Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas Introduction

A Peaceful Revolution to First World War (1914-1918): The eighteenth century saw a revolution that was different from most revolutions. When we talk of the revolutions in America and France, we use the word ‘revolution’ in the usual sense.

Those revolutions brought about violent, drastic, and sudden changes through tumult and bloodshed. The Industrial Revolution was altogether different in character. There was nothing sudden or violent about it.

The Industrial Revolution was a peaceful revolution that brought about a change in the system of production – the replacement of humans with mechanical labor. This meant greater production in lesser time.

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The Industrial Revolution first occurred in England and then spread to other countries. The newly industrialized countries required raw materials for the newly-established industries and also markets to sell the finished products.

Thus, there was a scramble among the European powers to establish colonies. Aggressive imperialism of different European countries was one of the causes of the First World War which broke out in 1914.

Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas Very Short Answer Type :

Question 1. Give names of two scholars who were among the first to use the term ‘Industrial Revolution’.
Answer: Two scholars who were among the first to use the term ‘Industrial Revolution’ were Auguste Blanqui, a French economist and Arnold Toynbee, the great historian.

Question 2. Where did the Industrial Revolution first start?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution first started in England.

Question 3. What are the three ingredients necessary for Industrial Revolution?
Answer: The three main ingredients necessary for Industrial Revolution are
(1) Raw materials
(2) Capital and
(3) Labour.

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Question 4. Define the term ‘Capitalism’.
Answer: Capitalism is an economic system in which the principal means of production, distribution and exchange are in private hands and are operated for profit.

Question 5. Name two European countries which established their colonies outside Europe.
Answer: Two European countries which established their colonies outside Europe are Germany and France.

Question 6. Which country is known as the ‘manufactory of the world’?
Answer: England is known as the ‘manufactory of the world’.

Question 7. Which country is known as ‘The Jewel in the crown of the British Empire’?
Answer: India is known as ‘The Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire’.

Question 8. Who invented the ‘Flying Shuttle’?
Answer: John Kay invented the Flying Shuttle.

Question 9. Who invented the Spinning Jenny?
Answer: James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny.

Question 10. Who was James Waitt?
Answer: James Watt was a Scottish inventor who redesigned the steam engine so that it produced more power and consumed less fuel.

Question 11. Where was the first modern railway line opened?
Answer: The first modern railway line was opened from Darlington to Stockton in England.

Question 12. When and where did railways first start in Germany?
Answer: Railways first started in 1835 in Bavaria in Germany.

Question 13. Name two cities of England which developed around industries.
Answer: Two cities which developed around industries are Liverpool and Manchester,

Question 14. Who gave leadership in ‘Luddite riot’?
Answer: General Ned Ludd gave leadership in the ‘Luddite riot’.

Question 15. Name the workers’ union formed under the leadership of Robert Owen.
Answer: The workers’ union formed under the leadership of Robert Owen is ‘Grand Consolidated National Union’.

Question 16. Who was Saint Simon?
Answer: Saint Simon (1760-1825) was a Utopian Socialist who advocated common ownership of all land and capital to be managed scientifically by the state.

Question 17. Name one Utopian socialist.
Answer: Charles Fourier was a Utopian socialist.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 18. Who is known as the founder of Scientific Socialism?
Answer: Karl Marx is known as the founder of Scientific Socialism.

Question 19. Who wrote ‘Communist Manifesto’?
Answer: ‘Communist Manifesto’ was written by Karl Marx and Frederich Engels.

Question 20. Who wrote Das Capital?
Answer: Das Capital was written by Karl Marx.

Question 21. Name two places of Africa where Portugal established her colonies.
Answer: Two places of Africa where Portugal established her colonies were Angola and Mozambique.

Question 22. When was the Entente Cordiale signed?
Answer: The Entente Cordiale was signed in 1904.

Question 23. Name the two opposite camps which developed in Europe before the outbreak of the First World War.
Answer: The two opposite camps which developed in Europe before the outbreak ofthe First World War were :
(1) the Triple Alliance and
(2) the Triple Entente.

Question 24. Name the main contending powers in the partition of China.
Answer: The main contending powers in the partition of China were Britain, France, Germany and Russia.

Question 25. What was the period of the First World War?
Answer: The period of the First World War was 1914-1918.

Question 26. Which country declared war on Serbia in 1914?
Answer: Austria declared war on Serbia in 1914.

Question 27. What is ‘Ghetto’? 
Answer: ‘Ghetto’ is an overcrowded urban slum where the poor factory workers’ families live in small, dark rooms in unhygienic condition.

Question 28. When was the Anglo-French Entente concluded?
Answer: In 1904 the Anglo-French Entente was concluded.

Question 29. When and among whom was the Triple Entente concluded?
Answer: In 1907 The Triple Entente was concluded among England, France and Russia.

Question 30. When did the World War I begin?
Answer: The World War I began on July 28, 1914.

Question 31. Name the most important Allied and Axis powers in the First World War.
Answer: Allied Powers — England, France, Italy, Russia, Japan, U.S.A., etc. Axis Powers Germany, Austria, Turkey, etc.

Question 32. When and with what object did Italy join the Allied powers?
Answer: Italy joined the Allies in 1915. Her object was to recover from Austria some of the provinces which formally belonged to her.

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Question 33. What does the word ‘Revolution’ mean?
Answer: The word ‘Revolution’ means a change.

Question 34. When did the Industrial Revolution began in Britain?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the first half of the 17th century.

Question 35. What contribution did Industrial Revolution make to the Western nations?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution made the Western nations rich and powerful.

Question 36. Which Revolution gave birth to the factory system?
Answer: Industrial Revolution gave birth to the factory system.

Question 37. When did the real beginning of the Industrial Revolution start in Russia?
Answer: The real beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Russia dates from 1861 after the Emancipation statute of 1871 was passed.

Question 38. Which industry was most emphasised in the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: The most significant impact of the Industrial Revolution was on cotton textiles.

Question 39. What happened to cottage industries after the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: Due to the Industrial Revolution, cottage industries lost their importance.

Question 40. Until what time the manufacturing locations were domestic?
Answer: Until the first half of the 17th-century things were made by people in their homes.

Question 41. Why was Africa colonised?
Answer: Africa was colonised to gain control over its mines which are rich in gold, diamonds and rubies.

Question 42. Which were the only two independent countries in Africa in 1895?
Answer: In 1895 Ethiopia and Liberia were the only two independent countries in Africa.

Question 43. What happened to India after deindustrialisation?
Answer: After deindustrialisation, India was transformed from an exporter to an Unb Oils.

Question 44. Who gave leadership in ‘Luddite riot’?
Answer: General Ned Ludd gave leadership in the ‘Luddite riot’.

Question 45. Name two natural resources necessary for industrialisation.
Answer: Coal and iron are two natural resources necessary for industrialisation.

Question 46. In England which movements preceded Industrial Revolution?
Answer: In England Agricultural Revolution and Enclosure Movement preceded Industrial Revolution.

Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas 2 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. What do you know of the Entente Cordiale?
Answer:

Entente Cordiale

In 1904, the Entente Cordiale was signed between England and France. By it, a long series of standing disputes over such matter as Newfoundland fisheries, Siam, Madagascar, West Africa, and above all, Egypt were settled.

Question 2. What do you know of Triple Entente?
Answer:

Triple Entente

After the Entente cordiale with France, England made up all her differences with Russia and signed conventions with regard to non-competition in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. Thus was formed a new diplomatic group known as the Triple Entente (1907). It was not an alliance, still, it was a potent force and with which the Triple Alliance had to reckon.

Question 3. What do you know of the policy of Russification?
Answer:

Policy of Russification

The policy of Russification was systematically followed by the Czar Alexander III of Russia. In other words, Czar Alexander III wanted to introduce uniform conditions by taking away the privileges that had been enjoyed by the non-Russian people in the Empire.

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Question 4. When did the Russo-Japanese war take place? What were its results?
Answer: The Russo-Japanese War took place in 1904-1905. Russia was defeated and she accepted the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth which was concluded through the mediation of President Roosevelt of America.

Question 5. What was the main cause of the Russo-Japanese War?
Answer: The main cause of the Russo-Japanese War was the quarrel between Russia and Japan over Korea.

Question 6. What do you know of Agadir Incident?
Answer:

Agadir Incident

In 1911 France sent an army to Fez, the capital of Morocco. ThereuponGermany sent a gunboat, the Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir to exert her right in that area. At a result of this, a highly critical situation developed between France and Germany. At last the situation was calmed by the intervention of England.

Question 7. When was the Archduke of Austria murdered? What was the significance of the murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand?
Answer: Francis Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, was murdered in the Bosnian Capital of Serajevo on June 28, 1914. This was the spark which set all Europe ablaze and the World War I began.

Question 8. What do you mean by Division of Labour?
Answer:

Division of Labour

In Division of Labour, the production process is divided into several parts and each part was to be produced separately. Division of labour helps in the specialisation of a particular process but the labourer becomes ignorant of the total system of production.

Question 9. What conditions are necessary for industrialisation?
Answer:

The following conditions are necessary for industrialisation :

(1) Natural resources likes coal and iron
(2) Sufficient capital
(3) Plenty of raw materials
(4) Cheap labour
(5) Markets for finished goods
(6) Political stability.

