prussia. When France declared war against Prussia on 15th July 1870, it was Bismarck’s diplomacy that carried the day. Bismarck was always ready for the fray, he was just seeking an opportunity. As an aggressor, again, France could not secure the support of any European power. But Prussia with the help and cooperation of Italy and Austria was able to resist the French attack. The battle that followed between France and Prussia in 1870 is known in history as the Battle of Sedan.

Question 23. Give a pen picture of the life of the serfs in Russia. Who was known as ‘Czar the Liberator’ and why?
Answer:

There were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising 50% of the total population. The condition of the serfs was miserable. They were treated like animals by their masters. They could be auctioned. They were subjected to physical punishment. The serfs were tied to the lords for everything and had no freedom. The law did not recognize or protect their rights. Czar Alexander II abolished serfdom and came to be known as ‘Czar the Liberator’.

The serf system was detrimental to Russia’s progress. The unskilled, illiterate serfs were unfit to work in the factories or in modern agricultural farms. The Serf system lost its utility and became a barrier to the economic progress of Russia. By the Emancipation Statute of 1861, the Russian serfs were declared free. They were granted civil rights equal to those of the free peasants.

All the rights of the lords on the serfs ceased to exist. They were granted full freedom. The liberated serfs could Own property, engage in business, and were free to marry at their will. The land to be received by the serfs was to be fixed by magistrates called Arbiters of peace.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Why was the Vienna Settlement formed?
Answer: After the fall of Napoleon in 1814, it was decided that a Congress should be held in Vienna to undertake the task of territorial reconstruction. The territorial settlement made at Vienna was signed in June 1815 before the battle of Waterloo. It was in effect made by the representatives of the five Great Powers.

There was the Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Metternich, the Chancellor of Austria, King Frederick William III of Prussia, Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Secretary, and Talleyrand, the skillful representative of France. All the powers were represented in Congress except Turkey. After much bargaining, the treaty was signed on 9 June 1815.

One great principle underlying the Vienna Settlement was the restoration, as far as possible, of the boundaries and reigning families of Europe, as they had been before 1789. It was this principle of legitimacy which Talleyrand urged in order to preserve France.

In line with this principle, the Bourbons were reinstated in Spain and in the Two Sicilies, the House of Orange in Holland, the House of Savoy in Sardinia, the Pope in the Papal State, and a number of German princes in their former possessions. The Swiss Confederation was restored. In the name of legitimacy, Austria recovered Tyrol and most of the territories she had lost.

The second principle involved compensation to those who had played major roles in defeating Napoleon. Prussia was strengthened. She was given a large slice of Saxony, Westphalia, and more territory along the Rhine. The strengthening of Prussia on the Rhine made her ultimately the national champion of Germany against France. Germany was reconstituted as a loose confederation of thirty-nine states with a Diet consisting of delegates of various rulers. Austria presided over the Diet and dominated the Confederation.

Austria recovered certain Polish lands and received Northern Italy, henceforth known as the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom. She also recovered the Illyrian provinces along the eastern coast of the Adriatic which she had lost in 1809. She also got Tyrol and other valleys of the eastern Alps.

Moreover, the restored rulers of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany in north-central Italy belonged to the Habsburg family. Britain, the most persistent enemy of Napoleon and the pay-mistress of the allies, took her reward in the form of colonies and naval bases. She occupied Heligoland in the North Sea, Malta and Ionian Islands in the Mediterranean, Cape colony in South Africa, and Ceylon in the Indian Ocean.

The third principle which guided the Congress of Vienna was to provide a guarantee for the future peace of Europe by weakening France. She was reduced to the boundaries that she possessed before the outbreak of the Revolution. Steps were taken to surround France with strong states as bulwarks against future aggressions. Thus north Belgium, previously an Austrian province, was joined to Holland as one kingdom under the House of Orange.

In the southeast the kingdom of Sardinia—Piedmont was strengthened by the acquisition of Genoa. Among other important changes, Norway was taken from Denmark and joined Sweden. Switzerland was strengthened by the addition of three Cantons which had previously been incorporated in France.

Question 2. Narrate how France became a republic for the second time in 1848.
Answer:

France became a republic for the second time in 1848 

Louis Philippe’s legal title to the throne of France was very weak. He was invited to ascend the throne by only 219 members of the Chamber of Deputies out of 430, a bare majority. Though the franchise was slightly extended, it was still open only to the wealthy. Louis Philippe’s Government rested, therefore, on the support of the bourgeois, the well-to-do trading, and manufacturing classes.

As Louis Philippe’s rule lacked any popular sanction, it had many enemies from the start Legitimists, Bonapartists, and Republicans. The Legitimists defended the rights of Charles X and his descendants. The Bonapartists recalled the glorious days of Napoleon and looked with contempt upon a king whose foreign policy was timid. The Republicans were opposed to any form of monarchy.

In June 1832, an insurrection broke out in Paris. It was important as being the first republican outbreak since 1815. The Government passed a law restricting the right of association. Hardly had the new law been passed than new insurrections broke out in several cities.

The most important was that in Lyons in April 1834 which grew out of labor troubles. Determined to strike hard at all opponents, the Government secured the passage in 1835 of new laws–September Laws- concerning the special (assize) courts, the jury system, and the press. Special courts were established to judge summarily all those attacking the security of the state. Press censorship. was re-established. These laws greatly weakened the July Monarchy.

The parliamentary history of France during the ten years from 1830 to 1840 was marked by instability. There were ten ministers within ten years. Yet there was a fairly continuous policy. The main work was to consolidate the July Monarchy, put down its enemies, and keep peace with foreign countries. In.1840 Guizot, the reactionary became the Prime Minister .who remained in power till the monarchy collapsed in 1848.

The three things that combined to overthrow the Orleans foreign policy were the growing tide of socialism and Guizot’s reactionary measures. In the thirties, Louis Philippe determined all costs to avoid war. Despite the sympathy of The French people gave no support to the insurrection in Poland and Italy. In the crisis of the East in which Mehmet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, declared war against Turkey, France alone sided with the former. The diplomatic isolation of France was clear when the Powers Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain—met in London in 1840. They made a treaty with Turkey, pledging themselves to force

Mehmet Ali to terms. Finally, Louis Philippe estranged England through a diplomatic conflict over the affairs of the Spanish Marriage. In that country, Queen Isabella and her sister Louisa were both unmarried. It was arranged that they should marry the two sons of Louis Philippe.

Because of opposition, Isabella married her cousin, the Duke of Cadiz and Louisa married the Duke of Montpensier, son of Louis Philippe. The two marriages were celebrated on 10th October 1846 though the French Government had promised the British that Louisa should not marry a French prince until Isabella was married and had children. The result was that Louis Philippe had lost the friendship of Britain, his best ally in Europe.

The July Monarchy was a Government of the bourgeoisie, of the capitalists. Under Louis Philippe, France was passing from the old industrial system to the new factory system. This transition was in every country painful. The number of paupers doubled during the July Monarchy.

The doctrines of Socialism, advocated by Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Louis Blanc spread far and wide among the workers. Saint-Simon preached the gospel of work, ‘man must work’, He believed that the State should own the means of production and should organize industry on the principle of ‘Labour according to capacity and reward according to services’.

Fourier advocated that each worker must share in its products and be guaranteed a sufficient minimum to free him from anxiety. But the eloquent champion of Socialism was Louis Blanc, who in 1839 published the Organisation of Labour. The State must acknowledge and implement the ‘right to work’ and must protect the poor and the weak.

Guizot refused to recognize that France needed any change in her political institutions. He opposed any extension of suffrage and any legislation for the laboring classes. The amount of discontent with the Government of France was steadily growing. Yet it could do nothing because the ministry was steadily supported by the Chamber of Deputies. Deputies were bribed directly or indirectly to support the Government. About 200 of the 430 deputies were at the same time office-holders. The revolutionary movement began in 1847 when the opposition organized the ‘reform banquet’.

On 28 December 1847, in a speech from the throne, Louis Philippe denounced agitations. The opposition arranged a great banquet in Paris on 22 February 1848. Eighty-seven prominent deputies promised to attend. In alarm, the Government prohibited the banquet. This prohibition led to the French Revolution of 1848. On 22 February the populace crowded the streets shouting for reform. Students and workers clashed with the police.

The National Guard was called out but refused to fire. The King dismissed Guizot and prepared for gram reforms. Now the Republicans entered the scene. On 23rd February a Paris mob attacked Guizot’s residence. On the 24th morning, the streets of Paris were barricaded by workmen. Louis Philippe, after vainly trying to win over the populace, abdicated in favor of his ten-year-old grandson, the Count of Paris, and fled to England. Thus in 1848, France became a Republic for the second time.

Question 3. Write an essay on Mazzini and Young Italy.
Answer:

Mazzini and Young Italy

In 1831, a young Genoan, Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) founded a new society ‘Young Italy’. As a student, Mazzini loved the works of the romantic writers of Italy, France, Britain, and Germany. Young Italy was to be a people’s movement dedicated to the establishment of a free, independent, and republican Italian nation. Mazzini’s methods differed from those of the Carbonari in two main respects.

First, he placed less emphasis on plots and secrecy, and more on, propaganda. Secondly, he addressed himself not to the educated classes only, but to the people as a whole. Mazzini had a religious, almost mystic enthusiasm for his work, for he loved Italy above everything else. Italy had a third life to lead. This noble dream was bound to have a limited appeal. The rural masses were generally unmoved by it and the middle classes were not attracted toward a revolution that threatened the social as well as political structure.

Nevertheless, Mazzini must be regarded as one of the pioneers in forging national unity. His ceaseless propaganda created a vigorous public opinion in favor of national independence without which the great plans of unification could not have succeeded. He had all the faith of a prophet and the courage of a crusader.

It was the kind of spirit that produced a Garibaldi. Even after his influence had begun to wane, it was strong enough to act as a spur to Cavour. His faith in liberation by popular insurrection had its greatest triumph in southern Italy in 1860. Among the makers of modern Italy, Mazzini holds an imperishable place as she laid the moral foundations of Italian unification.

The next step in the movement of revolution was taken by the Neo-Guelfs whose leader Gioberti wanted to evolve a federation of Italian states under the Pope. But the greatest drawback of Gioberti was that he did not offer any program for freeing Italy from the Austrians. In 1846 with the election of Piux 9 as Pope, the Italian question entered a new phase.

He championed the cause of nationality and introduced reforms in the Government of the Papal States. In 1847 occurred the Milanese ‘tobacco riots’. Then in January 1848 a revolution broke out in Sicily followed by that of Sardinia. Finally came the news of the March Revolution in Vienna, and all of Italy took fire. The leadership was grasped by Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, who declared war against Austria.

But in 1849, the Austrians won a decisive victory at Novara over the King of Sardinia. The threatening intervention of Louis Napoleon saved the Kingdom of Sardinia from total extinction. Thus ended in failure the first attempt of Italy to win unity and liberty. Charles Albert had declared that Italy could save itself without foreign allies.

Now the Italians had learned that with all their zeal they could not hope to contend against Austria unaided. There must be one Italian state around which the others might rally. Sardinia was the obvious choice which had now a new King, Victor Emmanuel II, and a minister of exceptional talent in the person of Cavour.

Question 4. What was the Eastern Question? What were the factors in the Eastern Question?
Answer:

Eastern Question

The term Eastern Question came into use at the time of the Greek War of Independence. But the problem had existed ever since the middle of the fourteenth century when the Ottoman Turks had set foot on European soil. The Turks conquered the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, Serbs, Bulgars, Greeks, and Romans. The upper class was the Turks, most of whom were feudal lords and government officials. The Rumanians and Bulgarians were peasants, while the Greeks were sea-faring people.

The great majority of the inhabitants were Christians, members of the Greek Church, which in belief and ritual, was almost identical to the Orthodox Church in Russia. At its head was the Patriarch in Constantinople, who was always a Greek; but he was appointed by the Sultan, the head of the Mohammedan faith and the oppressor of the Christians.

In the 19th century, the Eastern Question developed three distinctive features. First, the growing weakness of Turkey made it impossible for her to resist the aggressions of her neighbors. Turkey had her period of greatness but her decline had already set in. Secondly, the rivalries of European powers created tension in Eastern Europe. While Britain and France became protectors of Turkey, Russia and Austria were interested in the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire.

Thirdly, the ideas of democracy and nationalism propagated by the French Revolution encouraged the Christian nationalities to throw off the Turkish yoke. In 1804 the Serbs revolted and waged a determined struggle until in 1817 they obtained substantial concessions from the Turks. In the first half of the nineteenth century, Russia was eager to annex Constantinople and her territories as well.

During the period 1830-41, France was equally interested in dismembering Turkey and she favored the revolt of Egypt against Turkey. England, on the other hand, was as anxious as ever to preserve the Turkish Empire. Though Russia wanted to break the Ottoman Empire, Britain believed that the existence of Turkey in Europe as a barrier against Russia was necessary to safeguard her Empire in India and her position in the Mediterranean Ever since 1815 British statesmen had been obsessed with the thought that if France ceased to dominate Europe, Russia would take her place.

British policy, therefore, revolved around France by strengthening the latter against Russia’s domination, yet keeping France harmless. Apart from this element, British policy was to develop the independence of Central Europe so that it could hold its own against both Russia and France. Britain’s natural allies, therefore, were Austria and Prussia.

Russian ambition to control Turkey was to a certain extent checked by the Treaty of Adrianople (1829). It laid down that there should be freedom of trade and navigation in the Black Sea, and that the Bosphorus and Dardanelles should be open to all Russian merchant ships and to the merchant ships of all other powers with which Turkey was at peace. In 1833, Russia. secured her unrivaled influence over Turkey as a price of protection against Egypt with which the former had been involved in a war.

By the treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi (1833) Russia obtained complete control over the Black Sea and free passage of her warships through the. Straits of Dardanelles and Bosphorus. But in 1840 Palmerston insisted that the affairs of Turkey were of general European concern. By the Treaty of London in July 1841, the Five Great Powers—England, Russia, France, Austria, and Prussia—agreed that the Straits be closed to all foreign ships of war so long as Turkey was at peace.

Question 5. Write an essay on the Crimean War.
Answer:

Crimean War

The Crimean War occupies a chief place in the history of Europe in the nineteenth century. The war arose out of a petty quarrel between Roman Catholic and Greek or Orthodox Christians in Palestine which ignited the latent conflict between Russia and France. The Tsar had long been interested in the Ottoman Empire, whose Sultan Nicholas was described as the sick man of the East.

In January 1853, Tsar Nicholas proposed to England to partition Turkish territories between them leaving France out of the deal. England did not accept this proposal. Then arose the question of the holy place. The Greek or Orthodox claims were pressed upon Turkey by the Tsar, who also demanded that Russia be allowed to protect the Christians in the Ottoman Empire. The acceptance of the Russian claims by Turkey would have virtually placed Turkey under  Russian control.