Question 10. What are the main features of Industrial Revolution?
Answer:

The main features of Industrial Revolution are :

(1) Mechanisation of industry and use of modern technology for production
(2) Production of goods by machines and factories instead of individual labour and cottage industries
(3) Investment of huge amount of capital
(4) Marketing the finished goods on a large scale for profit.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 11. Which were the main locations of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:

The main locations of the Industrial Revolution were :
England, Belgium, France Germany, Italy, Russia, the U.S.A, Japan and China.

Question 12. How did the Industrial Revolution lead to the growth of new cities?
Answer: Before the Industrial Revolution the people lived primarily in villages. Agriculture was main occupation of the people. After Industrial Revolution there was a migration which displaced agricultural labourers to industrial areas on a large scale, who sought and found employment in the industries. Towns gradually developed around these industrial centres.

Question 13. Name two scientific inventions which helped in Industrial Revolution in England.
Answer:

Two scientific inventions which helped in Industrial Revolution in England are :
(1) Steam engine invented by James Watt, and
(2) Safety Lamp invented by Humphry Davy.

Question 14. What do you mean by ‘Luddite riot’?
Answer:

‘Luddite riot’

‘Luddite riot’ was a protest movement of the workers led by General Ned Ludd in England.

The rioters demanded :

(1) A minimum wage
(2) Control over labour for women and children
(3) Work for those who had lost their job because of the coming of machinery and
(4) Right to form trade unions so that they could present their demands legally and officially.

Question 15. Who are called ‘Utopian Socialists’?
Answer: In the 19th-century socialist thought made great advancement due to the birth of industrial population. The pre-Marxist socialists and thinkers are called early socialists or ‘Utopian Socialists’.

Question 16. What is Paris Commune?
Answer:

Paris Commune

In 1871, the revolutionary workers of Paris established an organisation known as Paris Commune and defied the central government and captured power. On 18 March this Commune exercised administrative power in Paris for almost two months.

Question 17. What is ‘Bloody May Week’?
Answer:

‘Bloody May Week’

In 1871 when the revolutionary workers of Paris established the Paris Commune in order to take over the administration of Paris in their own hands, the soldiers of the French Government fired indiscriminately on the revolutionary workers. There was desperate fighting for a week (22 May-29 May). About 17,000 persons were killed. Historians refer to this week as ‘Bloody May Week’.

Question 18. What do you understand by the term ‘imperialism’?
Answer:

‘imperialism’

The term ‘imperialism’ means the practice of extending the control, power or rule by a country over the economic and political life of the people of areas outside its own boundaries. This may be done by direct rule over the country, or indirect control of the people or through settlements. The essential feature of imperialism is exploitation. The imperialist power subordinates the colony of the country which it controls indirectly to serve its own economic and political interests.

Question 19. In the 19th century what changes took place in the nature of the trade relations between England and India?
Answer: In the 18th century, English merchants used to purchase Indian goods and earn profits by selling them in England and other European countries. In the 19th century, changes took place in the nature of trade between England and India. During this period, Britain did not import goods from India. On the other hand, the Indian market was flooded with British goods and India who had so long been a manufacturer and exporter of finished goods became an exporter of agricultural products like indigo, cotton, jute and wheat.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 20. What were the wars through which the English established their control over Mysore?
Answer:

The wars through which the English established their control over Mysore were :
(1) First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)
(2) Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)
(3) Third Anglo—Mysore War (1790-92) and
(4) Fourth Anglo—Mysore War(1799)

Question 21. What were the wars through which the English established their supremacy over the Marathas?
Answer:

The wars through which the English established their supremacy over the Marathas were :
(1) First Anglo-Maratha War (1785-82)
(2) Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) and
(3) Third Anglo-Maratha War (1818).

Question 22. What were the battles through which the English had established their supremacy in Bengal?
Answer:

The battles through which the English established their supremacy over Bengal are :
(1) The Battle of Plassey (1757) and
(2) The Battle of Buxar (1764).

Question 23. What is ‘drain of wealth’?
Answer:

‘Drain of wealth’

The drain of wealth from India which started during the period following the Battle of Plassey in 1757 is an important feature of British imperialism. From the 18th century up to the middle of the 19th century, English East India Company and its servants collected a huge amount of wealth from India and sent the entire amount to England. This flow of wealth from India to England is known as the drain of wealth.

Historians have observed that wealth was transferred from India to England In five ways These were :

(1) Presents
(2) Collusive contracts
(3) Private trade
(4) Free merchants and
(5) Investment.

Question 24. Name the books which contain the political ideals of Karl Marx.
Answer:

The books which contain political ideals of Karl Marx are:
(1) Communist Manifesto
(2) Das Capital
(3) Critique of Political Economy
(4) Philosophy of Poverty.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 25. Which is the First International Working Men’s Union? When was it established and under whose leadership?
Answer: The First International Working Men‘s Union is the Communist League. It was established in 1847 under the leadership of Karl Marx.

Question 26. What was Zollverein?
Answer:

Zollverein

The first stage in the unification of Germany was the creation of Zollverein or the customs union of the German kingdoms. The main terms of entry into the Zollverein were complete free trade between state and uniform tariff on all frontiers.

Question 27. Where and why was the Zollverein formed?
Answer: Zollverein was an organisation in Germany through which the distracted German people experienced a sort of commercial cooperation amongst themselves.

Question 28. Name the countries that rushed to establish colonies in Africa.
Answer: The countries that rushed to establish colonies in Africa were Great Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, Italy and Spain.

Question 29. What do you understand by ‘Scramble for Africa’?
Answer:

‘Scramble for Africa’

During the 1800s, France, Britain, Italy, Spain, Germany and Belgium competed with each other to establish a foothold in Africa as Africa was rich in natural resources. They thought that they required to do this to maintain their lifestyle and to develop their homelands. This rush among the various European powers to establish colonies in Africa is known as ‘Scramble for Africa’,

Question 30. In which year and between whom was the Treaty of Nanking signed?
Answer: The Treaty of Nanking was signed in 1842 between Britain and China.

Question 31. What were the terms of the treaty of Nanking?
Answer:

The terms of the treaty were :

(1) Opium trade was legalised
(2) Five ports including Canton was opened to foreign trade
(3) Japan ceded Hong Kong to the British
(4) It was proclaimed that the British subjects would no longer be subject to Chinese law, and (5) China paid heavy war indemnity to England.

Question 32. In which year and between whom was the Treaty of Tientsin signed?
Answer: The Treaty of Tientsin was signed in 1858 between England, France and China.

Question 33. What were the terms of the treaty?
Answer:

The terms of the Treaty were :
(1) Ten more ports were opened to the British and French merchants
(2) China was forced to set up a foreign mission in Beijing,
(3) China had to pay heavy war indemnity, (4) China admitted that foreign residents in China would be under the laws of their respective countries and not the laws of China.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 34, What was the ‘March of the Blanketeers’?
Answer:

‘March of the Blanketeers’

Thousands of workers started a march in 1819 from Manchester towards the Parliament House in London in order to put forward their long standing demands for improvement of their working conditions. The workers carried with them their blankets on their shoulders for sleeping at night. This was known as the ‘March of the Blanketeers’,

Question 35. Name the countries which fought the First Balkan War. Name the treaty which brought an end to the war.
Answer: The First Balkan war was fought in 1912 between Turkey and the member countries of the Balkan League (Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria). The First Balkan War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of London (1913).

Question 36. Between whom was the Second Balkan War fought? Name the treaty which put an end to the war.
Answer: In 1913 the Second Balkan War was fought between Serbia and Bulgaria. Greece and Romania joined Serbia. The Second Balkan War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Bucharest (1913).

Question 37. What is Neo-colonialism?
Answer:

Neo-colonialism

Neo-Colonialism means that western European countries and the U.S.A., even after decolonisation, exerted a great deal of control over the new states, which continued to need the markets and the investment that the West could provide.

Question 38. What was Hobson’s view about imperialism?
Answer:

Hobson’s view about imperialism

Hobson, an economic historian, theorised that capitalism led to imperialism which ultimately led to the First World War. According to him, the industrialists of Britain, France and Germany accumulated excessive amount of capital. These industrial capitalists forced their respective Governments to establish colonies in order to have abundant supply of raw materials and to invest the surplus capital in the colonies. Capitalist governments of different countries entered into competition with each other in order to establish monopoly right on colonies which ultimately led to war.

Question 39. In which year was the Triple Alliance formed? Who were the members of the Triple Alliance?
Answer: The Triple Alliance was formed in the year 1882. The members of the Triple Alliance were Germany, Austria and Italy.

Question 40. In which year was the Triple Entente formed? Who were the members of the Triple Entente?
Answer: The Triple Entente was formed in the year 1907. The members of the Triple Entente were England, France and Russia.

Question 41. When did World War I break out? What was the ‘Serajevo incident’?
Answer: World War I broke out on 28 July 1914. On June 28, 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand, nephew of emperor Joseph of Austria and heir to the throne of Austria, was assassinated along with his wife Sofia in Serajevo, the capital of Bosnia, by Narvilo Princep, a member of ‘Black Hand’ terrorist organisation. This incident is known as ‘Serajevo incident’.

Question 42. Through which military campaign did Mussolini try to fulfil his imperial ambition?
Answer: The Fascist Government under Mussolini became hungry for colony and Mussolini tried to fulfil his imperial ambition through his military campaign in the East African country of Ethiopia (Abyssinia). In 1935 he attacked Ethiopia to exploit its raw materials and materials for industrial development. Ethiopia was formally annexed in 1936.

Question 43. When did the Industrial Revolution take place?
Answer: There is no agreed opinion as regards the starting-point of the Industrial Revolution. Toynbee, for example, took the starting point as 1760 when there was the Industial Revolution in England. Professor Nef, an American historian, on the other hand, is not in favour of fixing any time or particular year for the Industrial Revolution.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 44. How did England become the workshop of the world?
Answer: Industrial Revolution first made its appearance in England. Big mills and factories were established where necessary goods of daily use were produced for the markets. By the nineteenth century England became, as it were, the ‘workshop of the world’.

Question 45. How did Industrial Revolution take place in Belgium?
Answer: No European country even attempted to follow in England’s footsteps till the end of the Napoleonic era. Almost immediately after, Belgium undertook a movement of industrialization with the indirect help of England. However, it was not before 1830 that the movement gained momentum. Thereafter it speeded up so sharply that by 1870 Belgium became the most industrialized nation.

Question 46. What was Napoleon’s contribution to the Industrial Revolution in France?
Answer: Napoleon made a determined effort to build up industry in France. His industrial efforts included foundation of technical schools, advancing government loans to the manufacturers, etc. It may be said that the support and encouragement that Napoleon had given, however, served the basis on which the edifice of French industrialization was built at a later date. Bank of France established by Napoleon also helped the process of industrialization by a liberal credit policy.

Question 47. When did Industrial Revolution start in Germany?
Answer: As Germany remained divided into a number of small states, it is very difficult to fix the precise date when industrial revolution began there. The real beginning of industrial revolution in Germany began only after she attained her unity in 1870. Despite her uneven growth due to political reason, a unified Germany far outdistanced France after 1870.

Question 48. What do you meen by Ghetto?
Answer:

Ghetto :
A Ghetto is a part of a city in which members of minority group live, especially because of social, legal or economic pressure. As a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, towns sprang up like mushrooms around the factories. The workers and their families were herded in cheap tenements, constituting a slum very much akin to the ghettos.

Question 49. How were railways established in Belgium?
Answer: Shortly after the introduction of railways in England the Belgian Parliament adopted a plan for construction of railways. The plan was drawn up by an English engineer, George Stephenson. Moreover, the project was implemented with capital made available by England as a loan.

Question 50. What was the most important feature of industrialisation in Russia?
Answer: Most important feature of industrialization in Russia was that the industries were mostly established with the aid of foreign capital. According to one estimate, by 1914 some 2000 millions of rubles (Russian currency) of foreign capital had been invested in Russia.

Question 51. How was the beginning of the Factory system?
Answer:

Factory System :
The introduction of intricate machinery made the factory system possible. The old method of small production in the home with one’s own tools could not meet the competition of machine production. The cost of machinery was prohibitive to individual workers. Hence was the beginning of the factory system.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 52. What were the classes which Industrial Revotion gave rise to?
Answer: Industrial Revolution gave rise to two classes, namely Industrial bourgeoisie and Industrial proletariat. The industrial bourgeoisie (middle class) amassed enormous capital and funds from profiteering and exploitation. The position of the industrial proletariat (working class), on the other hand, was one of extreme hardship.

Question 53. What was the role of women in Industrial Revolution?
Answer:

The role of women in Industrial Revolution

One of the socio economic consequences of the Industrial Revolution was the growing employment of the women of the countryside. The adoption of the power loom in the cloth mills led to a change in the labour force. From the very beginning, the mill owners depended on tall, single women from the countryside as labourers. In fact, women remained a key labour force for the growing cotton mills.

Question 54. What were the colonies of France outside Europe? 
Answer:

The colonies of France outside Europe

France, besides countinuing to hold a few trading posts on the Indian coast, built up a colonial empire in Indo-China (Cambodia, Loas and Vietnam). In 1899 France leased Kwangchow from China and obtained a privileged position in some Chinese provinces. According to Carlton N. H. Hayes, by 1914 France ruled over more than twenty million Asians.

Question 55. Which inventions marked the beginning of the railways?
Answer: About 1801 Richard Trevithick made a seccessful experiment to move the wheels of a wagon along iron rails. Later, in 1825 George Stephenson built a steamlocomotive able to pull heavy loads along a track. Stephenson’s locomotive, the Rocket made its first trip form Liverpool to Manchester in 1829. This was the beginning of the railways.

Question 56. What was the Schlieffen Plan?
Answer:

Schlieffen Plan :
At the start of the war, the German armies operated according to the Schlieffen Plan. The Plan intended to ensure a German victory over Franco-Russian alliance by holding up any Russian advance westwards.

Question 57. How did the factory system originate?
Answer: The effects of the scientific discoveries and inventions which happened after the French Revolution were revolutionary in character. They changed the entire face of England, both rural and urban. The ordinary workman could no longer live in a poverty cottage and weave cloth on his own loom. Now that machines were set up, he had to go where the machines were working and find a job. There hundreds and even thousands of people worked under the same roof. They assembled together under a factory shed and worked with tools and machineries supplied by the factory owner. This gave rise to the factory system.

Question 58. What were the inventions of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:

The inventions of the Industrial Revolution

In 1733, John Kaye invented a new machine, known as the Flying Shuttle which brought about a complete change in the weaving system. In 1764 another important invention was the Spinning Jenny made by James Hargreaves. Some years later, Richard Arkwright brought further improvement in the method of spinning by introducing rollers worked with water power (1769). Ten years later, Samuel Crompton invented another machine by combining the devices of Hargreaves and Arkwright, called the mule. In 1781 James Watt successfully devised the system of using steam power to work the machines.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 59. Mention two effects.
Answer:

The effects of industrialisation on transport were:

(1) For rapid and safe transport of raw materials and manufactured goods from centres of production to consumption centres mechanised roads, i.e., pucca roads were constructed.
(2)Canals were dug primarily for cheap and easy shipment of coal from mines to
industries.

Question 60. How did the Industrial Revolution lead to colonial expansion?
Answer: As a result of the Industrial Revolution, huge quantities of finished goods were produced within a short time, which was more than what was necessary for the domestic markets of the European countries. This ultimately led to the rise of colonial expansionism in the undeveloped countries of the world. The industrialised countries like Britain, France and Germany sought new markets by capturing colonies where they could sell their finished goods. So they began to extend their colonial empire in industrially backward countries of Asia like India, China, Burma, Ceylon, Egypt and Congo.

Question 61. What was the effect of Industrial Revolution on the communication system?
Answer:

The effect of Industrial Revolution on the communication system

The Industrial Revolution had a great impact on the communication system. The means of communication improved greatly. Samuel Morse (1791-1872) invented telegraph to send messages. The Trans-Atlantic underseas cable connecting the United States with Europe continent was laid by Cyrus W. Field in 1866. Graham Bell invented the Telephone system in 1876. Marconi was the first to demonstrate
the utility of the wireless in saving life at sea

Question 62. Mention two seasons why industrialisation started late in Germany.
Answer:

The reasons were:
(1) Germany was divided into numerous states which were often at war with each other. This political disunity slackened the growth of industrialisation in Germany.
(2) As the population in Germany did not increase tremendously, there was scarcity of cheap labour.

Question 63. Mention two of the impacts of Industrial Revolution on different classes of women in society.
Answer: The Industrial Revolution had varied impact on different classes of women in society

(1) It made life of the women of upper and middle-class families more comfortable. These women had more time for leisure, entertainment, pursuit of intellectual activities, such as reading and writing of novels.

(2) Women from low-income families who were actively involved in domestic work and farms earlier sought employment in factories. They were employed by factory owners in large numbers and were mercilessly exploited. They worked for long hours and were paid very meagre wages.

Question 64. What is Dreikaiserbund?
Answer:

Dreikaiserbund

Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany, was eager to have friendly relations with different countries. He had good relations with Austria but the problem was that the relations between Austria and Russia generally remained strained over to the Eastern Question. Therefore, Bismarck concluded a friendly alliance with Russia and Austria. His chief aim was not only to secure the friendship of Russia but also to improve the relations between Austria and Russia. This alliance of three emperors of Germany, Austria and Russia is known as Dreikaiserbund. It was neither a definite treaty nor an alliance. It was only a compromise among the three emperors. It is also known as ‘Three Emperor’s League’ (1873).

Question 65. What is Open Door Policy (1899)?
Answer:

Open Door Policy (1899)

In the Sino-Japanese War (1894) China was defeated by Japan which inaugurated the process of dismemberment of China. Countries like Russia, Britain, France and Germany were the main contenders for the partition of China. Russia occupied North China and obtained permission to build a railway line. Germany landed an army in China and took possession of some important territories. France acquired Kwangchow. Britain got Hong Kong and some concessions. Thus the economically important areas of China passed into foreign hands. At this juncture, Sir John Hay, the US Secretary of State, issued the famous Open Door Policy (1899), according to which no Chinese port was to be considered an exclusive property of any particular foreign power.

Question 66. Mention two steps taken by Bismarck to industrialise Germany.
Answer: Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany, took different steps to industrialise Germany.

These were :
(1) Reorganised the banking system in order to remove the scarcity of capital in Germany.
(2) He introduced federal currency called Reichmark, a standard tariff for internal trade and standard weights and measures which helped a lot in industrialisation.

Question 67. Mention two main constraints to industrialisation in Germany.
Answer: Industrialisation started rather late in Germany. This was due to many obstacles which Germany faced.

These obstacles were:

(1) Germany was divided into 39 states dominated by foreign powers. Each state followed its own tariff of export and import policies.
(2) Napoleonic wars had devastated Germany economically. Proper banking system did not develop. As a result, there was scarcity of capital necessary for industrialisation.