The cause of the Roman Catholics was championed by France whose Emperor Napoleon III wished to strengthen his position at home by winning the support of the Catholic party. The Russian ambassador at Constantinople, Menshikoff, opposed the French demand but Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, the British ambassador, supported it. Britain had already been committed to preventing Russia. expansion in the Balkans at any cost.

In July 1853, Russian troops occupied Moldavia and Wallachia (modern Roumania). In October Turkey declared war. An attempt was made by the European powers when they met in Vienna to settle the question by peaceful means. The meeting ended in failure. in March 1854, Britain and France declared war on Russia. Sardinia, eager to curry Franco-British favor, provided an expeditionary force in 1855. British and French fleets came to the Black Sea and attacked Crimea. Since military operations were confined mostly to this peninsula, the conflict is known as the Crimean War.

Before long Russia, fearing that Austria should join with other powers, withdrew from Moldavia and Wallachia. The allies decided to besiege the Russian naval base of Sebastopol on the southern side of the Crimean peninsula. The siege of Sebastopol was a mad venture and the methods employed were tragic. Battles occurred at Balaclava and Inkerman—remarkable for the bravery of the troops and the incapacity of their leaders. The siege continued till September 1855. The besieging forces, harassed by Russian winter and sickness, suffered great losses.

The British made a desperate attempt to storm the Redan, one of the strongest forts around Sebastopol, while the French succeeded in capturing the Malakoff. In September the Russians under Gortschakoff evacuated Sebastopol. This was practically the end of the war. Russia was exhausted by the war and peace must be made. Although Palmerston, on behalf of Britain, was in favor of continuing the war to crush Russia, Napoleon saw that he had nothing to gain by continuing it. The Treaty of Paris signed on 30 March 1856 brought the war to a conclusion.

The Treaty of Paris guaranteed the independence of Turkey. It was laid down that no power had the right to interfere between the Sultan and his Christian subjects. Turkey was admitted to the concert of Europe. The Black Sea was neutralized, its waters and ports being thrown open to merchant ships of all nations.

The navigation of the Danube was declared to be free. Greater independence was granted to the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. The independence of Serbia was guaranteed. To Modavia Russia gave up a part of Bessarabia. The Russian right to the guardianship of Christian peoples was thus abandoned. A treaty of peace can only define the conditions of the present; it cannot bind the future. Thus the Russians, fifteen years later, repudiated the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris.

In 1872 Russia completely wiped away the humiliation of Crimea by recovering Bessarabia. The peace conference of Paris settled certain questions of maritime law. Privateering was declared abolished; enemy goods, except contraband of war, were not to be seized in neutral ships.

For a blockade to be effective must be maintained by an adequate naval force. The improvement of nursing and medical services affected by the work of Florence Nightingale and others was another lasting benefit of the war. The significance of the Crimean War lay in the fact that it shattered the peace in Europe and ushered in a succession of wars. It removed the shadow of Russian power from Central European affairs.

The war was a personal triumph of NapoleonIII and he had covered France with glory. By participating in the war Sardinia got the opportunity to champion the cause of Italian liberation. The Crimean war was an important chapter in the Eastern Question and the prelude to the most important political development of the nineteenth century.

The Peace of Paris reaffirmed the principle of collective responsibility by the Great Powers which believed that the European Concert would be effective in the years that followed. The Peace Treaty gave the powers acting in concert a general right to intervene in international disputes. Thus, the Crimean War was a fumbling war, probably unnecessary, largely futile, yet rich in unintended consequences.

Question 6. How did the Ottoman Empire decay due to the attitude of the European powers?
Answer: Until the twentieth century Turkey was known as the Ottoman which denoted a dynasty. In the Ottoman Empire, Islam was the established religion. Christians were regarded with contempt and had to suffer from various disabilities. The Government of Turkey was an absolute monarchy, with all power vested in the Sultan.

The Ulemas and the Janissaries, the Sultan’s picked bodyguards, resisted western ideas. The Sultan, Selim III (1789-1807), felt the necessity of introducing radical military reform, only to be impeded by a reaction that led to his deposition. Mahmud II (1808-39) had to wait until he felt strong enough to suppress the Janissaries (1826) and revive a reform of the army. But this came too late and the Greek revolt could not be averted.

The Empire still had a medieval and feudal structure, capped by a top-heavy bureaucracy. Apart from inflation which hindered the economic growth of the country, agriculture and industry was crippled by taxes. The ‘Eastern Question’ has always been an international question. The question took different shapes at different times. While the Ottoman Empire posed a serious threat to Europe and Asia, European statesmen no longer feared the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. They feared its dismemberment and tried to take advantage of its weakness.

Russia was bound to the Balkan peoples by ties of religion and race and beneath the intention of protecting them from Turkish misrule lay the ostensible object of securing access to the Mediterranean. Russian policy in the Near East had been to seize Constantinople as an ultimate goal.

Between the years 1788 and 1791, Austria and Russia attacked Turkey in concert. On the plea of protecting the Christians in the Turkish Empire, Russia advanced as far as the port of Oczakov on the Black Sea. Younger Pitt of Britain was quick enough to realize the portents of the Russian advance and the menace to Turkey’s integrity. Though Parliament did not support him over the incident, Britain with varying degrees followed a pro-Turkish and anti-Russian policy.

At the dawn of the nineteenth century, Russia began to look covetously on Constantinople. In the eyes of Austria, Russian ascendancy in the Balkans foreshadowed a great Slav Empire. The growth of the Pan-Slavic movement in the Balkans encouraged by the Russians was a menace to the integrity of the Austrian Empire.

After the expulsion of Austria from Italy and Germany, she sought to find compensation in the southeast at the expense of Turkey. British policy in the Near East had not been consistently anti-Russian before the Crimean War. Until the beginning of 1853, British suspicions were turned against France both at Constantinople and in Egypt; and Britain and Russia often pitted themselves against French encroachment.

In 1871 it appeared that the whole Eastern Question was ready to burst into flames. The failure of reforms in Turkey and the weakening of Turkish rule foreshadowed a fast-approaching upheaval. But events in Western and Central Europe absorbed the attention of the Great Powers.

Austria and Russia made every effort to outbid’ each other in their expansionist plans. France and Italy were embroiled in the consolidation of new regimés. Britain still clung to the idea of maintaining the integrity of Turkey as a bulwark against Russian expansionism. Bismarck was so preoccupied with completing the work of unifying the new German Reich that he treated the Eastern Question as of negligible importance.

Yet from this time onward the Eastern Question assumed a new dimension to demand the attention of the Great Powers. The last quarter of the nineteenth century which was filled with frequent crises and wars owed not a little to this Eastern Question.

Question 7. Write an essay on the Treaty of Berlin.
Answer:

Treaty of Berlin

Balkan affairs formed the chief event that brought the imperial powers into bloody conflict in 1914. Until about 1830 the Balkan peoples were subjects of the Sultan of Turkey. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, they increased their agitation for unity and independence. In 1830 Greece won its independence and Serbs and parts of Romania were granted autonomy. But Balkan nationalities were determined to continue their struggle for independence.

In 1875 the oppressed peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted against their Turkish masters. The revolt rapidly spread to Serbia and Montenegro. For several months in the summer of 1875, the Turks busied themselves with savage reprisals against the rebel provinces. In December 1875 the Austrian Chancellor, Count Andrassy, with the approval of Russia and Germany, drew up a note which was presented to Turkey. The note demanded various kinds of reforms in the disaffected regions. But the Turkish Government had no intention of carrying out the proposed reforms.

Meanwhile, Bulgaria broke out into revolt in April 1876, and in Constantinople, Sultan Abdul Aziz was deposed and replaced by Murad V. He occupied the throne for a few weeks and was deposed by his unscrupulous brother, Abdul Hamid II. On 11 May 1876, the Austrian and Russian Chancellors met Bismarck at Berlin and proposed to impose an armistice upon Turkey. Though France and Italy agreed to the measure, Britain refused her assent. Hence the proposed intervention was given up. During May 1876 the Turks adopted severe repressive measures and cruelly massacred twelve thousand Bulgars.

Britain could not maintain her support of the Sultan in the face of such inhuman misdeeds. Serbia and Montenegro declared war against the Sultan in June and July respectively. An international conference that met at Constantinople during the winter of 1876-77, proposed terms for pacification. But the Sultan rejected these proposals. There- Russia, having secured the friendly neutrality of Austria, declared war in April 1877. By the beginning of 1878 Russian forces had taken Sofia and were advancing to the gates of Constantinople. At this point, Turkey asked for an armistice in March.1878 signed the treaty of San Stefano.

The Sultan recognized the independence of Rumania, Serbia, Montenegro, and a greatly enlarged Bulgaria. Russia was to gain Bessarabia and the Dobruja in exchange for other territories granted to Rumania. The treaty was extremely unpopular to Britain and Austria who feared that Russia would dominate the new Bulgaria.

Moreover, Romania, Serbia, and Greece disliked the rise of Bulgaria. Britain and Austria threatened war unless the settlement was submitted to a Congress of the powers. Accordingly, in June 1878, the Congress met in Berlin under the presidency of Bismarck, attended by Russia, France, Britain, Austria, Italy, and Turkey.

The Treaty of Berlin recognized the complete independence of Romania, Serbia “and Montenegro. The enlarged state of Bulgaria was reduced in size by the exclusion of Rumelia and Macedonia, the latter being placed under direct Turkish rule. Austria-Hungary was allowed to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina. Britain gained the island of Cyprus.

Thessaly was promised to Greece, but only given up three years later. Russia was obliged to be content only with Bessarabia. Rumania received the province called Dobruja. France was promised a free hand in Turkey’s North African territory of Tunisia. Only Germany and Italy left the Congress without territorial gains.

This comprehensive settlement was to be strengthened by reforms in European Turkey. The Turkish Government was to uphold religious liberty and equality. The Treaty of Berlin formed an important landmark in the history of the Eastern Question. Russia’s ambition in south-eastern Europe had been checked much to the satisfaction of England who occupied the island of Cyprus.

The treatment accorded to Russia by the Treaty of Berlin eventually strained her relations with Germany and she formed an alliance with France. Bismarck was founded in Austria-Hungary. A valuable friend as the latter’s interests were more closely interlinked with Balkan Peninsula. Thus the Congress of Berlin recreated the alliance system of pre- 1815 and emphasized the play of power politics. If it prevented a localized European war in 1878, the Congress of Berlin sowed many of the seeds of a far greater conflict to come.

Question 8. Write an essay on the Balkan Wars.
Answer:

Balkan Wars

In 1912 an unprecedented development had taken place. Owing largely to the statesmanship of Venizelos of Greece, a league had been formed between Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. There were a number of factors that helped to bring about the unity of the Balkans against Turkey.

The success of Austria in annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina created a sense of panic among the Balkan States. Their object was now to prevent any further increase in the threatening Austro-German. control of the Peninsula. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, Macedonia had been the storm center of the Balkan peninsula in which a large number of Christians were inhumanly prosecuted.

On the triumph of the ‘Young Turks’ in Turkey (1908), the lot of the Christians in Greece grew worse. These events inflamed the people of the Balkan States with the desire to liberate their brothers in Macedonia.

For some years Russia had been active in bringing about a league of the Balkan states under her auspices a weapon that might be used not only. against Turkey and Austria as well. After Turkey’s defeat by Italy in a brief war (1910-11), the Balkan States believed that their hour had come. Russia and Austria, not yet ready for a showdown between themselves, warned the Balkan states not to attack Turkey.

First Balkan War: On 8 October 1912, Montenegro declared war on Turkey and very soon was joined by Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia. To everyone’s surprise, the Balkan allies overwhelmed the Turkish resistance and captured Salonica and Monastir. By March 1913, the Bulgarians were in possession of Adrianople, while the Serbs took Scutari in April. Thus the Balkan League had practically destroyed all of European Turkey outside Constantinople.

This alarmed both Austria and Russia. A conference was summoned to London to settle a new map of the Balkans. On 30 May 1913, the Treaty of London was signed. By this Treaty, Turkey lost all its European territory save Constantinople and a narrow strip along the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Albania was set up as an autonomous state.

Crete was allowed to unite with Greece. The danger that the great powers might be dragged into a general war had been averted because both Russian and Austrian interests had been safeguarded. Britain and Germany were satisfied with the improvement of their own relations in the process.

Second Balkan War: No sooner was peace concluded than the Balkan allies began to quarrel over the division of the spoils. The Great Powers were no less responsible for the Second Balkan War. Austria was determined to prevent Serbia from gaining Albania. In this determination, Austria was backed by Germany and Italy.

Albania had been created as an independent state. Thus the hostile attitude of the Powers checked Serbia from gaining an outlet on the Adriatic. In her disappointment, Serbia demanded a part of Macedonia which had been assigned to Bulgaria. Greece was also at odds with Bulgaria over the division of Thrace. Russia sought to intervene with offers of arbitration. The situation seemed to be saved.

But Austria had made up her mind to smash the Balkan League and she deliberately incited Bulgaria against her allies. On 29 June 1913, a war broke out between Bulgaria on one side. and Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Romania on the other.

The Turks, hopeful of regaining some of their losses, fought against Bulgaria. In July the Turks recaptured Adrianople, while the Greeks, Serbs, and Rumanians threatened the Bulgarian capital, Sofia. King Ferdinand of Bulgaria had to make peace and the Treaty of Bucharest (10 August 1913) imposed a new settlement on the Balkans.

By this treaty, Romania gained the Silistrian plateau at the expense of Bulgaria. Serbia annexed northern and central Macedonia. Greece secured Crete, southern Epirus, southern Macedonia (including Salonica), and part of western Thrace.

Turks wrested from Bulgaria, the town of Adrianople, and a larger part of Thrace. Bulgaria received a part of Thrace and Eastern Macedonia, with a few miles of the Aegean Coast. It was estimated that as a result of the Treaty of Bucharest, over a million Bulgarian people passed under foreign rule. Thus ended the Balkan Wars and seldom in history have any wars changed their character so rapidly.

Question 9. Write in brief about Balkan nationalism.
Answer:

Rise of Balkan Nationalism: The Sultan of Turkey, Abdul Macid I (1839-1861) couldn’t gain from the Treaty of Paris. He failed to introduce necessary reforms for ensuring the territorial integrity of the empire. The main events of the next few years after the Crimean War concerned the small Balkan States.

(1) Greece: In 1862 the Greek King Otto had to abdicate after a long period of misgovernment. The new King George I brought in a system of parliamentary Government. The Greeks were prosperous. This encouraged their nationalist desires for the annexation of the Greeks in Crete, Salonica, and the Aegean Islands. With the help of Serbia and Bulgaria in the Balkan War (1912-1913) the Greeks received the desired territories and became unified forming a whole and complete nation.