Question 68. Who was Robert Owen?
Answer:

Robert Owen

Robert Owen was a Socialist thinker. He upheld the view that the capitalists should share a portion of their profit with their employees. He introduced a new doctrine known as ‘New Harmony.’ He believed that if the workers are satisfied and reasonably rewarded, they would work for the improvement of production in factories. He rejected any competition between employer and worker. He himself was a factory owner. He introduced many benefits for his workers.

Question 69. What was Entente Cordiale (1904) ?
Answer:

Entente Cordiale (1904)

After concluding the Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1902, Britain turned towards France, the enemy of Germany. France also wanted Britain as her ally so that she could concentrate against Germany. In 1904 Britain and France reached a series of agreements. These agreements settled their old colonial disputes in Siam, Madagascar and West Africa, New Hebrides and fighting rights in Newfoundland. Moreover, France recognised Egypt and Sudan as British spheres of influence. Britain recognised Morocco as French sphere of influence. It was also decided that both England and France would recognise their spheres of influence. This Entente Cordiale (friendly agreement) was signed in 1904.

Question 70. What was Lenin’s view about colonialism?
Answer:

Lenin’s view about colonialism

Lenin in his pamphlet ‘Imperialism, the highest stage of capitalism pointed out that in a capitalist economy the government has no control over surplus production of goods. The industrial owners believe that they will earn more profits if they produce more. When the market is full of goods there is no further demand for goods in the home market. In that case, the industrial owners force the government to capture new. colonies where they could get monopoly market in order to sell surplus goods and also get cheap raw materials. The competition for the capture of colonies ultimately leads to imperialism.

Question 71. What were the differences between early socialists and Karl Marx?
Answer:

Difference Between Early Socialists and Marx :

Socialism propounded by Marx and that of the early socialists differed in two ways.

(1) The early socialists believed in gradual and peaceful development to establish an ideal condition for the workers. But Karl Marx forecasted that a violent uprising would enable the workers to capture the political power that would be used to secure their own welfare.

(2) The early socialists were in favour of working within the framework of the capitalistic system for the development of the condition of the workers. But Marx opined that there will certainly occur the destruction of the capitalistic system. Marx considered the industrial workers as the force of change that would destroy capitalism and establish socialism. He also believed that the key to this was the change through class conflict or struggle between two opposing economic orders bourgeoisie and proleteriat.

Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas 4 Marks Questions And Answers

Question 1. Why did Industrial Revolution first start in Britain?
Answer:

Industrial Revolution first started in Britain due to the following reasons:

(1)Unlike other European countries such as France, Britain was politically stable with England, Wales and Scotland unified under a monarchy.
(2) Britain’s unrivalled power in overseas trade enabled accumulation of vast profits, which provided necessary capital for investment
(3) In England Agricultural Revolution and Enclosure Movement preceded Industrial Revolution. The landless farmers -who migrated to
towns in large numbers provided cheap, abundant wage labour to work in factories.
(4) A single currency, common laws, a market not fragmented by local taxes, use of money as medium of exchange, all worked to Britain’s advantage.
(5) Huge colonies in different parts of the world supplied raw materials for the industries and were ready markets for finished goods.
(6) Emergence of London as a centre of global trade.
(7) Good network of navigable rivers and indented coastline enabled good and cheap mode of water transport.
(8) Natural resources like coal and iron were available in plenty and technological inventions largely helped industrialisation.

Question 2. How was the life of the workers after the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:

Evidence of British factory records reveals that the workers had miserablelives after the Industrial Revolution. The living conditions of the workers were far from satisfactory.

(1) The wages they were paid were extremely low.
(2) Their houses were in terrible slums and were dirty.
(3) The hours of their work were unlimited.
(4) They had to live in small rooms.
(5) Women and child labourers werein humanly treated. They were subjected to long monotonous hours of work in un healthy environment under strict discipline and cruel forms of punishment.
(6) The conditions in the mines were even worse. In the narrow passages children pushed coal trucks along with the adults. They were paid meagre salaries.
(7) The crowded towns and damp factories were disastrous for the workers. This ruined their health. Several labourers were injured in the factories during working hours and these injured workers were removed from their jobs and no compensation was paid to them.

Question 3. What were the effects of railways in different countries of the world?
Answer:

The effect of the introduction of railways in different countries of the world varied greatly.

(1) The effect of the railways was positive in imperialist countries, e.g. Britain. The railways not only revolutionised transport system, but it also spearheaded the industrial revolution in imperialist countries like Britain, France, Portugal and Spain.

(2) Railways provided better, cheaper, faster and easy means of transport, unified different areas and had great impact-on industries.

(3) Railways boosted activity in construction and public works department, provided employment, and accelerated trade and commerce.

(4) On the other hand, railways in countries like India resulted in further colonisation and underdevelopment of the economy.

(5) As a result of the introduction of railways, the colonisers were able to fully tap the untapped resources of the colonised country for raw materials and then send finished goods to the remote parts of the country.

Question 4. Write briefly about the causes of decline of the indigeneous industries during company’s rule. Mention its effect on cotton industry.
Answer:

Causes – (1) Fall of Native kingdoms:

The native rulers were patron of handicraft and cottage products. They purchased clothes, perfumes, etc. for their family and weapons for their army. In the words of Gadgil, “The disappearance of the courts and the establishment of alien rule contributed mainly to the decay of Indian handicrafts.”

(2) Industrial Revolution:

After the industrial revolution in England, the hand made goods couldn’t compete with the machine made goods of Europe and the Indian markets were flooded with an unequal competition.

(3) Preference of rich people :

The rich people usually liked to wear foreign expensive cloths and used foreign goods. Thus the market for cottage products diminished.

(4) Exploitation of weavers and artisans:

The weavers and artisans were forced to purchase raw cotton at a very high rate and sell their finished products at very less rate to the British officers. As a result thousands of weavers fled away from the villages.

(5) Tax Burden:

According to R.C. Dutta, the vital cause of the decline of Indian cottage industries was the imposition of 10% duty on Indian clothes’ export and 2% duty on import of British clothes. As a result, Indian goods lost market in European market. Thus, Indian cottage industry was ruined due to step motherly attitude of EastIndia Commany. Acc. to Dadabhai Naoroji, “India was forced to be a land of poor people”. Cotton industry with an unequal competition ruined. As a result thousands of weavers and artisans were thrown out employment with machine made cheap products and were ruined.

Question 5. Make a list of Industrial Revolution : Inventors and Inventions.
Answer:

A list of Industrial Revolution : Inventors and Inventions

Inventor	Invention	Year
John Kay	Flying Shuttle	1733
James Hargreaves	Spinning Jenny	1765
Richard Arkwright	Spinning Frame	1769
James Watt	Steam Engine	1775
Samuel Crompton	Spinning Mule	1779
Edmund Cartwright	Power loom	1785
John Fitch	Steam boat	1786
Eli Whitney	Cotton Gin	1793
Humphry Davy	First Electric Light	1809
Samuel E.B. Morse	Telegraph	1836
Elias Howe	Sewing machine	1851
Alexander Graham Bell	Telephone	1876
Thomas Edison	Phonograph	1877
Rendolf Diesel	Diesel Engine	1892

Question 6. Why did industrialisation start late in France than England?
Answer:

While England was having rapid industrialisation, France was lagging behind due to the following reasons:

(1) France was torn by revolution during the period 1789-1848; Socio-economic and political disorder was a major obstacle to industrialisation in France.

(2) Another hindrance to industrialisation was the non- availability of coal. Industrialisation made steady progress in mid-eighteenth century when the coalfiels were tapped.

(3) Another cause of late industrialisation was that France suffered from transport crisis. Raw materials could not be easily brought to
the industrial towns for Iack of transport, nor manufactured goods could be sent to the market.

(4) Moreover, the people of France had a medieval outlook. They had contempt for persons who earned money by their own labours, landholding and taking part in administration were regarded as virtues. This medieval outlook of life was a hindrance to industrial growth.

(5) The industrialists of France were not encouraged by the rulers of France. Lack ofcapital, scarcity of coal, undeveloped banking system slackened the process of industrialisation in France.

Question 7. Give an account of the Chartist Movement in England.
Answer:

Chartist Movement in England

The Chartist Movement is an important chapter in the history of working class movement in England. The London Working Men’‘s Association was founded in 1836 by William Novett This organisation presented a large petition to the British Parliament which was known as ‘People’s Charter’.

It said :
(1) Members of Parliament must be annually elected.
(2) There must be equal voting rights.
(3) Electoral areas must have equal population figure.
(4) Voting right based on qualification should be ballot.
(5) Elected members of Parliament must be granted some allowances.

The association threatened the Government that if the demands made in the Charter are rejected, they will call general strike all over the country and paralyse the Government. The Government tried to pacify the workers by passing a series of welfare acts in 1838. The Chartist movement left its influence and served as an inspiration to later workers, movements.

Question 8. What is ‘Peterloo Massacre’?
Answer:

‘Peterloo Massacre’

Inthe early period of Industrial Revolution the condition of the workers in factories was miserable. The workers’ organisations in England resorted to strikes and other forms of violence to improve their material condition. The Tory Government passed prohibitory acts against working class meetings and denied them the right of Habeus Corpus. The workers could not be suppressed. Thousands of workers started a march from Manchester towards the Parliament House in London in 1819 in order to put forward their demands; they carried blankets on their shoulders for sleeping at night. This was ridiculed by Tory newspaper as ‘March of the Blanketeers’. The army fired on these unarmed workers and killed eleven of them at St. Peters. Thousands of them were wounded. The press of London condemned this massacre and ridiculed it as ‘Peterloo massacre’, a name invented to rhyme with Waterloo. The Government under pressure changed its attitude and withdrew the Combination Act and Anti-Trade Union Act.

Question 9. Write a note on Berlin Congress (1878).
Answer:

Berlin Congress (1878)

The Eastern Question was not solved by the Crimean War (1854-56) and the Peace of Paris. During the nationalist movement in Bulgaria, the Turkish army killed many Bulgarians. Russia defeated Turkey and imposed the Treaty of San Stephano| (1877) on Turkey. England and other European powers opposed this Treaty of San Stephano. In the international conference convened at Berlin in 1878 known as Berlin Congress, Bismarck acted as President. The terms of the Treaty of San Stephano were altered and a new pact, Berlin Treaty (1878) was signed.

According to it :
(1) Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania were declared free.
(2) Russia was given Bessarabia. She also got the provinces of Batum, Kars and Armenia.
(3) England got the island of Cyprus. England assured the safety of the Turkish empire.
(4) The Sultan of Turkey promised to grant full religious freedom. (5) Serbia was to enjoy semi-independent status under nominal Turkish suzerainty.
(6) Moldavia and Wallachia were also to enjoy autonomy under nominal Turkish rule.

Question 10. What do you mean by ‘Cutting of the Chinese Melon’?
Answer:

‘Cutting of the Chinese Melon’

In the mid-nineteenth century different European powers like Britain, France, Russia made attempts to penetrate into the Chinese empire. After 1860 the ambition of the European powers continued to grow. They now wanted more territories. In 1873 Russia, England and France obtained bases of territories or spheres of influence in China. Japan too followed their example and made war on China (1894-95) in.

Which China was defeated. The weakness of China stood more distinct than ever after her defeat at the hands of littlke known Japan. This encouraged the western powers to make fresh bids for territorial gains in China. But it was soon found that the gains obtained by one power at China’s expense, made other powers jealous. In other words, many powers wanted to cut China into slices, as if it were a melon. European powers like Britain, Russia, Germany and France were the main contenders for the partition of China.

Question 11. How were the ‘Triple Alliance’ and ‘Triple Entente’ formed?
Answer: Before War World I .two opposite alliances developed due to Bismarck’s diplomacy. These two opposite alliances were-Triple Alliance and Triple Entente.

Triple Alliance (1882) :

In 1879 Germany entered into an alliance with Austria.Hungary. In 1882 Italy joined the Austria-German alliance. As a result, the alliance
came to be known as the Triple Alliance.

Triple Entente (1907) :

German foreign policy changed after Bismarck’s death. Germany ignored Russia, and so, Russia began to lean towards France. Meanwhile, England tried to enter into an alliance with Germany but failed. So, in 1904, England made an alliance with France. At last with the signing of the Anglo—Russian convention, the Triple Entente came into existence in 1907.

Question 12. To waht extent did imperialist rivalry lead to the outbreak of the First World War?
Answer: The growth of economy and expansion trade gave birth to the idea of imperalism. It is a policy by which a country dominates over other country and her people. Hobson, an English economic historian, expounded the theory that capitalism led to Imperalism which further led to the great war. V.I. Lenin pointed out that in a capitalist economy, there is no control of Govermment surplus-production of goods.

The capitalist forced their government to capture new coloniés where they could get monopoly market for their surplus goods. The competition for capture of colonies led to imperalism which led to First World War.According to the above thinkers, Britiain and France had captured vast colonies in India, China, Srilanka, Indochina and also in Africa. Germany wanted to capture some colonies which gave rise to confilict between old colonial power like Britiain and France and newly emerging powers like Germany. The competition among colonial powers for colonies prepared road to world war |.

Question 13. Write a short note on the revolution in industrial technology.
Answer:

Revolution in Industrial Technology :

The Industrial Revolution ushered in immense changes in the industrial technology which is called a revolution. In manufacturing industry the most technologically changed industry were the textile industries. In textiles it was the cotton industry that had been revolutionized by the early years of the nineteenth century. In iron industry the traditional charcoal-fired furnaces was completely displaced. Fundamental difference in the new industrial order was the development of a cheap, portable source of power. James Watt’s invention of steam power made the steam engine the prime mover for all kinds of machinery. In building industry too there were important changes in techniques. The use of timber was replaced by greater use of stone.

Question 14. How did Industrial Revolution lead to the rise of new cities in England ?
Answer:

Rise of New Cities :

Varied were the changes in the life of the people, particularly the working people caused by the Industrial Revolution. No longer did the workers labour outdoors as farmers. The majority of the people worked in factories and they generally lived in large, crowded cities. England was the first industrial power. At the same time, this was the country in which the urban population was pretty much more than the rural population. In course of industrialization, London apart other big industrial towns such as Birmingham, Manchester, Newcastle, etc. grew up in England.

These cities had very large populations even by the measures of those times. Workers, however, did not move from farms to cities overnight. This was a gradual process. In cities living was not attractive. Most| workers lived in small, one-family houses. Houses were built side to side and back to back so that there were no windows except in the front of each house. The housing was filthy, unsanitary and airless. This kind of new cities in England were buitlt up due to the Industrial Revolution.

Question 15. How did the Industrial Revolution lead to the development of a bourgeoisie-capitalistic political system in England?
Answer:

Development of a Bourgeoisie-Capitalist Political System :

Capitalism developed along with the changes of the Industrial Revolution. The term bourgeoisie denotes the social class whose concern was the preservation of capital and to ensure the continuity of their economic supremacy. In a capitalist system profit is the primary motive. Profit is the difference between expenses and income. Capital will accumulate with the increase in profit. For example, capitalists expect the expenses to be less than the income. The part of the profit could be reinvested to make further profit. The profit motive was certainly the greatest encouragement for rapid development of manufacturing industries and businesses of many kinds. The rapid development of capitalism in the nineteenth century helped the bourgeoisie to consolidate their wealth and power.

Because of enormous wealth at their disposal, the bourgeoisie was unwilling to accept the lack of rights and political power in the
monarchical system of Government. In a word, they aspired for a major role in politics by participation in the Government. Thus there developed a political system in which the bourgeoisie could participate in the administration of the, country. Parliamentary system of Government was the answer to this. An example of this is England. By the Reform Bill of 1832 in England, the seats in Parliament were
redistributed to grant representation from the new industrial centres.

Question 16. How was the Suez Canal built? What was the importance of it?
Answer:

The Suez Canal :

For centuries men had dreamt of linking the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea by means of a canal. But there was too much difference of levels in the two so that it was considered an impossible task. When Napoleon Bonaparte visited Egypt in 1799 he envisioned the building of a waterway across the Isthmus of Suez. But no plan for such a canal could be undertaken seriously till 1854 when a French diplomat, Ferdinand de Lesseps, obtained permission from the then ruler of Egypt, to start the venture.

The Suez Canal was completed in 1869 by a company named Suez Canal Company. England was willing to control the sea route to India, so England was the major shareholder of the company and thus brought the Canal under its control. Opening of the Suez Canal made carrying cargo between East and West easier and it made the development of international trade faster. Another impact of the opening of the Suez Canal was that it encouraged the European search for colonies in the closing years of the nineteenth century.

Question 17. Comment on the economic aspect of colonial expansionism.
Answer:

Economic Aspect of Colonial Expansion :

With the advancement of the nineteenth century, the European countries became more and more interested and active in overseas expansion.

1. The Industrial Revolution gave birth to the capitalist system of production. Under the system maximization of profit was the primary motive of production. When the major European powers had become industrialized, it was not possible to sell the products to one another. Hence the industrialized countries started exploring new markets and buyers for selling the goods they were producing.

2. Larger markets for selling the surplus products were needed as the industrialized nations of Europe sought to protect their own industries. The industrialized nations for protection of their industries raised the tariff or tax barrier against each other. In this way, it was ensured that one industrialized country could not sell its manufacturers to another industrialized country.

3. Another incentive for colonial expansion was the tendency to export surplus capital from the industrialized nations of Europe to under developed countries where rates of interest were usually higher than at home.

4. European countries found markets for selling their surplus goods in Asia and Africa where industrialization had not taken place. Political domination had to take place in order to protect the market from other European rivals.

5. In addition to markets, the European countries needed raw materials to feed their own industries. As all that was needed could not be procured locally.

The European countries had to look out for such countries where the:
raw materials were available at a cheap price, There were plentiful amounts of raw materials in Asia and Africa, which attracted the European countries to establish political domination over the two continents.

Question 18. Write a short note on Jingoistic Nationalism.
Answer:

Jingoistic Nationalism :

Nationalism in the late nineteenth century came to be associated with chauvinism or jingoism. Some European nations developed themyth of their superiority over other peoples. Not only that, in the second half of the nineteenth century imperialism became a fashion of the age. The power and prestige of a European nation depended on the colonies it had acquired. Even the writers of the time were in favour of the idea of imperialism. Moreover, many Europeans favoured imperialism as a civilizing mission. They considered imperialism as a way to bring civilization to the uncivilized backward peoples of the world.

For example, Jules Ferry of France said “superior races have the duty of civilizing the inferior races”, Likewise Rudyard Kipling of England promoted the idea of developed countries like Britain specially shouldering what he called ‘white man’s burden’. That is to say, the white people (meaning the Englishmen) should discharge their responsibility of civilizing the backward peoples of the world. The above reasons prompted imperialism by the European powers. The weak governments of the countries of Africa and Asia became the soft targets for the European powers.