Greek Nationalism and Hetairia Philike: The Greeks of the Ottoman Empire began a national revival at the time of the French Revolution and Napoleon. The propounders of Greek nationalism were Adamantios Korais and Constantine Rigas. They founded secret societies and in a secret and illicit manner circulated newspapers for the cause of Greek independence.

In 1814 a Greek revolutionary. the society named Hetairia Philike was founded in the. The Russian city of Odessa in Russia. The society soon was stuffed with thousands of members. Prince Alexander Ypsilanti was the president of the society. Ypsilanti entered Rumania, a province of the Ottoman – Empire, and organized a national Greek revolt. But the Turkish troops captured the Greek leader and sent him to an Austrian prison.

(2) Serbia: Serbia lost her independence a long time ago. She remained under Turkish rule until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Though King Alexander 1889 granted a liberal constitution, yet failed to win the support of the people to his side, and political unrest was carried on unrestricted. The rebels in 1903 placed one named Peter on the throne and restored the constitution of 1889.

Under Peter, the Serbians formulated a nationalistic policy that would bring all the Serbs of the Balkans into one large state. But the dream of a larger Serbia could not be realized without a conflict with Austria-Hungary. The movement, therefore, turned revolutionary and directed against the territorial integrity of Austria-Hungary. Thus it became the most dangerous ‘irredentist’ (advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity) problem in Europe and created great havoc.

(3) Moldavia and Wallachia: The two districts of Moldavia and Wallachia, at the mouth of the Danube River, consequently became independent at the end of the Crimean War. But these two had been occupied by the Russian forces at any time there had been a war between Turkey and Russia.

The people of Moldavia and Wallachia, however, had always shown a strong sense of nationalism. Little progress was made until 1856 when the powers recognized the two provinces’ independence with two separate assemblies. But nevertheless, this was overcome by the two assemblies, each choosing the same prince. Thus the two provinces were united to form the new state of Romania in 1861. But this name, however, was not given till 1866.

(4) Montenegro: Of the other Balkan states the independence of Montenegro under a separate Prince was recognized in 1878. It prospered under Prince Nicholas, who also advanced political democracy in the state. A constitution was adopted to provide for a Parliament elected by universal manhood suffrage in 1905.

(5) Insurrections in Other Balkan States: The oppressions of the Turkish Officials ultimately compelled the peasants of Herzegovina to rise in insurrection. Very soon they were joined by the fellow Slavs of Bosnia in 1875. The next year the people of Bulgaria bust out in rebellion against the Turkish officials. The Bulgarians were tortured by the Turkish soldiers with utmost brutality. The mass killing in Bulgaria enthralled and engrossed all of Europe. Meanwhile, Serbia and Montenegro declared war against Turkey in 1876. The Balkan issues were finally settled at a European Congress held in Berlin (Berlin Congress) in 1878.

Question 10. Describe the settlement effected by the Congres of Vienna. What were its defects? Or, Discuss the three principles of the Vienna settlement. Was the settlement a reactionary one?
Answer:

(1) Introduction: The destruction of the Napoleonic regime necessitated the reconstruction of Europe. The work of reconstruction that was undertaken by the Congress of Vienna, was one of the most important diplomatic gatherings in the history of Europe. At the Austrian capital Vienna, in the autumn of 1814, assembled the most illustrious personages in Europe.

There were the Emperors of Austria and Russia and the kings of Prussia, and Bavaria. Wurtumburg and Denmark, Louis, 18 of France were represented by Talleyrand and Great Britain by the Duke of Wellington and Lord Castlereagh. Foremost in the assemblage was Prince Metternich, Chief Minister of Austria. The Congress of Vienna set itself to undo the work of the revolution and Napoleon.

(2) Principles underlying the Vienna Congress :

The Congress of Vienna was based on the following three principles:

(1) Legitimacy and Restoration: Legitimacy and Restoration were the watchwords of the Congress of Vienna. Metternich insisted upon the restoration of the boundaries of States as they had been before the Revolution. Talleyrand championed the cause of legitimate dynasties who had been dethroned by the revolution.
(2) Compensation: Territorial compensations were to be awarded to those who played major roles in defeating Napoleon at the expense of States that had supported Napoleon.
(3) Balance of Power: The Congress attempted to restore the balance of power in Europe which had been upset by the sudden damage to peace on the part of France, the Congress undertook to build strong States around France.
(3) The settlement: The so-called Congress of Vienna was hardly a congress in the usual sense. The delegates met only to sign a general treaty that had been largely determined beforehand by the ‘Big Four’, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. The main work of the Congress was the distribution of the territories that France had been forced to give up.

This Congress of aristocrats hated the ideas of nationality and democracy proclaimed by the revolution. They rearranged Europe according to their desires, ignoring the national sentiments or the historical traditions of the people

(4) Legitimacy and Restoration :

(1) France was reduced to its original boundaries.
(2) The Bourbons were reinstated in France, Spain, and the two Sicilies.
(3) The House of Orange in Holland, the House of Savoy in Sardinia, and the Pope in the Papal States were reinstated.
(4) Several German princes were restored to their former possessions.
(5) In the name of legitimacy, Austria recovered Tyrol and most of the other lands she had lost.
(6) The Swiss Confederation was restored under a guarantee of neutrality.

(5) Compensation and Balance of Powers :

The application of these principles led to the following changes :

(1) Great Britain was awarded most of the French and Spanish colonies.
(2) The Dutch were given the Austrian Netherlands. This transfer of Belgium to Holland compensated the Dutch and also created a strong country on the border of France.
(3) Austria was given a commanding position in Italy and allowed to take Venice, Milan, and Tyrol. Members of the Austrian Hapsburg family were seated on the throne of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena.
(4) Russia was compensated with Finland, Polish territory, and Bessarabia.
(5) Sardinia was strengthened by the addition of Savoy, Piedmont, and Genoa.
(6) Prussia made notable gains by receiving Swedish Pomerania, all of Westphalia, most of the Rhineland, and two-fifths of Saxony.
(7) Sweden was compensated for ceding Finland to Russia and Pomerania to Prussia by being awarded Norway.
(8) In Germany, no attempt was made to resurrect the Holy Roman Empire. The remaining 38 States were into a loose organization known as the German Confederation with a Diet consisting of delegates of various rulers. Austria presided over the Diet and dominated the confederation.

(6) Criticism: In the work of the Congress of Vienna, there was little that was permanent and much that was temporary. The policy of the Vienna Congress was extremely reactionary. The arbitrary settlements made by Congress illustrate the total disregard for national aspirations. Peoples and provinces were bartered away like pawns in a game. The Catholic and Celtic people of Belgium were joined with Calvinistic and Teutonic Holland. Norway, which had been close to Denmark, was added to Sweden. The demands of Italians and Germans for unification were set aside. The aspirations of Poland for freedom were suppressed.

(7) Significance: The German Confederation simplified the political geography of Germany and the strengthening of Prussia made a rival to Austria for hegemony in Germany. The enlargement of Sardinia inspired her to aspire to Italian leadership. By the acquisition of Bessarabia, Russia was drawn into the Eastern Question. Finally, the Congress of Vienna marked the disappearance of the Holy Roman Empire. The greatest achievement of the Vienna Congress was that in spite of its defects, it gave Europe forty years of peace.

Question 11. What were the aims and objects of the Holy Alliance and the Concert of Europe between 1815 and 1825? How far were they realized? Why did the Concert of Europe fail?
Answer:

(1) Introduction: ‘The Holy Alliance’ and ‘The Concert of Europe’ were the first attempts in modern times at international organizations. The wars of Napoleon left Europe satiated with blood. The Statesmen of the age were painfully anxious to devise a form of international Government as a security against the menace of future wars. This experiment was the Concert of Europe which lasted for eight years. Its history and causes of failure convey a profound lesson to future times when the world is put in a similar situation.

(2) The Holy Alliance: The Holy Alliance was sponsored in 1815 by the Czar Alexander I of Russia who was a man of noble ideas. Alexander proposed that the sovereign of Europe should enter into a ‘Holy Alliance’ pledging themselves to govern their people and conduct their relations with one another according to the principle of the Christian religion. They were to regard each other as brothers, and their subjects as children whom they were to rule ‘as fathers of families’.

(3) Criticism: The Holy Alliance was greatly misunderstood. It was regarded at that time as a symbol of reaction, a conspiracy against ‘liberalism’, a league of Princes against their peoples. None of the statesmen of the age took it seriously.

Though it had no practical value, it disclosed the difference of opinion among the powers, which was the cause of the failure of the Concert of Europe. The Holy Alliance failed to draw together the powers because of its vagueness. They were proposed to cooperate for a brief span through the formation of the Quadruple Alliance, which was practical.

(4) Concert of Europe: In November 1815, a quadruple Alliance was signed by Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England for the maintenance of the treaties signed with France and for the consolidation of the intimate relations then uniting the four sovereigns for the welfare of the world.

They agreed to hold periodical meetings of the four signatory powers, either under the immediate auspices of the sovereigns or through their respective ministers, meetings devoted to the grand interest they have in common and to the discussion of measures which shall be judged to the most salutary for the repose and prosperity of the nations and for the maintenance of the peace of Europe.

(5) Congress and Conference: The first congress was held at Aix-la-Chapelle to consider the position of France which had paid the war indemnity by the year 1818. It was decided to withdraw the Allied army of occupation from French soil and to admit her representatives to the Concert of Europe.

At the same time, it set itself to a strict observance of the right of peoples; to give an example of justice, concord, and moderation, to project the art of peace, to increase the prosperity of states, and to awaken those sentiments of religion and morality which had been so much weakened by the misfortune of the time.

But before the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle was dissolved, signs had already appeared of the divergent interests and mutual jealousies, which were to paralyze action and break up the Concert of Europe. First was the question of the rebellious South American Colonies of Spain and second was the Barbary pirates in North Africa. Of the selfishness of the great powers, joint action was not possible.

The second Congress of the Powers held significantly in Austrian territory, first at Troppau in 1820 and then by the adjournment at Libach in 1821, revealed already, the fatal anomalies of the European situation and vital differences of views and interests between the allied States.

But the Congress of Troppau was called practically for the purpose of sanctioning the suppression of the Italian rebellion. Ignoring the opposition of France. and Great Britain, the Troppau Protocol was issued and signed by three eastern powers.

States that had changed Government due to revolution, the result of which threatened other States, ipso facto, to cease to be members of the European alliance and remain excluded from it until their situation gave a guarantee for legal order and stability. If owing to such alteration immediate danger threatens other States, the powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if needed by arms to bring back the guilty State into the bosom of the great alliance. Castlereagh, the foreign minister of England, therefore, strongly demurred and although there was as yet no actual breach of the Alliance, there was the considerable widening of the rift within it.

(6) Causes of failure: The alliance was thus sundered and with the Spanish manifesto, the Congress separated. But one more feeble tribute to the idea of European cooperation was paid in 1825 when Czar Alexander I summoned two conferences at St. Petersburg to consider the eastern question. Yet the Concert of Europe could not be saved. It had gone to pieces on many rocks, chiefly on Great Britain’s withdrawal and on the mutual jealousies of the powers.

But the British assertion of the principle of non-intervention was more than a claim for natural isolation and national liberty; it was a stand against the autocracy of Europe and a protest against the dictatorship and system of Metternich. For the attempted concert of Europe was based upon no league of democratic nations, it was an alliance of monarchs, three at least of whom were autocrats, and an acceptance of the principle of intervention might easily have resulted in the establishment of an intolerable despotism.

Question 12. “Metternich was the champion of reaction’-Discuss. Does Metternich deserve the title ‘Prime Minister of Europe’?
Answer:

“Metternich was the champion of reaction’

(1) Introduction: The period from 1815 to 1848 has been usually called the ‘Era of Metternich’. Metternich was the most famous statesman Austria produced in the 19th century. He was the central figure not only in Austria and German politics but also in European diplomacy.

He became the Austrian Chancellor in 1809 and played a leading part in the formation of the Fourth Coalition against Napoleon and in the Battle of Nations. Metternich was the guiding angel of the Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe. The politics of Europe at this time was so thoroughly dominated by him that his importance is shown in the phrase ‘System of Metternich’.

(2) Metternich as a diplomat: Metternich, the prince of diplomatists, was born into a family of diplomats. He married the granddaughter of Prince Kaunitz, the famous minister of Maria Theresa who engineered the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756. His self-esteem was very great.

(3) The policy of Metternich: The policies of Metternich were frankly conservative. He detested the Revolution and believed in an absolute monarchy. He was the opponent of all struggles for national independence and self-government. He was especially anxious to prevent the recurrence of revolutionary violence and international war. Metternich clearly saw the division of Europe into revolutionary West and reactionary East.

Himself a reactionary, Metternich desired to create a strong reactionary Austrian Empire as a bulwark against the disturbing forces of revolution, and to this end, he championed the principles of Legitimacy and Restoration and re-established old regimes as a man of the status quo. Through his efforts, Metternich succeeded in transferring the leadership of Europe from revolutionary France to reactionary Austria.

(4) His role in the Congress of Vienna: It was due to the recognition of the commanding personality of Metternich that Vienna was chosen as the meeting place of the International Congress. Metternich was the central figure of the Congress and the general principles underlying the settlement were his. It was the restoration of the boundaries and the reigning families of several European countries as they had been before the Revolution of 1789. Metternich secured Austria, Tyrol, and other lands which she had earlier lost.

(5) Metternich and the Concert of Europe: Metternich was anxious to make Vienna Settlement permanent He was anxious to maintain international peace and prevent the outbreak of revolution in the future. For this purpose, the Quadruple Alliance of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain was transformed into an organization for the preservation of the peace and of the status quo by the Treaty of Paris in 1815. This Concert of Europe was sufficient for Metternich who made it an instrument in his duty to stamp out revolution even to the extent of interfering in the domestic affairs of friendly States.

(6) Metternich as the Prime Minister of Europe: During the years 1815 to 1848, Metternich, by direct interference in Germany and Italy and by the pressure of his influence on the sovereigns of Europe, dominated the continent. Thus he can be rightly called the ‘Prime Minister of Europe’.

(7) Metternich and Germany :

(1) In 1817 a liberal movement broke out in Germany. In 1819 Metternich was summoned. a meeting of German statesmen at Carlsbad and secured the promulgation of the ‘Carlsbad Decrees’. Accordingly, university professors and students, and the press were subjected to close supervision. It provided for the establishment of a committee to investigate revolutionary plots.
(2) Revolts in the German States of Brunswick, Saxony, and Hesse Cassel were put down in 1830.

(8) In Italy :

(1) Metternich helped Ferdinand to restore the old regime in Naples
(2) In 1821 he crushed a revolt in Piedmont.
(3) In 1830 revolts of Modena, Parma, and in parts of the Papal States were easily put down.

(9) In Spain:

(1) In 1823 with the approval of Metternich, Louis XVIII of France sent military aid to Spain to suppress a popular rising.
(2) In Russia:(1) Alexander I, Czar of Russia, was a patron of liberal ideas for a few years and attempted to introduce reforms but later, under the influence of Metternich, he withdrew the reforms.

(10) Domestic policy: Within Austria, Metternich mercilessly suppressed the activities of nationalists and liberals. He maintained a strong army and an efficient police system. The press and the Theatre were censored, and education was entrusted to conservative religious orders. He erected a protective wall of tariffs around Austria as a check against the inroads of revolutionary ideas. This, however, proved ruinous to her trade and industry.

(11) Failure of Metternich :

The success of Metternich was only short-lived and his failure was the outcome of the following factors :

(1) The forces of nationalism and liberalism proved to be too strong.
(2) The Concert of Europe broke down with the withdrawal of England.
(3) Great Britain did not subscribe to the idea of interfering in the internal affairs of European States.
(4) The Monroe Doctrine, announced by President James Monroe of the U.S.A., checked Metternich, from restoring to Spain, her colonies in America which had revolted.
(5) Russia defied his policy of non-intervention in the Balkans and actively supported
a resolution in Greece.
(6) In 1830, revolutions broke out in France and Belgium which once and for all, destroyed the system of Metternich.

Question 13. Would you consider the reign of Nicholas I an important chapter in the history of Russia?
Answer:

(1) Czar Nicholas: The Crimean War (1854-1856) was in a sense the watershed of European history—the statement may be with particular force may be applied to Russia. The Russian defeat discredited wholly the system of Nicholas I and set a movement toward democracy which in one form or another has been the principal theme of her internal history from the day to this.

(2) The reign of Nicholas: The thirty-year reign of Czar Nicholas 1(1825-1855) was spent in the defense of autocracy. His training was not in politics or administration but in the army. His mind was practical, narrow, rigid, and exceedingly conservative. He sought to eradicate abuses wherever he discovered them, but in so vast an Empire it was impossible for the Emperor to control efficiently and effectively the detail of the administration. His policy was uncompromisingly absolutistic, both at home and abroad, at home, all kinds of measures were adopted to exclude or suppress liberal ideas.

A stringent intellectual quarantine was maintained upon the western frontiers, foreign literature excluded. Russian subjects were prevented from traveling abroad, the native, press was censored and the writers who did not show themselves “well-intentioned” were silenced. The university was circumscribed with their personnel and curricula, the number of military schools was increased and the police, the third section of Tsar’s chancellory were given arbitrary powers of arresting, imprisoning, deploring, and making away with anyone, whom the chief of the department selected.

Nicholas I’s foreign policy was marked by the same characteristics and made him hated throughout Europe. Nicholas, I suppressed the Polish insurrection of 1830-1831, abolished the Constitution granted by Alexander I, and incorporated Poland into Russia.

He waged two wars against Turkey and interfered decisively to suppress the revolution of the Hungarians in 1848-1849, and in German politics, he was a great factor of importance. His prestige was great after 1849. But the Crimean war in which Nicholas I became involved in 1854 proved the hollowness of his power and prestige. The prestige of Russia was so overwhelming since Napoleon’s flight from Moscow was completely shattered.

Czar Nicholas, I expired on March 2, 1855, and with him fell in ruins the system of. which his personality was everywhere regarded as the incarnation. The European predominance of St. Petersburg, built up by Catherine II and strengthened by Alexander I, had come to an end, but Russia, in some measure at least, was to become Russia of the Russian people. But in this great national humiliation lay the best hope of the future. As Prussia arose and reformed her institutions after Jena, so did Russia after the Crimean war.

That war is a landmark in her history, as it inaugurated a period of extensive reorganization and improvement. The smoldering discontent of the people flared up into open protests against the existing regime and the people demanded radical changes in the social and political organization.

Alexander II, who succeeded his father Nicholas I, tried earnestly to satisfy the aspirations of the people. On the other side, foreign literature of a liberal nature was rigorously excluded. Nicholas encouraged Russian literature in a form that seemed harmless. While his reign was called “the Augustan Age of Russia” rendered notable by the poetry.

Pushkin, the novels of Turgeniff, Dostoievsky, and Gogol. He encouraged research in lines that he considered legitimate and showed his humanitarianism by abolishing capital punishment, except for treason, at a time when the English penal code was barbarous in its severity.

But on the whole the reign of Nicholas I was one of repression and stagnation, and after the fall of Sebastopol, liberal propaganda was circulated by hand in manuscript literature, and satire and appeals were drawn into its service against the Government. Russian society was stirred by as violent a movement and optimism as was France on the eve of the French Revolution.

Question 14. Give an account of the Greek war of Independence.
Answer:

(1) Revival of the National Spirit in Greece: The Greeks of the early 19th century were the degenerate descendants of the noble race of ancient times. But they were the first among the Balkan people to throw off the Turkish yoke and achieve independence. Although the Greeks were permitted to practice their religion, they suffered from Turkish oppression, being subjected to heavy taxation and brutal treatment.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries, there was a revival of the Greek national spirit consequent upon the decline of Ottoman power. Ancient Greek literature was read with an interest in the intellectual glories of their ancestors. It stimulated the national consciousness of the Greeks and they longed for freedom. In 1814, a secret society called the Hetairia Philike was formed at Odessa which aimed at ending Turkish rule in Greece and expelling the Turks from Europe.

(2) The First Rising in 1921: The Hetairia Philike became widespread and powerful and in 1921 the first outburst of the Greeks occurred in Wallachia and Moldavia. The revolt was led by Prince Alexander Ypsilanti. The Greeks failed to receive the Russian and Rumanian help on which they had counted and the revolt was easily crushed by the Turkish armies in Wallachia.

(3) The Greek War of Independence: In 1821, war broke out in the Morea islands. The war of Greek Independence was fought with great ferocity on both sides and was marked by horrible atrocities on each side. The Greeks massacred the Turkish peasantry and the Turks took revenge by hanging the patriarch of Constantinople the head of the Greek Church on Easter Day, 1821. For some, years, both sides carried on the struggle with utmost barbarity.

The European nations sympathized with the Greeks and many of them formed societies for the purpose of assisting the Greeks with men and money. Thousands of volunteers fought for the Greeks and put up an equal first with the Turks in Morea for three years. Further, the Greeks possessed the advantage of being superior to the Turks on the sea. The fireships of the Greeks prevented the Turks from landing reinforcement.

(4) Egyptian Intervention: The whole situation suddenly changed with the intervention of Mahamat Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, on the side of the Porte. At first, the Egyptian intervention seemed to be an omen of utter ruin to the Greeks. The army of Egypt under Ibrahim, the son of the Pasha, overrun Morea and the navy of Egypt dominated the Aegean Sea. The whole population of the Greek mainland stood in danger of destruction.

(5) European Intervention: Western nations could not stand Greece, the most illustrious corner of Europe and the original home of civilization, being subjected to the cruelties of Ibrahim. But the principles of the Holy Alliance could not be applied to Greece, for the reactionary powers under the leadership of Metternich feared that the Greek success would encourage rebellions elsewhere in Europe. Canning, the British Foreign Minister felt that if the Czar intervened on behalf of the Greeks, it would extend Russian influence in the Balkan peninsula. For this reason, he did not wish to see the Ottoman Empire weakened.

As for Russia, Czar Alexander, although he had no sympathy for the rebellion, wished to interfere on grounds of religion, for the Greeks professed the same form of Christianity as the Russians. Canning realized that on the ground of humanity it would not be possible to object to Russia, taking up arms. So, he agreed to a Joint Anglo-Russian action in the Balkans. France approved the Anglo-Russian policy out of sentiment. In 1827, by the Treaty of London, the three Powers agreed to compel the Sultan, by the peaceful naval blockade to grant autonomy to the Greeks. The Treaty of London was the real foundation of Greek independence.

(6) Battle of Navarillo, 1827: The Sultan refused to recognize the autonomy of the Greeks and the members of the Triple Alliance sent their fleets into Turkish waters. A chance shot brought about a battle to the Bay of Navarino and the Turko-Egyptian fleet was destroyed. The battle of Navarino was accidental, but it was decisive. Greek independence, though not achieved yet, was no longer in doubt.

(7) Treaty of Adrianople, 1829: After the battle of Navarino, Great Britain withdrew from participation in Near Eastern affairs. In 1828 Russia declared war on Turkey and a Russian army marched toward Constantinople. The Sultan gave way and signed the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. Greece was recognized as a self-governing State under Turkish overlordship. The provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy and put under Russian protection.

The treaty of Adrianople is a diplomatic triumph for Russia. The Greeks felt that their independence was, in the main, the result of Russian intervention. Russian prestige and influence increased in the Balkan peninsula. Moldavia and Wallachia too felt grateful to Russia.

(8) The Kingdom of Greece: Greece refused to accept the solution to her problem offered by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. Russia preferred the arrangement, for as long as Greece was only an autonomous state, it gave her scope for future interference in the Balkans. But the way was cleared for the recognition of a new Greek State completely independent of Turkey in 1810 when Palmerston who was a liberal came to the Foreign Office in England. A series of conferences were held in London between France, Britain, and Russia. Finally, in 1832, Greece was recognized as fully independent. A constitutional monarchy was set up in Greece in 1833, with Otto, the Bavarian Prince, as king.

(1) Significance of the Greek War of Independence: The tiny kingdom of Greece had in no way altered the balance of power in Europe. Yet the resurrection of Greece was the most significant fact. Greece dealt the first successful blow to the Concert of Europe and took the best step in the dissolution of the Turkish Empire in Europe. Finally, Greece gave the impetus to the modern spirit of nationalism which brought the Austrian Empire to the ground.

Question 15. Examine briefly the rule of the restored Bourbons in France and account for the July Revolution of 1830.
Answer:

The rule of the restored Bourbons in France and account for the July Revolution of 1830

It is hard to be expected that the history of France, after the violent alternations of the last 25 years from monarchy to regicide, Terror to Empire, victory to defeat, and Bonaparte to Bourbon should be free from oscillation. There was the heritage of the Revolution to be reconciled with the restoration of royalism, the lilies with the tricolor, the natural desire of the returned exiles for restitution with the irrevocable march of time, and the growth of new vested interests.

Louis 18, the uninspired but not vindictive brother of Louis 16, had returned to France with a Constitutional charter granting an elective chamber, personal equality, freedom of religion, and the Press. But he was, however, unable to control the ultraroyalist forces that pressed upon the ministry and the country.

Immediately after the Hundred Days, a popular outburst in the south of France against the Republicans and Bonapartists recalled in the white Terror, the worst excesses of the French Revolution, while a Royalist chamber of Deputies demanded the proscription of the ‘traitors’ of the Hundred Days, even putting to death the indomitable Ney. The reaction was strengthened by the unfortunate murder in 1820 of the Duke of Berrison

Of Comte of Artois. Laurel, the assassin, a Bonapartist soldier, swore that he had no accomplices, but his act was made to recoil upon the liberal party, the King allowed. the country to drift upon the tide of a clerical and anti-liberal reaction, headed by the emigre party which had “learned nothing and forgotten nothing” during its exile.

Opposition began to form and the Napoleonic legend was beginning to hallow the name of the dead Emperor. But Louis 18 died peacefully in his bed. It was the Comte de Artois, raised to the throne in 1824 as Charles X, who drove the opposition to rebellion.

A Government based on the pretensions of the divine right, conducted in the interests of the emigres and Jesuits, carried on by the repression of criticism and free election and at the expense of popular liberty and equality, provoked a furious discontent which not even the participation in the Battle of Navarins and the conquest of Algiers could assuage. Matters came to a crisis when Charles appointed a most reactionary ministry headed by Polignac. In 1830 he attempted what was virtually a royalist coup defeat; the charter was superseded by a series of ordinances issued from St. Cloud.

Under the cover of this provision, Charles issued, on July 25th, three ordinances

(1) Setting aside the recent elections as null and void, and summoning a new Chamber
(2) Narrowing the franchise and,
(3) Silencing the Press. Polignac also announced his determination “to reorganize the society to give back the clergy their weight in State affairs, they create a powerful aristocracy, and to surround it with privileges.” The next day Paris, at to instigation of the journalists, broke out in revolt and erected barricades. While the signal for insurrection was given by journalists, the movement itself was organized by republicans, who had prepared for the day of revolution by establishing secret societies among the population of Paris.

As the significance of the ordinances came to be more clearly seen, popular anger began to manifest itself. Fuel was added to the rising flame by the appointment of Marmont Odious as a traitor to France in 1814, to the command of the troops in Paris. The workmen of the printing establishments, thrown out of employment, began agitating and other workmen joined them. On Wednesday, July 28, civil war broke out. The war lasted three days.

It was the July Revolution, the glorious three days. The ministry, taken by complete surprise, was unable to coerce the capital into submission and a provisional Government was set up at the Hotel de Ville, under the famous revolutionary leader Lafayette. The king now sought to revoke the ordinances, but it was too late, and after a futile attempt to save his dynasty by abdicating in favor of his grandson, he passed into exile.

Question 16. Describe the Revolution of 1830 in France and point out its effects on Europe.
Answer:

The Revolution of 1830 in France and point out its effects on Europe

(1) Introduction: The Bourbons of France had learned nothing from the Revolution of 1789. The Revolution of 1830 in France was the result of an attempt by Charles X to restore royal absolutism and the privileges of the nobility. In July 1830, he dissolved the Chambers and issued the Ordinance of St Cloud breaking his promises to rule Constitutionally.

Paris rose in revolt, and the King capitulated to his people and abdicated his throne. The crown was offered to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Despite the change of dynasty, the monarchy itself was not overthrown. The French established a constitutional monarchy which was a middle course, between the evils of the absolute monarchy on the one hand and mob rule on the other.

(2) Effects of the Revolution on Europe: The French Revolution of 1830 had far-reaching consequences. It looked as such the system of Metternich was giving way and the forces of the reaction were breaking down. Another wave of liberalism and nationalism once again swept over Europe. Revolts broke out in Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Germany. In Italy and Germany, however, the revolts were quickly stamped out by the members of the Quadruple Alliance.

(3) Belgian Revolt: The Belgian Revolution was the first successful revolution in Western Europe in 1830. The Congress of Vienna had arbitrarily joined Belgium with Holland. The Belgians differed from the Dutch in all ways language, religion, and economic life. The Belgians spoke a language similar to French.