Question 19. Make a brief overview of the First World War.
Answer:

A Brief Overview of the First World War: The contestants in the First World War were :

The Triple Alliance or the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria and Turkey) and the Entente Powers (Russia, France,
Britain, Italy, the USA, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and Greece).

1. Schlieffen Plan :

At the beginning of the war, the German armies operated according to the Schlieffen Plan. The Plan intended to ensure a German victory over Franco-Russian alliance by holding up any Russian advance westwards.

2. The Western Front :

In 1914 the Germans decided to concentrate their war efforts on attacking Russia in the east. At the same time, measures were taken to defend the Western Front.

3. The Eastern Front :

Fighting on the Eastern Front began with the Russian invasion of East Prussia and Austria in 1914. After initial Russian success, the German troops were hurried from the Western Front that successfully stopped the Russian forces.

4. End of the War :

At an enormous cost to both sides in men and materials, Germany ultimately surrendered. An armistice was signed in November 1918. At the Paris Peace Conference (1919) injustciable terms were imposed on the defeated powers of the Triple Alliance.

Question 20. Make a comparative study of Industrial Revolution in England and the Continent.
Answer:

Comparative Discussion on Industrial Revolutions in England and the Continent :

After the restoration of peace in Europe in 1815, machine production was extended to the Continent. At the initial stage the English capital was easilyavailable for the industrial enterprises in the Continent, and English engineers supplied the necessary technological knowledge. This may be illustrated by a few examples. Shortly after the introduction of railways in England the Belgian Parliament adopted a plan for the construction of railways. The plan was drawn up by the English engineer, George Stephenson. Moreover, the project was implemented with the financial help made available by England as a loan. e An important aspect of industrialization in France was the role of the French Government. While in England the Industrial Revolution had been the work of the capitalist class, in France industrialization was achieved mainly through Government initiative.

In fact, in the construction of railways the required money was made available by the Government . e In Germany as well the railways were built with the additional aid of English capital. However, in Germany unlike England, Belgium and France railway construction was doen before the real beginning of industrialization. The most important feature of industrialization in Russia was that the industries were mostly established with the aid of foreign capital. According to one estimate, by 1914 some 2000 millions of rubles (Russian Currency) of foreign money had been invested in Russia. Thus Russia was absolutely dependent on foreign capital and her industry remained majorly weak.

Question 21. Give an account of the development of telegraph system.
Answer:

The development of telegraph system

Telegram is the device or system for transmitting messages to a distant place by making and breaking electrical connection. It was the first form of communication that could be sent over a great distance. Its creation was one of the key inventions to the industrial age. The use of telegram became very popular from the middle of the 19th century. The telegram system played an important part in establishing and expanding colonies by the industrially developed countries.

In 1850 the first experimental electric telegram line was started between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour. In 1851 it was opened for the use of the British East India Company. In 1854 telegram link was established between Calcutta and Agra, Bombay and Madras. A telegram line of 20,000 miles was established in America in 1851. In 1866 when Atlantic Cable was installed, link could be established between England and America. As a result England’s imperialistic rule was consolidated in America.

Telegram was also introduced in the colonies of Africa. A company of Denmark established telegram system in China in 1871. In 1872 the first telegram system was introduced in Australia and later on in Malay, Vietnam and other places. As a result of the introduction of telegram, the European powers were able to establish quick control over the colonies. Foreign control over the colonies was strengthened. Trade of the industrialised countries was increased.

Question 22. Give an account of the socialist movement in Europe.
Answer:

Socialist movement in Europe

The Industrial Revolution led to the decline of small scale industries and encouraged the rise of the factory system. The living condition of the workers of the factories was terrible. The socialists raised their voices of protest against the dismal condition of the workers created by industrialisation.

(1) Robert Owen, a humanitarian factory-owner, upheld the view that the capitalists should share a portion of their profits with his employees. As a factory owner, he introduced many benefits for the workers.

(2) Fourier, a Frenchman pleaded for a new social organisation based .on cooperative communities.

(3) Another socialist thinker was St. Simon who advocated that the state should assume control of production and distribution.

(4) Proudhon wanted to abolish private ownership of Property.

(5) Louis Blanc, a French thinker advocated that the state must come forward to protect the rights of workers and make laws. He condemned accumulation of unlimited, profit of the employer and advocated that profit should be equitably divided between the landlord and the workers.

(6) Other Socialists were Philip Bunarothen, August Blaqui. They condemned competition which led to exploitation of workers.

(7) The greatest advocates of socialism were Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. To them history was a class struggle especially between the upper middle classes and the proletariat. In the Communist Manifesto Marx made an appeal to the workers of the world to unite.

Question 23. What were the effects of British industrialisation on India?
Answer:

The effects of British industrialisation on India

The principal motive for the coming of the English East India Company was to participate in and make profits from trade but over time India was reduced to the status of a British colony. Indian silk and cotton had a wide market in Britain but with the coming of the
Industrial. Revolution the whole scenario changed.

The effects of British industrialisation on India were :

(1) India was flooded with cheap machine-made goods whereby Indian textiles lost their market in India also.

(2) Laws were passed in Britain to prohibit and restrict the sale of Indian goods.

(3) India was reduced to the level of supplier of raw materials (e.g. cotton, silk, indigo) and importer of British machine-made goods.
(4) Desire for new markets for British goods resulted in Britain’s undertaking fresh conquest in India.

(5) Free and unrestricted supply of British goods proved detrimental to the Indian handicrafts as they were faced with unequal competition of machine made goods.

(6) Self sufficiency of Indian villages came to an end.

(7) There was stagnation in Indian agriculture. The British did  nothing to improve Indian agriculture.

Question 24. What were the causes of the ‘Scramble for Africa’ ?
Answer:

The causes of the ‘Scramble for Africa’

During the 1800s, there was a rush among the European countries to establish their colonies in Africa which is known as the ‘Race for Africa’ or the ‘Scramble for Africa’.

There were many causes of the scramble for Africa which are discussed below :

(1) The Industrial Revolution first started in England and then spread to other parts of Europe. The factories which were established to produce different types of things needed raw materials such as cotton, coal, iron ore and others. Africa was a very rich source of all such raw materials. So the various European countries competed with each other to establish their colonies in Africa.

(2) After the Industrial Revolution, when new machines were introduced, the rate of production increased manifold. They not only met the demand of the people but also generated surplus goods. The Europeans required a big market to sell these extra goods and a vast country like Africa was a good market for them.

(3) Africa is rich in gold, diamonds, rubies and precious stones. The Europeans took Africa to be a rich source for making money.

(4) There were some other causes for the scramble for Africa. Some countries desired to establish their colonies only because other countries already had their colonies in Africa.

(5) Moreover, there were some countries which thought that the strength of a country depends on the number of colonies it had. So they wanted to establish their colonies in Africa.

Question 25. What policy did Mussolini take to fulfil his imperial design in Ethiopia?
Answer: Mussolini, the Fascist dictator of Italy, became hungry for colonies. Mussolini had been eager to bring the East African country of Ethiopia (Abyssinia) under Italian sway and to exploit its raw materials and minerals. An agreement was reached in 1925 between Italy and Britain which promised Italy certain concessions in Ethiopia. Ethiopia vainly protested to the League of Nations against the foreign sphere of influence in Ethiopia. In 1928 a treaty of perpetual friendship and arbitration was concluded between Italy and Ethiopia. When Haile Selassie became the emperor of Ethiopia, he turned down the request of Italy for concessions and favour.

In 1934 there occurred a clash between the Ethiopian force and Italian troops near the villagers of Walwal. The Italian Government demanded an apology and compensation from the Ethiopian Government. Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations for protection. At the League Council’s suggestions representatives of Britain, France and Italy met at Paris (1935). Britain and France agreed to give Italy extensive economic rights in Ethiopia. While the League Commission was in Abyssinia, Italy launched an attack on Abyssinia. The League Council declared Italy an aggressor nation and imposed economic blockade on Italy. Partial economic sanction could not put any pressure upon Italy. Italy defied the League of Nations and resigned from its membership. In 1936 Ethiopia was formally annexed to Italy.

Question 26. What was the role of Suez Canal in the development of communication and transportation system?
Answer:

The role of Suez Canal in the development of communication and transportation system

Along with the expansion of industrialisation, attention of the European countries was drawn to the use of waterways for carrying goods like coal, iron, etc. So side by side with the existing waterways canals began to be constructed. Industrialised countries in different parts of the world constructed a number of artificial canals to make journey faster and easier. The most important of all these canals was the Suez Canal. It was difficult for the western industrialised countries to maintain commercial relationship with the eastern countries covering long distances. It was also a huge wastage of time and money. To make journey between the East and the West faster digging of the Suez Canal through Egypt by France began in 1859.

To maintain easy communication with India England was very keen to establish control over the Suez Canal. By the joint venture of England and France Condomonian was established in 1876. As a result there was the dominance of England and France in the region. In 1869 the Canal was opened commercially and ships began to pass through the Suez Canal. From 1869 England, France, Germany, Denmark, Belgium, Spain, Portugal and other European countries began to use this canal extensively to maintain trade relations with the eastern countries. Universal Suez Canal Company took responsibility of the Canal for 99 years on the basis of a contract.