They were Catholic while the Dutch were Protestants. The Dutch were agricultural and commercial people, but the Belgians were only manufacturers. So, the Belgians resented the union with the Dutch. Under these circumstances, the King of Holland attempted to force the Dutch language on Belgium. The French Revolution of 1830 aroused in the Belgians the spirit of nationalism. Revolution spread rapidly on October 4, 1830. Belgium declared its independence. They elected king Leopold of Coburg as their King and he was crowned in 1831.

The reactionary powers were prevented from intervening by the warning of Louis Philippe of France. In 1831, at a conference in London, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England recognized the independence of Belgium. This was the first setback to the forces of reaction.

(4) Poland: The Congress of Vienna had made Czar Alexander of Russia, the King of Poland. Alexander granted the Poles very liberal institutions. However, the Poles were dissatisfied with their limited powers and aspired for an independent and united Poland. The spirit of unrest in Poland was strong.

When the July Revolution broke out, Czar Nicholas I, the successor of Alexander, ordered the Polish army to prepare a campaign for the suppression of the Belgian revolt. The Poles rose in revolt and fought desperately to throw off Russian rule. The revolt was crushed by the Czar who recaptured Warsaw and annexed Poland to Russia. Poland ceased to exist as a separate kingdom. It became merely a province of the Russian Empire.

(5) Italy: Italy also felt the revolutionary wave of 1830. Revolution broke out in the Duchies of Parma and Modena and in parts of the Papal States. The rulers of Modena and Parma were forced to flee. The Italians hoped for the support of Louis Philippe which did not come forth. Austrian troops suppressed the revolts and restored the exiled rulers. Reaction again held sway in Italy.

(6) Germany: In 1830, revolts broke out in Germany, in Brunswick, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, and Hanover. The people of these States secured new constitutions. However, Metternich succeeded in carrying the reaction further and passed new regulations which reduced the freedoms won to the minimum.

(7) Significance of the July Revolution: Except for the birth of Belgium as a new State, the Revolution of 1830 had no achievement to its credit in Europe. Even in France, the Revolution failed to establish a Republic, although it was planned and carried out by democrats. Nonetheless, it would be a mistake to minimize the importance of the Revolution. The significance of the July Revolution, like that of the English Revolution of 1688, was negative rather than positive. No advance was made in the direction of democracy. Thus the Revolution of 1830 was the complement of the Revolution of 1789.

Question 17. Discuss the events leading to the downfall of Louis Philippe. Or, What were the causes of the February Revolution (1848) in France? Or, What were the causes of the downfall of the July monarchy?
Answer:

Causes of the July Revolution: The Bourbons of France had learned nothing from the Revolution of 1789. The Revolution of France was the result of an attempt by Charles X to restore royal absolutism and the privileges of the nobility. In July 1830 he dissolved the chambers and issued the ordinance of St Cloud, breaking his promises to rule constitutionally. Paris rose in revolt, and the King capitulated to his people and abdicated his throne.

The crown was offered to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Despite the change of dynasty, the monarchy itself was not overthrown. The French established a constitutional monarchy which was a middle course between the ‘evils of absolute monarchy on the one hand and mob rule on the other. As the rule of the Orleans began in July (1830), it was known as the July Monarchy.

But the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848), the ‘citizen king’ of France, in due course proved unsuccessful and unpopular. The fundamental cause of Louis Philippe’s unpopularity was his refusal to accommodate himself to the prejudices of the French people and to shape his diplomacy on lines acceptable to the nation at large.

On two occasions it was furnished with an opportunity to satisfy the French yearning for glory, it was the unpardonable offense of the King, that on each occasion and stood between the nation and the satisfaction of its desires. The first Opportunity came at the moment of his accession to the throne. The French Revolution of 1830 convulsed every State and rocked every throne on the continent. The French people demanded that the monarchy should intervene on behalf of the oppressed nationalities.

In 1840 the international situation afforded a second Opportunity to the Orleans monarchy to abandon its pacific policy and identify itself unreservedly with the national aspirations. The military achievements of Mehamet Ali, the Party of Egypt, had aroused the unbounded enthusiasm of the French people, who were carried away by the idea that upon his shoulders had fallen the mantle of Napoleon. France

“became the patron of Mehamet. But she stood alone. The treaty of London (1840) was signed among the great powers excluding France. France became politically isolated. Her Prime Minister Thiers urged the adoption of warlike measures but the King vigorously opposed such proposals which would involve the French of the July monarchy in the greatest danger.

France adopted a policy of peace and the danger of war passed. Thiers resigned and Guizot now became the chief minister. Thus France’s popular approval was withheld from the Government owing to its foreign policy of ‘resistance’ only served to strengthen the opposition.

The July monarchy was a Government of the bourgeoisie, of the well-to-do, of the capitalists. They alone possessed suffrage. They had wrested the fruits of victory out of the hands of the populace which had borne the heat of the struggle and had established the Citizen King on the throne to consolidate their position in the community as the governing class.

The grievances of the working class alone attracted the attention of republicans and accordingly, they began to concentrate upon social and parliamentary reforms, as the starting point of the new order. Year after year the two demands were brought forward in the Chamber; year after year they were voted down by the majority.

Prime Minister Guizot was vehemently criticized for his action. The people of France exceedingly dissatisfied with the existing order, converged in 1848, though unintentionally and unsympathetically, toward the most violent of reckless upheavals France has known since 1789 a movement initiated by the Moderate monarchists rapidly furthered by the Republicans, in the end partly dominated by the socialists. Guizot believed that the demands of the reform were the cry of a few for political gain, and people as a whole were entirely indifferent.

But in 1847 a series of reform bouquets were published by the people with the help of the reformers. They wanted to change the policy of the Government But the king, advised by Guizot, refused to yield.

On the other hand, the leaders of the opposition party demanded the legal right of the people to hold public meetings, to test the right before the courts of law. The opposition arranged a great meeting on Feb 22, 1848. The Government called out the National Guard. It referred to a march against the insurgents. Finally, on February 24, the King abdicated and another French King took the road to England to enter a life of exile.

Question 18. Describe the February Revolution of 1848 in France. What were its effects on Europe?
Answer:

(1) French Revolution of 1848: The reign of Louis Philippe, the ‘citizen king’ of France in due course proved unsuccessful. The Royalists treated him as a usurper, for he was not the legitimate king. He was equally a usurper to the common people because he belied their hopes of a republic. The overthrow of Louis Philippe was precipitated by two questions, viz. foreign policy, and reform. The French people demanded that he should intervene on behalf of the oppressed nationalities of Europe.

Louis refused to involve himself in wars. Louis Blanc began to preach socialism and the opponents of the Government demanded electoral reform. Louis Philippe made no attempt to overcome the movement. He gave way at once and took refuge in England. This was the February Revolution of 1848. The Second Republic was set up in France headed by Lamartine.

(2) Effects of the Revolution in Europe: The French Revolution of 1848 caused the most widespread disturbances in Europe. Revolution broke out from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, from France to the Russian frontier. The system of Metternich crushed in confusion. Revolt broke out in the very heart of Austria, at Vienna, which was the bulwark of reaction. It looked as if the monarchy was coming to an end all over Europe.

Revolts broke out in every part of the Austrian Empire. Austrian Empire seemed to be on the eve of dissolution. But at every point reaction set in and revolution was defeated. All these revolutions aimed at national independence and free constitutions. They were not much concerned with social reconstruction.

(3) Revolution in Austrian Empire :

(1) Vienna: In 1848, Vienna rose in revolt. The immediate impetus came from Hungary. The rising in Vienna was largely organized by students and the working class. Metternich was forced to resign and he fled away to England. A Constituent Assembly met which abolished all feudal abuses and began to draw up a new Constitution.

(2) Hungary: Serious troubles broke out in Hungary led by Louis Kossuth, one of Hungary’s greatest heroes. The revolt in Vienna reacted upon Hungary. In 1848, the Hungarian Diet passed the March Laws, which swept away the old aristocratic political machinery and substituted a modern democratic Government. Feudal dues -were abolished and freedoms of the press religion and trial by jury were established.

(3) Bohemia: The example of Hungary was followed by Bohemia. There were two faces in Bohemia-the Germans, wealthy and educated, and the Czechs, poorer but the majority. The Czechs claimed equality with the Germans and the same things that the Hungarians had demanded. The Emperor conceded them.

(4) Italy: The Italians seized the opportunity created by the general unrest everywhere and. attempted to overthrow Austrian influence in Italy. Lombardy and Venice rose against Austria and they were supported by Piedmont and Sardinia. Revolts also broke out in Tuscany, the Papal States, and Napoleon. Several of these States gained liberal constitutions, Mazzini organized a revolt in Rome and the Pope was driven out. Italy had thus practically declared her independence.

(5) Suppression of the Revolts in Austrian Dominions: By the end of March 1848, the revolution was successful everywhere. But the period of triumph was brief. Prague was occupied and a dictatorship was established in Bohemia. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, was defeated by the Austrians at Custozza and Novara. Venice and Lombardy were crushed.

The Catholics of France swept away the Mazzini’s Republic of Rome. In Hungary, racial rivalries broke out between the Magyars on one hand and the Serbs, Croatians, and Rumanians and the other. Austria exploited the situation and fanned a civil war. At last in 1849, Austria with Russian aid, defeated the Magyars at Vilagos, Kossuth fled to Turkey and the Hungarian War of Independence was over.

(6) Germany: In 1848 not satisfied with the powers granted by Frederick William IV of Prussia, the people of Berlin revolted. William IV pacified the revolt by granting a Constitution and liberal reforms. But the news of the suppression of the revolt in Vienna encouraged the King of Prussia to undo the reforms he had introduced.

With the aid of his army, he dissolved the assembly. Next under the presidency of Prussia, a federal Constitution was drawn up for North Germany. Austria opposed it by re-establishing the Federal Assembly of Frankfurt. Prussia humiliated itself by surrendering her claim to Austria at Olmutz. Thus Austria seemed to dominate Germany.

(7) Significance of the Revolt of 1848: The Revolution of 1848 was another great leap forward on the path of nationalism and liberalism in Europe. Another striking feature was that it constituted an epoch in political democracy and economic democracy.

The Revolution of 1789 was directed against the arbitrary monarchy, the Revolution of 1830 against aristocratic privilege, and the Revolution of 1848 against middle-class Government. In other words, legal equality was established in 1789, social equality in 1830, and political equality in 1848. The Revolution of 1848 introduced manhood suffrage in France which destroyed the political power of the bourgeoisie. Political power was now extended to the people.

The Revolution was also remarkable for an experiment in socialism which was exhibited in the national workshops and ended in failure. The watchword of the Revolution was ‘the right to work’. A new and potent force was brought to life—the Proletariat.

Question 19. Compare and contrast the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848.
Answer:

The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848: The French Revolution of 1830 was a constitutional movement. The French Revolution of 1830 was a protest against the reactionary policy followed by Charles X of France. It was the outcome of the growing liberal tendencies of the time and it aimed at securing a constitutional form of Government. It was not republican in spirit; it was not directed against the monarchy. It sought to put an end to autocracy.

The expulsion of Charles X was not followed by the establishment of a republic but by the accession of another king who professed more liberal views. The result was that a despotic monarchy was supplanted by a constitutional monarchy. The Revolution of 1848 was, on the other hand, a distinctly republican movement, strongly colored by socialistic ideas. It was the joint product of political and economic causes. The people demanded an enlargement of the franchise. Side by side with this demand arose the demands of the socialists who aimed not merely at the.

Extension of political power, but at the reconstruction of satiety in the interest of the working classes. Socialism and republicanism would not brook monarchy and so the expulsion of Louis was followed by the establishment of a republic. Thus the aims and objects of the two Revolutions were different.

Both revolutions found their echo in almost all the countries of Europe. However, the movements that followed the July Revolution of 1830 were democratic. They aimed at securing constitutional governments. The only exception was the case of Belgium where the movement was distinctly nationalist.

However, the outbreaks that followed the French Revolution of 1848 were in most cases national movements. They aimed at securing merely a constitutional Government but a Government that should represent the nation’s will., This was especially the case in Germany, Italy, and Hungary.

As regards results, the two Revolutions were somewhat alike. Both ended in failure. The only success which attended the Revolution of 1830 was the independence of Belgium. But that was largely due to the intervention of foreign powers who were actuated more by considerations of self-interest than by a desire to support liberalism. The Revolution of 1848 was likewise attended with scanty success.

Only two states, Prussia and Sardinia, obtained constitutions. But one point should be noted, i.e., that these constitutions were the free gifts of rulers and not extorted from them. This shows that not merely the people but some of the rulers had realized the necessity of a constitutional form of Government. In this respect, the Revolution of 1848 marks a distinct advance in the direction of liberalism and so may be looked upon as more successful than that of 1830.

Question 20. Explain the characteristics of the period from 1815 to 1850 in the history of Europe.
Answer:

(1) A period of struggle between liberalism and conservatism: The period 1815-1848 was one of a struggle between the antagonistic forces of liberalism and conservatism. It opens with the meeting of a Congress in Vienna where the diplomats of Europe sought to bridle the new forces unleashed by the French Revolution.

The diplomats assumed that the storm which had recently raged over Europe for nearly a quarter of a century was only a passing event that had temporarily disorganized Europe. So they ignored its challenge and sob to work to restore pre-revolutionary conditions so far as practicable.

The revolution, however, had left behind its heritage of ideas and influences–the unsettling forces of democracy and nationalism. These forces, though impalpable, were strong and intoxicating enough to take a firm hold on the minds of the people.

They became the creed of a new political group! and the people clung to them with almost religious ardor. Hence the attempt of the diplomats of Vienna to put back the hands of the clock clashed with the newly awakened aspirations of the people. As the result, the period witnessed several popular outbreaks, which on two occasions became epidemics in 1830 and in 1848.

(2) A new experiment in international government: At the beginning of this period an interesting experiment, the first of its kind, in international or congressional government was made. The settlement of Vienna was placed under the collective guarantee of four great powers, viz. Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain bound themselves in a Quadruple Alliance to maintain the territorial arrangements as made by Congress.

At the same time, they proposed to meet in periodical Congresses to discuss common interests and such measures as would contribute to the maintenance of peace in Europe. It was this proposal for periodical meetings that gave birth to the so-called Concert of Europe. Four such meetings were held, at Aix-Ia-Chapelle in 1818, at Troppau in 1820, at Laibach in 1921, and at Verona in 1822. Under the guidance of Metternich, the Concert increasingly became an instrument for the suppression of liberalism and revolution.

Castlereagh, although an ardent promoter of the congressional Government, protested against its policy of intervention in the internal affairs of other states. His successor in the British Foreign Office, Canning, went further and ended this hazardous experiment by taking a firm stand against the policy of binding Europe in chains.