To maintain the security of the Suez Canal, the British Government got the right to station British soldiers in this region upto 1956. So though the Suez Canal was an integral part of Egypt, it lost control over the Suez Canal and its adjacent areas. The European countries could easily keep close contact with the eastern countries through the Suez Canal. Imperialist control over the eastern countries was much more strengthened. British control over India became stronger. Through the control of Suez Canal region Anglo-French supremacy in middle and east Africa was gradually strengthened.

Question 27. What was the role of Karl Marx in the spread of socialism?
Answer:

The role of Karl Marx in the spread of socialism

In the first half of 19th century the ideals of Utopian Socialism were very popular, but Utopian Socialism failed to show the right path to the society. In the second half of 19th century Karl Marx (1818-83) made popular his ideas of scientific socialism which is also known as Marxism. As he was a radical thinker he was banished from his homeland Prussia and he took shelter first in France and then in Brussels in Belgium. In 1843 he moved to Paris where he formed his lifelong friendship with Friederich Engels (1820-95) and established the Communist League witn his help. In 1864, he convened the International Working Men’s Association which was also known as the First International. Marx, as the leader of this organisation, tried to lay down the strategy and tactics for the unification of the workers of the world.

In 1848, Marx and Engels brought out the famous Communist Manifesto. Marx wrote that few men who owned the factories exploited workers because these people depended on them. Marx wanted working people to revolt. If they did so, the wealth could be distributed among all, and not remain concentrated in the hands of a few people. While in London he brought out his great work ‘Das Capital’ in 1867 and established his claim to be regarded as the founder of modern socialism. In this book capitalism was criticised and class struggle was emphasised. The book is called the ‘Bible of Socialism’.

The important principles of Marxism are :

(1) Historical materialism
(2) Surplus capitalism
(3) Class struggle, and
(4) Revolution. Karl Marx did not live to see the fulfilment of his dream. He had given hope to the oppressed section of the people all over the world. The value of Marxism lies in the hope and aspiration it has aroused among the suffering humanity holding out to them the prospect of a better and happier world to live in.

Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. What were the economic, political and social effects of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:

Industrialization brought about unforeseen consequences. The personal relationship that had existed earlier between the employed and the employee waslost as a result of mechanization. The mass of workers started migrating to cities where large factories were established.

1. Social Consequences :

Social Classes :

In England where industrialization had its beginning and progressed rapidly the social consequences were also felt by all alike. Industrial Revolution gave rise to two classes, namely industrial bourgeoisie and industrial proletariat. The industrial bourgeoisie (middle class) required enormous capital and funds from profiteering and exploitation. The position of the industrial proletariat (working class), on the other hand, was one of extreme hardship. This working class gradually emerged with the growth of new industries. Initially, they had no experience of political struggle and remained unorganized. Leaving aside the two classes mentioned above, the remaining classes like the nobility, peasantry, etc. played a minor role in the society. But the middle class and the working class of
people became as the two most important social classes.

2. Rise of New Cities :

The Industrial Revolution brought about significant changes in the life of the people, particularly the working people. No longer did the workers labour outdoors as farmers. The majority of the people hustled in factories and they generally lived in large, crowded cities. England was the first industrial power. At the same time this was the country in which the urban population was pretty much more than the rural population. In course of industrialization, London apart other big industrial towns such as Birmingham, Manchester Newcastle, etc. grew up in England. These cities had very large populations by the standards of those times. Workers, however, did not move from farms to cities over night. This was a gradual process. In cities living was not attractive. Most workers lived in small, one family houses. Houses were built side to side and back to back so that there were no windows except in the front of each house. The housing was filthy, unsanitary and airless. This was the kind of cities built up after the Industrial Revolution.

3. Migration from Rural Areas to the Urban Centres :

The Industrial Revolution also brought about a shift in the population. People gradually moved from rural areas to the cities. Before the Industrial Revolution majority of the population lived in villages as it was dependent on agriculture or was attached to land in one way or
the other. With the growth of industrialization, the scenario changed completely. The centre of economic life departed from village and went to cities. The new cities that had grown were important centres of industry. Consequently there was a shift of the population. People gradually moved from villages to cities. This was inevitable as factories were located in cities where people could find jobs. According to one estimate, in England, less than 20% of the population remained attached to land after the process of industrialization.

4. Development of a Bourgeoisie-Capitalist Political System :

Capitalism developed along with the changes of the Industrial Revolution. The term bourgeoisie denotes the social class whose concern was the preservation of capital and to ensure the continuity of their economic supremacy. In a capitalist system profit is the primary motive. The difference between expenses and income is profit. Capital will accumulate with increase in profit. For example, capitalists usually think the expenses to be less than the income. The part of the profit (difference between expenses and income) could be reinvested to make further profit. The profit motive proved to be greatest inducement and incentive for rapid development of manufacturing industries and businesses of many kinds. The rapid development of capitalism in the nineteenth century helped the bourgeoisie to consolidate their wealth and power.

With enormous wealth at their disposal, the bourgeoisie was determined to fight against the lack of rights and political power in the monarchical system of Government. In a word, they aspired for a major role in politics by participation in the Government. Thus there developed a political system in which the bourgeoisie could participate in the administration of the country. Parliamentary system of Government was the answer to this. An example of this can be found in Britain. By the Reform Bill of 1832 in England the seats in Parliament were redistributed to grant representation from the new industrial centres.

5. Inequality of Distributing the resources: Rise of New classes :

During the late nineteenth century as industries expanded the capitalists continued to make immense profit. As they became richer, the gulf separating them from the working class grew wider. By the end of the nineteenth century there was an end to the time when there was personal contact between the employers and the employees, or say, owners of industry and the working people. Inequality between the two went on increasing day by day. The workers lived in cities in unhealthy living conditions while the wealthy factory owners lived in the elegant residential areas of the cities. The life of the rich was not same as that of the working class people. There was another group of people who were neither rich nor poor; they were the middle class.

The middle class included government officials, professionals, teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc. The people gradually became aware of the economic differences due to which different classes were separated. The economic differences took expression, for example, in travel by railways. There had been three or even four different classes of passenger tickets. The wealthier people travelled in first class and the poor people in the third or fourth class. The economic disparity also engendered to social differences. There were separate waiting rooms in the railway stations for people traveling in different classes so that people traveling with tickets of different prices would not have to bother about coming in contact with one another.

Question 2. Write an essay on the critiques of the industrial society.
Answer:

Critiques of the Industrial Society :

The social and economic changes made by the Industrial Revolution caused and helped in boosting the growth of the science of economics or political economy, as it was called. In the eighteenth century various theories were developed by economists for the improvement of the economic condition of the poor. Against those theories arose the socialist point of view.

1. The Socialist Critiques :

Some reformers believed that a new political and economic system was needed for emancipation of the lot of the common people. Such reformers were called the Socialists. The socialists criticised the evils associated with the Industrial Revolution. They proposed to do away with private right or ownership in either capital or property. In a word, control over production and distribution based on social ownership of the means of production may be termed as socialism. Socialism is diametrically opposite of capitalism. The socialists at the first instance were concerned with England as the evils of industrialization had surfaced first there. Of the socialists the most important one was the leading English socialist, Robert Owen. Besides, Frenchmen like Saint Simon, Louis Blanc and others were notable socialists of the nineteenth century. Robert Owen was an industrialist. He adopted certain measures to eradicate the evils of the capitalist system of production.

In his own factory Owen reduced the hours of labour, did not employ children and introduced a pleasant working condition. He also gave some part of the profits to the workers of his factory. But the later experiments of the same sort by Owen and others were not so satisfactory. In France the socialists like Saint Simon, Fourier and Louis Blanc tried to improve the condition of the workers. But their idealistic schemes were not practical. However, the early socialists were able to create a public opinion against the capitalist system of production.

2. Critiques by Karl Hein Reich Marx and Frederich Engels :

The early socialists, however, had no influence in the beginning. But towards the second half of the nineteenth century, socialism became an important ideal of philosophy in Europe. This was due to a German named Karl Hein Reich Marx, popularly known as Karl Marx. He had a different idea about socialism. His theories became the basis for the communism of the present day. He was banished from France in 1845, he from there went to Brussels, where with hard labour and in collaboration with Friederich Engels, he wrote a famous book entitled Das Kapital (1867-94). In the book he enunciated his philosophy of Scientific Socialism (or Communism).

Discarding all non-revolutionary postulations of socialism Marx and Engels went about to spread his revolutionary thesis through the media of many institutions. The famous Communist Manifesto written by him jointly with Engels was published in 1848. The Das Kapital and Marx’s other writings including the Communist Manifesto are the basis for the politico-economic system known variously as Scientific Socialism, Marxism or Communism.

(1) Difference Between Early Socialists and Marx :

Socialism as taught by Marx and that of the early socialists differed in two ways. The early socialists believed in gradual and peaceful development to establish an ideal condition for the workers. But Karl Marx made a forecast that a violent uprising would enable the workers to capture the political power that would be used to secure their own welfare. The early socialists opined that people should work within the framework of the capitalistic system for the development of the condition of the workers. But Marx

predicted an inevitable destruction of the capitalistic system. Marx considered the industrial workers as the force of change that would destroy capitalism and establish socialism. He also believed that the root cause of this was the change through class conflict or struggle between two opposing economic orders.

(2) The Ideas of Marx and Engels :

Marx and Engels condemned capitalism. Both of them considered it to be a system whereby rich men own factories and other business establishments and pay wages to other men to do hard labour for them. They predicted that a time would come .very soon when the workers would rise up against their employers, the owners of factories, and establish a socialist state. In such a state the Government and industry would be controlled by the workers. Neither Marx nor Engels lived to see their ideas materialized. In many countries, however, Marxist revolutionaries began developing workers’ revolutions. Attempts were also made to overthrow the existing governments and set up socialist or communist states in other parts of the world.