(3) Dominance of Metternich: During this period Mettemich was the central figure of European diplomacy. So strong was his influence that the King of Prussia and Czar Alexander of Russia followed his lead. He was, however, the reactionary genius of Europe, an implacable enemy of liberalism. His policy was to preserve the peace of Europe and to maintain its status quo. But to him, the preservation of peace meant the preservation of autocracy.

He was responsible for the Carlsbad decrees which laid Germany under the iron heels of reaction. In Italy, his influence was successfully exerted to suppress all liberal and nationalist aspirations. At a time when the heroic struggle of the Greeks for freedom aroused sympathy all over Europe.

Metternich stood for his principle of legitimacy and looked upon the Greeks as rebels against established authority and held back the Czar from coming to their help. For Europe tired and timid after the onslaughts of the French Revolution, he was a necessary man but he became an anachronist when he was growing old and the whole world was renewing its youth.

(4) Results of the revolutions: In the struggle of the people to realize their liberal and national aspirations, the victory was for a time on the side of the autocratic powers. The revolutions were suppressed and the reaction was triumphant. Thus the period was one of aspiration rather than solid achievement Only two states, Sardinia and Prussia, were, by the pressure of events, compelled to grant constitutions. As regards nationalism, it scored only two victories, one in Greece and the other in Belgium. Thus, judged by tangible results, the achievement so far was very meager.

Nevertheless, it should be noted that autocracy everywhere had received a staggering blow and significant breaches had been made in Metternich’s system. The rulers began to realize that it was not safe to disregard the wishes of the people.

Besides, the strength and force of the passionate efforts of the people, the enthusiasm evoked by their devotion and heroism, did not perish altogether. The revolutions of 1848, though crushed, left their marks everywhere to inspire future generations. The sense of national unity in Germany and Italy was checked, but in no sense destroyed. In no distant future, both countries achieve national unity under better auspices and abler guidance.

Question 21. Assess the role of Metternich in the history of Europe from 1815 to 1848. Or, Explain the principal features of the system of Metternich and discuss the causes of its final overthrow. Or, What is understood by the term Metternich system? Or, Form an estimate of the role played by Metternich in the history of Europe from 1815 to 1848.
Answer:

(1) Prince Metternich (1773-1859): Prince Metternich was the most important and the most outstanding personality in Europe between 1815 and 1848. The European diplomacy during this period centered around his person and so great was his importance that this period in European history is often called the Metternich Era or the System of Metternich. Autocratic European monarchs sought his advice, and revolutions trembled at his sight. He was a Prince among diplomats. At the age of thirty-six, he became the Chancellor of Austria.

For forty years he ruled the country with a stern hand. Metternich had an inborn hatred for democratic institutions. He was an avowed enemy of the French Revolution. He struck Napoleon at the right time. Austria joined the campaign of 1814 and brought about the fall of the great conqueror.

(2 Metternich at the Congress of Vienna: Metternich presided over the Congress of Vienna and as such he was the main architect of the new Europe, carved out in Vienna. He succeeded to a great extent in bringing back to their former glories the absolute Princes of Europe, who had earlier fled before the tide of popular revolutions.

He gave up the distant and risky provinces of the Austrian Netherlands and got in exchange the nearer Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. Germany was left divided under the Austrian grip. Thus, at the Congress of Vienna, Metternich proved to be the embodiment of reaction.

(3) Metternich and the Concert of Europe: To hold his system intact, and to preserve peace and order in Europe, Metternich proposed periodic conferences of the great powers, and thus signed the Quadruple Alliance in November 1815, between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain. France was allowed to join this brotherhood in 1818. Metternich’s idea was to have an international police force to help maintain law and order in Europe.

The Quadruple Alliance powers agreed to meet from time to time to discuss the problems facing them and thereby maintain the peace of Europe. These periodic conferences of the powers were to be the beginning of the Concert of Europe. The first of a series of Conferences took place at Aix-La-Chapelle in 1818. France was admitted to the Alliance and agreed to the use of force by the rest of the four powers in case of a revolution within her territory.

Two years later, the Alliance powers met at Troppau in 1820 to take stock of the situation created by the disorders in Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, and Greece. Austria, Russia, and Prussia signed a protocol and declared their intention not to recognize any change in the status quo of Europe and to meet any revolutionary changes by force. This conference was a great triumph for Metternich. Another conference took place at Laibach in 1821.

Austria was chosen to be the executioner in Italy and France was to help to restore the autocratic rule of Ferdinand in Spain. The fourth and last conference was held at Verona in 1822. It dealt exclusively with the problem of Spain. Ferdinand VII was restored to his absolutism with the help of French bayonets. Thus Metternich had succeeded in keeping the European States tied up to his order and system. His name had become a terror in European Capitals.

(4) Metternich and Austria-Hungary: The suppression of all liberal ideas and free thinking was the keynote of the policy of Metternich. He did not want to take any risks in matters of law and order. The preservation of the status quo was his greatest aim. He believed that the circumstances demanded a very strict and extreme reactionary policy. The racial admixture in Austria—Hungary did not allow any loosening of the grip, or else the empire would be in danger of dismemberment. To avoid any complications for the administration, prevention at an earlier stage was better than a cure later. Thus a reign of tyranny and repression was let loose in Austria.

Strict censorship was imposed on the press of the country. Universities were brought under strict control of the Government and no liberal thinking and teaching were allowed therein. A regular spy ring was established at these educational institutions. No foreign literature of liberal views was allowed to be imported into the country. Foreign travel was not encouraged. In fact, an attempt was made to shut out and segregate Austria from the rest of the world.

The Government did not bother and care for the economic development of the country. The result was that trade sickened and commerce lagged. Emperor Francis I of Austria was in complete agreement with the policy of his Chancellor and backed him up in his methods of dealing with the people. In short, Austria-Hungary from 1815 to 1848 was in the iron grip of Metternich and the people had to wait patiently for any relief for this monster to meet his doom.

(5) Metternich and Germany: Germany had come out of the Vienna settlement with thirty-eight sovereign states, loosely united together in the German confederation under the leadership of Austria. This again was a triumph for Metternich. Prussia remained weak—unable to do anything for German unity. The small states of Germany were jealous of one another and Metternich took full advantage of this mutual jealousy.

He established his system in the Germanies as well, where freedom of any kind for liberal thinking was not allowed, The German Diet was persuaded in 1819 to enact the famous Carlsbad decrees. According to those laws, liberty of any Kind ceased to exist in most of the German States. A commission was appointed for the purpose of tracing out the secret organizations and conspiracies. Such unsocial activities were to be vigorously crushed. An elaborate spy system was established. Liberal teaching was forbidden at the universities.

(6) The Metternich System in Italy :

Metternich had succeeded in keeping. Italy was a “geographical expression” at the Vienna settlement. His greatest aim after 1815 was to preserve what he had achieved in Italy. The Habsburg rulers of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, who had run away, were restored to their thrones with all the evils of their despotism. Further, he guaranteed the rulers of Naples and Sicily a despotic rule and Austrian help in the name of a revolution. Other rulers of Italy too were encouraged to be despotic and curb liberals. Thinking in their dominions. True to his word, the Austrian Chancellor despatched Austrian troops to the aid of the King of Naples, when there was a popular uprising there in 1820. A similar revolt was crushed in Piedmont in 1821. Insurrections broke out again in Italy in 1831 and 1832 against the despotic regimes there. But once again these revolts were suppressed with Austrian assistance. Lombardy and Venetia were ruled directly by Austria as her provinces, and the rest of the Italian States were subject to the tyranny of Metternich.

(7) Metternich and Spain :

Spanish people had forced their King Ferdinand VII to grant them a constitution. This was, however, not to the liking of Metternich. When Ferdinand appealed to him for help against his own people, Metternich at once decided to come to the rescue of the Spanish King in restoring his autocracy over his dominions. Consequently, the Congress of Verona (1822) commissioned France to lead an army into Spain. The French armies invaded Spain and the absolutism of Ferdinand was restored. Thus Metternich succeeded in establishing his system in Spain too.

(8) Metternich and Tzar Alexander of Russia :

The young Tzar Alexander I of Russia was an idealist and a liberal. He disliked Metternich at the Congress of Vienna and regarded him as a hypocrite and a liar. Later events changed his views and made him rather a disciple of Metternich. The revolt of the Polish people against him had been the most disgusting thing to him. In his own country, the liberals were out to trouble him. He could not remain an idle spectator to these developments under his very nose. Thus he was convinced of the efficiency of his methods of Metternich in dealing with these problems.

(9) An estimate of Metternich :

There is not much that could be said in praise of Metternich except that he preserved the peace of Europe for a sufficiently long time with his system of restraint. He was at the same time the most detestable personality on the continent and if the suffering multitudes of Europe prayed and asked for anything, it was for his exit.

Question 22. Briefly explain the Italian war of liberation from 1815-1848.
Answer:
(1) Secret societies instigate plots and revolts :

The political arrangement of Italy as made by the Congress of Vienna left her prey to disunion, despotism, and foreign domination. Austria was allowed a predominant influence in Italy. She directly controlled the two richest provinces, Lombardy and Venice, while the Duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany were well within the orbit of her influence as their rulers were connected with her imperial House. Naples was also a satellite as its ruler Ferdinand II had undertaken not to introduce a form of government inconsistent with the Austrian system. Thus to all intents and purposes, Austria was for a space the arbiter of Italian destiny.

The country was parcelled out into a number of petty states whose rulers were all petty despots hostile to the forces of liberalism and nationalism. But the impulse towards liberalism and unification given by the Napoleonic regime in Italy could not be wiped out. The autocratic rulers indeed banned all public manifestations of liberalism, but the movements were kept alive by secret societies, of which the most important was the Carbonari. These societies spread all over Italy, fostering the ideals of nationalism and tormenting insurrections. It was owing to their activity that in 1820 a revolution broke out in Naples, and another in Piedmont in 1821, but both were suppressed by Austrian troops. Liberalism was cowed. In 1830 a few small outbreaks occurred in the Papal States and in Parma and Modena. Austria again intervened and extinguished the flames of insurrection. The risings were local and spasmodic and were rather protests against the existing conditions than signs of a new age.

(2) Mazzini, the prophet of Italian nationalism :

With the appearance of Mazzini, an ardent idealist, in the field of Italian politics, there came a great change in the outlook of the people. Mazzini was caught by the vision of a free and united Italy and became the most eloquent prophet of her regeneration. In 1831 he founded a society called “Young Italy” with the motto “God and the People.” It was to be an educative body seeking to found the new Italian nation on the gospel of duty. He infused into the Italian movement a moral fervor that it so long lacked, kindled the enthusiasm of the people, and kept alive the spirit of insurrection. Mazzini’s great achievement was in the realm of ideas. He held up before the people the ideal of national unity and liberation and made it into a popular movement. As a consequence, what was before? only the passionate cry of a few became the creed of the masses.

(3) Pope Pius IX gives an impulse to reform :

Thus in the forties of the century, there was a great ferment of thought in Italy. The people received a fresh impulse in 1846 when Pius IX, a man of liberal views, was elected to the Papal chair. His first act was to issue an amnesty for political prisoners, and this was followed by other liberal reforms such as the relaxation of the censorship of the press, admission of laymen to certain posts in the Papal states, and the modification of the ecclesiastical character of the Government. These measures were received with unbounded enthusiasm ‘and Pius IX became immensely popular. The hopes of the people ran high and liberalism raised its head everywhere in Italy, especially in Tuscany and Piedmont. Metternich was, however, much alarmed and sought to coerce the Pope by occupying Ferrara. This measure caused a wave of indignation to sweep all over Italy. It intensified the demand for reform and at the same time produced a strong current of anti-Austrian feelings in 1847. The next year was the year of revolution in Europe and it also broke out in Italy.

The first outbreak of the people occurred at Palermo in Sicily. They demanded Sicilian autonomy and constitutional reforms. The movement spread to the mainland of Naples. Ferdinand II was frightened into granting a constitution both to Naples and to his island kingdom of Sicily. The success scored by the people in the south of Italy was a signal for democratic risings all over the country even before the outbreak of the revolution in France. Demands for reform were made everywhere and demonstrations in favor of a constitution occurred in Piedmont, Tuscany, and the Papal States. In all these principalities the rulers had to grant constitutions and parliamentary Governments. So far the movement was a democratic one and it met with temporary success.

(5) The revolt develops into a struggle for Italian liberation :

But the democratic movement soon developed into a struggle for national independence. The news of the rising in Paris, followed by the news of the revolution in Vienna and the flight of Metternich, sent a thrill of hope throughout Italy. Milan rose against the bated rule of Austria and after five days of street-fighting, the Austrian troops were compelled to withdraw from the city. A similar movement followed in Venice where the people, led by a liberal patriot named Manin, drove out the Austrian troops and proclaimed a republic. A universal impulse stirred all of Italy. Volunteers poured into Lombardy all quarters to strike a blow against Austria.

There arose wide demand for war to terminate Austrian domination, and Cavour, the young editor of Risorgimento, wrote a stirring appeal to Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont to lead the national war against Austria. Urged on by his own subjects and the Lombards alike, Charles Albert declared war against the Austrians in 1848. King Leopold of Tuscany followed his example, while the Pope and Ferdinand of Naples were forced by their subjects to lend support. The struggle was no longer a revolutionary insurrection, it assumed

The aspect of a national war led by an Italian Prince and supported by contingents from all of Italy. But the impulse to unity was shortlived. The Pope, torn by conflicting sentiments, declared his opposition to a war with a Catholic power, while Ferdinand of Naples recalled his army to put down a revolt in his capital. The defection of the Pope and Ferdinand sealed the fate of the war. Charles Albert was defeated by the Austrian commander Redetzky at Custozza and was forced to sign an armistice and withdraw from Lombardy (1848). The Italian revolution had received a decisive check.

(6) Republic set up in Rome by Mazzini :

The withdrawal of the Sardinian King and Pope Pius IX from the national struggle gave a new turn to the Italian movement. Hitherto it was a constitutional and monarchical movement; it now took on a republican character. Serious disturbances occurred in Rome and the people there overthrew the temporal power of the Papacy and proclaimed a republic under Mazzini’s leadership. The Pope in fear fled from Rome. Tuscany followed Rome’s example and set up a republic. The fate of Italy hung upon the attitude of Charles Albert of Piedmont. Yielding to popular pressure he once more braced himself for the task of liberating Italy. He denounced the armistice with Austria and crossed the frontier for a fresh dash at Milan. But at Novara, he was completely defeated by the Austrians (1849). Sick at heart, Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II. The defeat at Novara shattered the hopes of the Italians and marked the beginning of the reaction.

(7) Fall of the Roman Republic:

The flight of the Pope from Rome caused a stir in the Roman Catholic world. Louis Napoleon, the newly elected President of the French Republic, desired to make a counter-demonstration against the power of Austria in Italy, and so took up the cause of the Pope. He desired to please the powerful Catholic party in France, which viewed the overthrew of the Papal Government with horror. So he sent an army against Mazzini’s republic in Rome. After a brilliant defense conducted by Garibaldi for over two months, Rome surrendered to the French troops. Louis Napoleon thus won the prestige of restoring Papal supremacy in Rome. Pins IX returned to the Vatican, cured of any suspicion of liberalism.

(8) Collapse of the struggle:

Thus collapsed the premature struggle for Italian independence. Austria regained her position in Lombardy and Venetia. Absolutism was restored in the collapse of all the States except Piedmont were Victor Emmanuel II remained loyal to the constitution which his father had granted. The failure of the nationalist movement, was due in part to the confusion of aims, in part to a lack of sound leadership. No great leader arose to guide the movement into the right channel. Mazzini could inspire, and Garibaldi could fight but neither of them had that sound statesmanship that alone could utilize the forces of the time to its own advantage.

(9) Significance of the Italian revolution of 1848:
But though a failure, the struggle of the Italians was not altogether fruitless. For the first time, they had combined for a common cause, and in the name of nationalism.

Question 23. Write a note on the story of the unification of Italy.
Answer:

The story of the unification of Italy

The unification of Italy in the 19th century is an important landmark in the history, of Europe. Italy was divided into a number of small kingdoms. Taking advantage of this, big powers like France, Austria, and Spain dominated Italy.

’ Risorginena literary, meaning resurgence or re-birth, was the term used to give a call to the Italians for their unity and liberty. The Risorgimento was successful in achieving of unification of Italy.

Role of Carbonari :

The Italian terrorists, known as the Carbonaries, fired the first shot in the Italian movement for unity and liberty. The Carbonaries were so-called .as they used to burn charcoal Carbonari, the secret society sprang up in Naples and spread throughout Italy.

The risings were organized by the Austrian troops. Its chief value lay in its keeping the revolutionary spirit alive among the common people. It was the only organization of the patriots of Italy which was composed of people of all classes. They expressed their discontent through acts of violence. Thus, though Carbonari failed, their contribution to Italian unification can’t be ignored.

Role of Mazzin :

Giuseppe Mazzini founded a youth organization called Young Italy in 1831. He created the mental climate that was so necessary for building a new united Italy and it is for this that he is remembered rightly as the pioneer in the movement for a united independent Italy. The mass uprising organized by young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure.

The objectives and program of Young Italy were as follows:-
(1) Italy should be unified as one nation.
(2) Austria should be driven out of Italy.
(3) Republic should be established in Italy.
(4) In the war against Answertria foreign help was not taken.
(5) Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only.

Role of Cavour :

After the failure of the Young Italy movement, the leadership of the Italian unification passed on to us. Camillo Cavour.

His objectives were as follows:-
(1) Cavour wanted to make the problem of the unification of Italy a European question.
(2) Cavour decided to drive out Austria from Italian soil with the help of foreign powers.
(3) He believed that-the Italian unity was possible only under the leadership of Piedmont – Sardinia. Thus, when Victor Immanuel II, king of Piedmont Sardinia, appointed Cavour as the prime to his dream of a united Italy following principal stated above.

Role of Garibaldi :

Garibaldi was a famous patriot of Italy. He played a vital role in the unification of Italy. He was highly influenced by the ideas of Mazzini and he joined Young Italy. Meanwhile, with the outbreak of a mass uprising in 1860 in Sicily against their king Francis. Garibaldi appeared there with his one thousand volunteers called red shirts. As the volunteers used to wear red shirts, they were called the ‘red shirts’ On 5th May 1860, the Redshirts under the leadership of Garibaldi went to Sicily. It was called ‘Expedition of the thousands’. It seemed that the campaign would fail, for the king of Naples had 24,000 troops in Sicily and about 1,00,000 in Naples. But fortune favored Garibaldi.

Italy united :

Defeated at the Battle of Sadowa (1866) Austria had to leave Venice for Italy. Again, in 1870 after the defeat of France in the Battle of Sedan (1870), she was compelled to pull her forces out of Rome. Thus, if finally a united Italy was born out of the battle of Sedan.

Question 24. Give an account of the unification of Germany. Or, Estimate the contribution of Bismark to the unification of Germany.
Answer:

Unification of Germany

(1) Introduction :

In Germany as in Italy, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 had torn into pieces Napoleon’s work of stitching Germany together. Germany once more became a collection of patches. Nevertheless, the seeds of democratic and national ideals were stirring in their beds.

(2) Earlier attempts at unification :

(1) Carlsbad Decrees :
In 1817, the students of Jena University held the patriotic demonstration of the Wartburg Festival to celebrate the battle of Leipzig. This created panic in the Governments of Germany. Metternich successfully worked upon their fears. The Federal Diet passed the famous Carlsbad Decrees which inaugurated an era of repression and despotism in Germany for 30 years.

(2) French Revolution of 1830 :
When the success of the Paris Revolution of 1830 reached Germany, it had repercussions. In Bavaria, a monster meeting was held to celebrate the Dawn of Liberty and of German Unity. Metternich, the Policeman of Europe, summoned a Diet of the princes and rulers of Germany and rushed through a number of repressive decrees to silence public opinion.

(3) French Revolution of 1848 :
It was Paris again that gave the signal in 1848 and everywhere in Germany, the people shouted for a ‘German National Parliament’.

(4) The Frankfurt Parliament :

The rulers and Princes of Germany gave way and a Parliament was summoned in 1848 at Frankfurt The Frankfurt Parliament formally offered the crown of ‘United Germarfy’ to King Frederick William IV of Prussia. The King of Prussia refused it because it was offered to him by the people.

(5) Convention of Olmutz, 1850 :

Having refused the crown from the revolutionary assembly, Frederick William IV proposed the formation of a confederation united under the hegemony of Prussia and he was forced to accept the humiliating Convention of Olmutz in 1850. By this, the Union was dissolved and the old Bund was established with a Diet at Frankfurt to control it

(6) Bismarck appears on the scene :

In 1861, Frederick William IV was succeeded by his brother king William I. This was a turning point in the history of Germany. He believed that Prussia’s destiny depended upon the army. Prussia’s army needed strengthening, but the Prussian Parliament would not grant the necessary money. A deadlock ensued. As a last experiment, he called Otto Von Bismarck who was appointed Minister-president or Chancellor of Prussia in 1862. He boldly denied Parliament the control of the purse and the army reforms were carried through. The Prussian army was made the strongest military engine in Europe.

(7) The views of Bismarck :

Bismarck was distinguished for his strong monarchical sentiments. He believed that it was Prussian kings, nor the Prussian people who made Prussia great. He realized that one great obstacle to German unification was Austria and Austria was to be driven out by the strength of Prussian arms. Germany was to be united, with Prussia at the head of it He would effect the union of Germany not by ‘speeches’ but by the sword, ‘blood and iron’ as he called it To this end, he would follow any means however unscrupulous. Bismarck was a man of action and the most successful statesman of his age.

(8) War with Denmark :

Bismarck achieved the unification of Germany in three wars. The first of these was the war with Denmark which was precipitated by the question of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. They belonged to the King of Denmark. The people of these Duchies were predominantly German and desired a union with Germany. In 1853, against their wish, King Charles IX of Denmark incorporated Schleswig in Denmark. Bismarck saw the situation as an opportunity for a quarrel with Austria. He induced Austria to cooperate and the two powers, Austria and Prussia easily defeated Denmark which was forced to cede the Duchies to them jointly.

(9) The Austro-Prussian War :

As expected and desired by Bismarck, Austria picked up a quarrel about the future of the Duchies. Bismarck did not want any compromise and Austria played into his hands by not yielding. He isolated Austria by winning over Russia, Italy, and Napoleon III of France. War broke out in 1866. The Austro-Prussian War or the Seven Weeks’ War was short and decisive. Austrian forces were routed at Sadowa and Austria was expelled from German Confederation. By the treaty of Prague, she was to cede Venetia to Italy but to lose no other territory. France gained nothing and was dissatisfied. Thus the Austro-Prussian war led to the Franco – Prussian War. In other words, Sadowa led to Sedan.

(10) Franco-Prussian War :

Prussian victory over Austria was regarded by the French as the defeat of France. The opposition press in France attacked the Government. Napoleon III hoped to avoid the situation by getting compensation from Germany for neutrality in the Austro-Prussian War. No expectation could be more futile. Compensation could be obtained in one way only—at the point of the sword. Bismarck on his part desired war with France and manipulated public opinion in both countries to fever heat. But the famous Ems Telegram on the question of Spanish crown France, through her ambassador Benedict, demanded that Prussia should never revive the claims of.

Leopold was a relative of King William 1 of Prussia to the Spanish throne. William, I refused. When this news reached Bismarck he sent out a telegram to the press in such as to indicate that the French ambassador was insulted by the Prussian Emperor. Bismarck intended Ems Telegram to be a red rag to the French. But Napoleon III declared war on Prussia. Bismarck defeated him at Metz and at Sedan he was taken captive in 1870. Bismarck wrested Alsace-Loraine from France by the Treaty of Frankfurt.

(11) The German Empire :

The King of Prussia was made the President of the North German Confederation in 1867 by Bismarck. After the battle of Sedan and before the capture of Paris in 1871, Bismarck arranged the ceremony of inaugurating the German Empire. The King of Prussia has crowned German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors in the grand palace of Louis XIV at Versailles.

Question 25. Analyze the main features of the foreign policy of Bismarck up to 1878.
Answer:

The main features of the foreign policy of Bismarck up to 1878

(1) Introduction :

The Frankfurt fiasco of 1848 was a triumph for Austria, but to no one did it give greater satisfaction than to a Prussian subject. The man destined to fame as the cheater of German unity, Count Otto Von Bismarck. In 1862, William, the Emperor of Prussia appointed Bismarck as his minister. In the meantime, Bismarck had not only gained much experience of German affairs at Frankfurt but as ambassador at St. Petersburg from 1859 to 1862 and for a few months at Paris had acquired first-hand knowledge of the main lines of European diplomacy.

At Paris he had taken the measure of Emperor Napoleon III, his experience at Frankfurt had made him realize Austria’s bitter hostility to Prussia, his sojourn at St. Petersburg had convinced him that “Prussia must never let Russia’s friendship grow cold”, and that as Russia’s interest was concentrated on the east, she was naturally of Prussia. The Polish insurrection in 1863 gave him the opportunity at once. manifesting his friendship with Russia and frustrating the attempt of the poles to regain independence. Bismarck was a hater of democracy, he believed in the principle of “blood and iron” and he was a royalist to the core.

(2) Bismarck’s Policy :

The German empire is the result of the policy of blood and iron as carried out by Prussia through three wars which crowded in the brief period of six years the war with Denmark in 1864, with Austria in 1866, and with France in 1870-1871, the last two of which were the result of Bismarck’s will and diplomatic ingenuity and unscrupulousness and the first of which he exploited consummately, for the advantage of Prussia.

The first of these grew out of one of the complicated issues that have ever perplexed diplomatists and statesmen about the future of Schleswig and Holstein after the death of Frederick II, King of Denmark in 1863. Moreover, Bismarck saw in the situation a chance for the eventual aggrandizement of Prussia and a possible future quarrel with Austria. Denmark could not resist the combined attacks of Austria and Prussia, and soon a war broke out between the two German powers over the future of the two Duchies Schleswig and Holstein. In the meantime, Bismarck came to terms with Napoleon III at Biarritz (1865) and promised Venetia Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (1866).

In 1866 war broke out between Austria and Prussia and within six weeks Austria was defeated. The Germanic Confederation was dissolved, Austria was expelled from the Germanic body and gave Venetia to Italy, and in 1867 the German States north of Maine were virtually annexed by Prussia. After Austria, it was the turn of France. Moreover, Napoleon III had fallen on troublous days. From a successful war with France, Bismarck might not only expect a restoration of Alsace-Lorrain but the completion of the Imperial edifice of Germany and the transference of European hegemony from Paris to Berlin.

With the victory at Sedan (1870), Bismarck consummates his life’s work. Terms of union between north and south Germany had already been arranged and on January 18, 1871, King William I of Prussia accepted the Imperial Crown from his fellow prices and proclaimed Versailles as the first German Emperor. But the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) left behind its embittered memories. The French people refused to accept the verdict of Sedan as final, their hopes for
the future was expressed in the single word ‘revenge’.

In these circumstances, Bismarck put all his energies into the task of isolating France from Europe. In 1872 he built up another Holy Alliance, popularly known as Dreikaiserbund, by which Germany, Austria, and Russia united to crush liberal movements. But the reopening, of the Eastern question in 1875 introduced a new factor in the situation. At the Congress of Berlin (1878), Germany co-operated with Austria, and Russia was violently incensed at the ingratitude of the power to whom she had rendered signal services in 1870. The entente of the three Emperors was rudely shattered and Bismarck turned closer to Austrian friendship.

Question 26. Compare and contrast the unification of Italy with that of Germany.
Answer:

The two unifications present points of resemblance as well as difference.

(1) Resemblance :
(1) Both had the same end in view; the one sought the unity of Germany and the other unity of Italy.
(2) To both Italy and Germany, the first requisite was the expulsion of foreign domination, namely that of Austria.

(2) Difference :

(1) Cavour was a liberal, whereas Bismarck was a reactionary.

(2) Cavour followed constitutional and legitimate methods. The monarchy in Italy went hand in hand with the popular movement. But Bismarck believed in Prussian despotism and followed methods of ‘blood and iron’ and vile diplomacy and aggressive policy.

(3) Bismarck, unlike Cavour whose aim was not Piedmont but Italy, believed in unification with Prussian hegemony. He did not allow Prussia to be dissolved into Germany, but the rest of Germany was absorbed into Prussia. Italy absorbed Piedmont whereas Prussia absorbed Germany.

(3) Criticism :

The German Empire was the result of the policy of blood and iron carried out by Bismarck in three wars. Thus it rested upon the sword. When Cavour died, his work was substantially complete. But Bismarck, as Lipson points out, left behind problems that involve uncertainty as to the destiny of the structure he created. Later events were to prove that he gave wholly a false direction to German political development.

Question 27. Give an account of Bismarck’s internal policy.
Answer:

Bismarck’s internal policy

(1) Introduction :

The appearance of Bismarck marks the beginning of a new epoch in European history. Bismarck was one of the most original and remarkable characters of his century. He was one of the greatest men in action with an iron resolve and the most successful statesman of his age. Bismarck ranks in history as one of the few great founders of the States.

(2) The views of Bismarck :

Bismarck was distinguished for his strong monarchical sentiments. He hated democratic ideas and the anarchy left loose by the Revolution in France. To his end, Bismarck devoted all his energies. After having achieved the unification of Germany in three wars he turned his attention to the internal consolidation of the German Empire.