Question 3. How did Industrial Revolution lead to colonial expansion?
Answer:

Colonial Expansion as an Outcome of Industrial Revolution :

The Industrial Revolution resulted in the development of industries. Due to the invention of machines, the production of goods increased by leaps and bounds. Consequently, a new economic system developed that came to be known as the capitalist system. Under capitalism, the main motive behind of production was ‘profit’. To ensure maximization of profit the capitalists followed two methods. One was. to increase production of goods, and the other was to offer minimum wages to the workers. But such courses created a problem.

The low wages to the workers meant low purchasing power of the workers who constituted the majority of the population. Thus the huge production of goods with the help of machines remained unsold as the local people were unable to consume or purchase. So the industrialized European countries needed new markets and buyers for the goods their industries were producing. Again, the European countries could not sell their surplus goods to one another. For, with the spread of the Industrial Revolution in Europe all the industrialized countries had been facing the same problem of having surplus goods.

In such a situation the European countries began exploring markets overseas. Asia and Africa, where industrialization had not taken place, offered the best markets for selling the surplus goods of the European countries. In addition to markets, the industrialized countries of Europe needed raw materials at cheaper rates for running their industries. All this favoured the growth of colonial expansionism of the European powers. Thus the Industrial Revolution made European countries depend on Asian and African countries for their economic and industrial development. This led to the building of colonial empires by the European powers.

Question 4. Write an essay on the Eurpean colonies outside Europe.
Answer:

The European Colonies Outside Europe :

The most important cause that led to establishment of colonies in Asia and Africa was the absence of industrialization in these two continents. Nation-states in the modern sense of the term were also absent there. Besides, during the nineteenth century, the Governments of the countries in Asia and Africa were very weak. The rulers there didn’t care to stem the tide of the foreigners in their countries. All this encouraged the European powers to establish their colonies in different parts of Asia and Africa. England and France were the two leading nations that established colonies outside Europe. Besides, Portugal, Holland (the Dutch), Germany and Russia were other European powers that adopted the same policy.

England :

By the second half of the eighteenth century England (Britain) emerged as the foremost colonial power in the world. It was the mistress of all lands north of the American continent The British overseas possession continued to grow. Particularly after she won war against France (1763), England firmly established herself in India. Meanwhile, the battle of Plassey in 1757 gave a firm footing to a British colonial empire in India. After the Revolt of 1857 the British Government took over direct control of India. It may be noted here that till 1857 the British possession in India had been under the English East India Company.

However, in 1877 the British Queen Victoria took the title ‘Empress of India’. The British colonial establishment in India brought about many changes in the Indian socio—economic life. Outside India Penang, Malacca, Singapore, Ceylon, Burma came under the British possession in South-East Asia. Simultaneously, the entire continent of Australia was colonized by England. Even more important than the land empire that England had built was the command over the sea that gave her paramountcy over all rival powers.

France :

France, besides continuing to hold a few trading posts on the Indian coast, built up a colonial empire in Indo-China (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam). In 1899 France leased Kwangchow from China and obtained an advantageous position in some Chinese provinces. According to Carlton J. H. Hayes, by 1914 France ruled over more than twenty million Asians. Holland (The Dutch) The Dutch colonial empire was greatly extended through the conquest of the islands of Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, major portion of New Guinea, etc. Altogether the Dutch by 1914 dominated fifty-four million Asians. Portugal and other Powers   Portugal still held some trading posts in India. The port of Macao in China and half of the island of Timor were under its possession. Russia, another European power, held Siberia and pushed her frontier through west-central Asia to the borders of India. Germany in 1880 captured of a portion ofNew Guinea. Also she leased Kiaochow from China in 1898.

Question 5. Give an account of the transformation of India from an exporter to an importer. Why did India get the epithet ‘the jewel in the crown of the British Empire’?
Answer:

Transformation of India from an Exporter to an Importer:

After the English came to rule over Indian territories, their primary motive was to extend market for British goods. Previously Indian handicrafts had a steady market in Europe. Particularly, India was the world’s principal producer and exporter of cotton textiles. But the Industrial Revolution in England completely changed her economic relations with India. With the help of modern machines England developed her industry that produced huge quantity of goods. The products of England entered into Indian markets. The Indian hand-made goods were not able to compete with the cheaper machine made goods produced in the factories of England. Thus India not only lost foreign markets for her manufactures but also saw her own shops flooded with the goods produced in England.

Deprived of exporting her manufactures India was now forced to export raw materials which was the major need of the industrial establishments of England. The raw materials like cotton, raw silk or plantation products like indigo, tea and other things were in short supply in England. But in order to run the industries, abundant supply of raw materials was essential and India being a colony of England was guided by the needs of the British industry. Thus India, previously an exporter of finished products under the British colonial rule, was ransformed into a country that imported machine-made products from England.

India as the ‘Jewel’ in the Crown of the British Empire :

In view of the richness of the Indian resources, the British as colonial rulers found it as an important country for extraction. The British found India as a source of several materials which they could extract to make their own country richer and wealthy. Besides draining out India’s wealth in different forms, the English industrialists recognised the country as a rich source of raw materials to feed the British industries at a cheap cost. Moreover, the British found the country a beautiful place to travel. The scenic beauty of the countryside as also the presence of several historical sites attracted the people of England for tourism. In view of all this ‘Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of England (1874-1881) named India as ‘the brightest Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire’.

Question 6. Write an essay on the scramble for Africa.
Answer:

Africa :

Up to the middle of the nineteenth century, the interior of Africa was not exposed to the outside world. Africa was known as the Dark Continent. Only in the coastal regions of Africa trading settlements were established by the European powers. Yet till 1875 less than one-tenth of Africa came under European sway. In the next few years, however, the entire continent was captured and divided among European powers who built up their colonial empires in the occupied territories. he years 1879 to 1886 were a time of extensive colonial rivalry amongst the European powers in Africa.

The Scramble was on. A characteristic of the Scramble was that Britain was involved in rivalry with virtually every other European power at one stage or another. There was, of course an anti-British element to it. This is not surprising since Britain had used her séa-power to assert a sort of ‘paramountcy’ over most of Africa’s coasts in the mid-nineteenth century’ Egypt became a contentious issue between France and Britain.

Britain, in order to make sure that her loan (in the making of the Suez Canal) would be repaid, was also anxious to protect the sea – route to India-occupied Egypt in 1882. Large-scale European annexation in Africa began in 1884. In that year the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck called a conference (Berlin Conference). In the conference decisions were taken for completion of European conquest of Africa. After dividing Africa amongst themselves, the colonial powers of Europe began draining the wealth of gold, copper, rubber, spices, etc.

from Africa. In area further south of Africa the Boers resisted the annexation of territories by the British troops. However, after the defeat of the Boers in the Boer War (1899-1902) all the Boer republics (South Africa) came under British sway. The Boer War destroyed the mood of ‘jingo imperialism’ in Britain. The continental press rejoiced every setback to British arms. It revealed how unpopular the leading imperial power had become. Britain’s colonial empire in Africa grew at times by defeating all those African countries who opposed.

In occupying Sudan the British troops killed thousands of Sudanese (1898). Soon after, Britain gained control of Uganda, East Africa, Rhodesia, Gold Coast, etc. While England consolidated her colonial gains in Africa other European countries also completed the process of their colonization. For example, Portugal established control over Angola, Guinea and Mozambique. France had captured the’ greater part of the African continent, especially in the Sahara and West Africa.

Germany controlled parts of West Africa. Italy gained control of Eritrea, Somaliland and Libya. Spain did not give up her control over Rio de Oro. It may be said that by 1914 European colonization was complete. If we compare between imperialism in China and the Scramble for Africa, it may be said that in China a genuine economic imperialism may be observed, The European powers exercised pressure on the Chinese Government to open up the country to western trade and investment. But the feature of the Scramble for Africa was the domination of European control over vast tracts of African territory without any immediate profitability.

Question 7. What were the different crises that led to the World War I ?
Answer:

The different crises that led to the World War I

1872 Bismarck had formed the Three Emperor’s League or Drei-Kaiserbund between the rulers of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. But when in 1878 Russian interests clashed with Austria in the Balkans in consequence of the Russo- Turkish War, Russia withdrew from the League. In compensation, Bismarck in 1879concluded with Austria-Hungary a treaty of reciprocal protection in case Russia should attack either power. In 1882 when Italy joined Germany and Austria, it came to be called Triple Alliance.

Fearing that Russia might draw closer to France, Bismarck contracted Reinsurance Treaties of 1881 and 1887 with Russia and cultivated friendly relations with England. After 1890, when Germany failed to renew the treaty with Russia, the latter concluded an alliance with France in 1895. It bound both parties in the event of a German attack upon either to come to one another’s assistance with a large army. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Britain had made vain attempts to form a relation with Germany.

In 1902 Britain’s isolation was ended when she concluded an alliance with Japan. Thereafter in 1904, Britain concluded with France the Entente Cordiale, a cordial understanding. By this agreement, France recognised British control over Egypt while Britain promised not to oppose French claims in Morocco. In 1907, Britain concluded a similar entente with Russia and settled their conflicting interests in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. Thus was born the Triple Entente between England, France and Russia. From 1907 Europe was grouped, somewhat artificially into two armed camps.

Moroccan Crisis :

The major