(3) Consolidation of the German Empire :

(1) The Constitution of the new German Empire was put into force in 1871. It was a federal constitution with the King of Prussia ipso facto the German Emperor.

(2) The Imperial Legislature: The Bundesrat :
This was the most powerful institution which possessed legislative, executive, and judicial functions. It represented the states in the federation, but representation to states was most unequal, out of 58 members Prussia alone was given 17. The Bundesrat was not a deliberative body but acted according to the instructions from the home government.

(3) The Reichstag :

The Reichstag was the popular body elected by adult suffrage. But it was powerless and little more than an advisory body. Thus, Bismarck created a staunchly monarchical confederation under Prussian hegemony. The main spring of power was the Bundesrat and the Kingdom of Prussia.

(4) The Prussian Government :

When the Prussian Government came into conflict with the royal power, Bismarck flouted it and trampled it underfoot. The Parliament of Prussia possessed no controlling voice in the state. The executive was not subject to it. The executive in Prussia was the King as Emperor, he gained his great power from the fact that he was the King of Prussia. Bismarck was known as the ‘Tamer of Parliament’.

(5) Conflict with the Church :

The New German Empire had to face a fierce religious conflict called Kultur Kampf or war in defense of civilization, for many years. It was a contest between the State and the Roman Catholic Church. The religious hatred in Germany between the Catholics and the Protestants was intensified by Prussian victories over Austria and France. They were Victories of a Protestant state over two strong Catholic powers. The Catholics won a good number of seats in the Reichstag. Bismarck did not like the appearance of the clerical party in the political arena. He believed that Church should keep out of politics.

(1) The Kultur Kampf :

The Kultur Kampf was a quarrel among the Catholics themselves. In 1870, the Vatican Council proclaimed the new dogma of Papal infallibility. The large majority of Catholic princes in Germany accepted it, but some refused. There the majority demanded that those who had not accepted it should be removed from their positions in universities and schools. The Prussian Government refused to remove them. A religious war broke out.

(2) The Falk :

The Prussian legislature passed the Falk or May Laws which forbade Catholic priests from intervening in civil affairs. The state exercised control over the appointment and dismissal of priests. A law was passed making civil marriages compulsory. The Government took repressive measures like fines and imprisonment to enforce these laws. The nation’s life was disturbed.

(3) Compromise :

The religious policy of Bismarck failed and he was forced to compromise. The anti-clerical legislation was gradually repealed except that concerning civil marriage. The only permanent result of the religious conflict was the strengthening of the Catholic party in Germany.

(6) Suppression of Socialists :

In 1878, Bismarck turned his attention to the socialist party which was founded by Ferdinand Lassalle. The socialists demanded political and civil freedoms, economic and social reforms, and humanitarian measures in the interests of the working class. Bismarck who hated the Socialists adopted two methods in dealing with them:

(1) stern repression of socialist agitation, and

(2) concessions to the working class. First came repression. In 1878 he passed a law of great severity which forbade all socialist associations, meetings, and publications. It also made provision for the promulgation of Martial Law. But repression failed to check the socialists. Bismarck tried the second method. He tried to improve the condition of the working class by adopting the policy of State Socialism Sickness. Accident, Old Age Insurance laws were passed. In this legislation, Bismarck was the pioneer in Europe. The Socialists denounced these laws as inadequate. Thus both his methods failed and the socialist party steadily increased in Germany.

(7) Army Reforms :

To safeguard the new Germany, Bismarck turned to both diplomacy and military preparedness. The German military machine was always growing, never shrinking, after 1871 Bismarck introduced compulsory military service.

(8) Judicial Reforms :

The whole judicial administration was reorganized and a uniform code of procedure was introduced for the whole empire. A Supreme Court was established at Leipzig.

(9) Economic Measures :

Bismarck brought about a thorough change in the financial and industrial policy of Germany. In the interest of the development of German manufactures, he adopted in 1879, the policy of protection by introducing high tariffs. For the same purpose in 1884, he introduced the vigorous colonial policy. Germany was thoroughly industrialized. The iron mines of Lorraine as well as the coal mines or the Ruhr were fully exploited. Steel and Textile industries were promoted and Railway was extended. The Reich Bank was established and the coinage was improved.

(9) “Dropping of the Pilot” :

In 1888, Frederick William I was succeeded by his ‘son, William II. The new Kaiser could not break the controlling influence of the great chancellor. Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890. The removal of Bismarck was a great loss to Germany as shown in the phrase “dropping of the pilot” which is applied to describe it.

Question 28. What were the aims of the foreign policy of Bismarck from 1861 to 1871?
Answer:

The aims of the foreign policy of Bismarck from 1861 to 1871

(1) Introduction :

The appearance of Bismarck marked the beginning of a new epoch in European history. Bismarck who entered the stage of European politics in 1861, was one of the most original and remarkable characters of his century. He was one of the greatest of the diplomats and men of a Nation with an iron resolve. Like Napoleon, he was a destroyer but unlike Napoleon, he has never led astray on ambition. Bismarck was a realist and the most successful statesman of his age. A great diplomat, he struck at the right moment.

(2) The aims of Bismarck’s foreign policy :

Bismarck was distinguished for his strong monarchical sentiments and his hatred of the anarchy of democracy let loose by the Revolution. His sole aim was the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony. He aimed at making Prussia the strongest and the greatest power in Europe. To this end, he followed any means however unscrupulous. He would achieve the unification of Germany not by ‘speeches’ but by the sword, “blood and iron” as he called it. His foreign policy was aggressive. He did it under the protection of self-defense, forcing his opponents to take the initiative. Bismarck possessed the wonderful skill of making friends and dividing his enemies. Bismarck’s policy was aggressive nationalism but not aggressive imperialism as his second master Kaiser William II mistook it for.

(3) Foreign policy before unification :

(1) The war against Denmark and the Austro-Prussian War :

Before the unification of Germany, Bismarck’s foreign policy aimed at the expulsion of Austrians from the Germanic Confederation. He realized that the main obstacle to the unification of Germany was Austria. He induced Austria to cooperate with Prussia in a war against Denmark over the question of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck could foresee the aggrandizement of Prussia as well as a chance to quarrel with Austria, both of which he desired, for the greatest glory of the country. Denmark was defeated and Austria picked up a quarrel on the question of the future of the duchies. Bismarck, by clever diplomacy, isolated Austria by winning the friendship of Russia and Italy and securing the neutrality of France. Having thus isolated Austria, he forced Austria to take initiative and declare war. Austria was defeated at Sadowa and expelled from Germany.

(2) The Franco-Prussian War :

The traditional policy of France was to keep Germany disunited. So, Bismarck desired war with France. France also felt wounded for receiving no compensation for the neutrality in the Austro-Prussian War. Bismarck again set to work and this time to isolate France. He secured the support of Austria in the Treaty of Prague at the end of the Austro-Prussian War. He made public the aggressive designs of Napoleon III for Belgium, Luxembourg, and Palatinate and thereby caused a breach between France and Britain. Italy nourished a grudge against Napoleon III for his betrayal of her cause in the unification of Italy and for

his having wrested Savoy and Nice. Russia was secretly encouraged to violate the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. Thus having rendered the isolation of France complete, she defeated her at Sedan. By the Treaty of Frankfurt, Bismarck secured for Germany the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine from France. He proclaimed the King of Prussia as the German Emperor in the French Palace of Mirror at Versailles. The French never forgave these two things, and revenge upon Germany became the whole concern of France in the years to come.

Question 29. Critically examine the foreign policy of Germany from 1871 to 1890.
Answer:

The foreign policy of Germany from 1871 to 1890

(1) Introduction :

The France-Prussian War left behind embittered memories. France was bent upon revenge and recovering the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine. Hence, Bismarck was forced to follow the policy of isolating France from Europe and conquering her weak so that she might not be a danger to Germany. With this end in view, he formed the League of Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund) in 1872.

(2) The League of Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund), 1872 :

Bismarck invited the Emperors of Prussia and Austria, the possible allies of France to Britain. He convinced them of the common danger from Revolutionary France to all monarchs alike. Thus, the three Emperors of Russia, Austria, and Prussia formed an alliance.

(1) The Congress of Berlin :
The League of Three Emperors was not to be destined to last, for Austria and Russia were rivals in the Balkans. The actual break-up took place with the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Bismarck, who played the honest broker, supported the claims of Austria against Russia in securing Bosnia and
Herzegovina which was claimed by Serbia is an ally of Russia.

(2) The Dual Alliance :
Having lost the friendship of Russia, Bismarck made up for the loss through a closer alliance mth Austria. Austria and Germany signed the Dual Alliance.

(3) The Triple Alliance :

The Dual Alliance was converted into a Triple Alliance by admitting Italy into it. Italy was offended by the French occupation of Tunis and threw in her lot with the Central Powers. The isolation of France was made complete. This alarmed France. She gradually patched up her differences with Russia and Britain and formed the Triple Entente to counterpoise the Triple Alliance. Thus the policy of Bismarck led to the division of Europe into two rival camps.

(3) Colonial Policy :

One of the important features of the closing years of Bismarck’s political career was the beginning of a German colonial empire. In 1871, he refused to demand as a prize any of the French colonial possessions. He believed that Germany should consolidate and should not risk the hostility of other nations by entering the path of colonial rivalry.

But after 1880, Bismarck was attracted by the activities of energetic merchants from Hamburg and Bremen who established trading. Stations in Africa and the islands of the Pacific. He adopted the policy of protection and the development of German manufacturers to the utmost and aspired for new markets for German products.

In 1884, he adopted a vigorous colonial policy and took part in the scramble for Africa. Germany acquired Cameroon, Togoland, German South-West Africa, German East Africa, and also a part of New Guinea.

(4) Criticism :

In 1888, Kaiser William 1 was succeeded by his son William II. The new Kaiser could not break the control of the great Chancellor. Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890. The German Empire that Bismarck established rested upon the sword and its foundations were a series of contacts between different governments.

As such, it required delicate and skillful handling. With the ‘dropping of the pilot’ in 1890, all political wisdom vanished in Germany. Diplomacy gave place to tactless aggression.

The military engine created by Bismarck became a menace to Europe until it was blown up in the flames of World War I. Thus, it will be seen that Bismarck gave a wholly false direction to German political development.

Question 30. “Alexander II may be regarded as the Czar Liberator.” -Discuss.
Answer:

“Alexander II may be regarded as the Czar Liberator.”

(1) Introduction :

The Crimean War was in a general sense the watershed of European history; the statement may be with particular force applied to Russian defeat which discredited wholly the system of Nicholas I and set on foot a movement toward democracy, which in one form or another, has been the principal theme of her internal history from that day to this.

(2) Alexander II :

The way to reform in Russia was prepared by the death of Czar Nicholas I at the beginning of 1855 and by the accession of Alexander II. He was a man of kindly and humane instincts, with none of his father’s love of soldiering. He was a great lover of Russia, deeply sensitive to her humiliations and conscious of his own responsibility. The reforms upon which he embarked at the beginning of his reign, were not the emanations of democratic conviction.

(3) The Treaty of Paris :

The new Czar Alexander II who succeeded Nicholas I made peace with the Allies in 1856, known as the Treaty of Paris. The treaty did not refer to the petty quarrel on which the war broke out, but it attempted to reach a settlement of the Eastern Question.
(1) Conquests made during the war were to be restored.
(2) Moldavia and Wallachia were declared autonomous. Russia lost its protectorate over them.
(3) The Black Sea was neutralized and its ports were thrown open to the merchant ships of all nations.
(4) The Russians undertook not to fortify Sebastopol.
(5) To Moldavia was ceded southern Bessarabia by Russia.
(6) Kars was returned to Turkey.
(7) Russia was given back Crimea.
(8) Their freedom was guaranteed by the Great Powers.
(9) The powers collectively guaranteed not to interfere in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire and to preserve its territorial integrity.
(10) The Sultan promised to introduce liberal reforms in the Balkan states.
(11) Turkey was admitted to the ‘European concert’ and the Sultan was empowered to send representatives to the future congress of the powers.

(4) Criticism of the Treaty :

There were nearly 45 million serfs forming about half of her population, 23 million belonged to the crown, and the rest to the private lords and church. Those in the royal domain were far better off than those in the private ‘and. The Edict of Emancipation of Alexander II a measure not only of profound moral but also of greatest economic importance—was based on four main principles. The first was embodied in the concession of full civic rights. The serf became a free peasant freed from bondage to his master.

Secondly, the serf was to be given not only freedom but land and the noble was to lose not only his labor but some of his property. Otherwise, the landless peasants would create a greater number of social and economic problems than had been removed by liberation.

The third principle enjoined that the land was not to be bestowed upon the peasant in personal ownership, but in communal ownership upon the village group or ‘mir’ to which he was attached. The mir held the land and the mir was collectively responsible for certain yearly payments which were to be given to the lord. Lastly, the Government was to help the village groups to redeem the annual dues to the former owner of the soil by lending them sums of money equal to the capitalized value of the land. The practical effects of emancipation on the land-owning classes varied in different parts of the country. But to the peasant, it brought deep disappointment. On the surface the edict was revolutionary, in practice, it affected little economic improvement in their condition. They found that the authority of the mir was as irritating as that of the lords.

(5) Other Reforms :

The emancipation of the serfs, the greatest of Alexander’s reforms, was speedily followed by others. The disabilities were removed from the universities and from foreign travel, the press censorship was considerably modified, the army and navy reorganized and important changes were introduced into the judicial administration and into local government. The Judicial system was full of abuses and it was rotten to the core with wholesale corruption. An entirely new judicial structure was set up, modeled on English and French lines.

The administrative and judicial functions have separated the independence of the magistrates and promoted oval procedures of trial by jury established. A new penal code was introduced and civil and criminal cases were simplified. Justices of the peace, chosen by popular election, were instituted to deal with minor affairs, and more important suits were reserved for regular tribunals composed of trained judges supported by the crown.

The Crimean War has shown the inefficiency of the administration and. radical changes were introduced in the Moscow provinces, in the direction of decentralization and local autonomy. New Councils or Zemstvos were set up representing the classes of the community. The councils were of two kinds, the district council elected by popular suffrage, and the provincial council elected by the District Council. But their powers were restricted by the right of veto over their decisions possessed by the Governor of the province and by the lack of their inadequate financial resources.

(6) Conclusion :

Through the wide reforms, Alexander II performed a great service as Peter the Great in bringing Russia into line with western nations. A new spirit began to pervade Russia, new literature and economics and philosophy and politics sprang up and a marked impulse was given to education and the press swarmed with Utopias. The concession and local autonomy was merely a preface to the grant of complete political self-government. Russia was to imitate the nations of the West.

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment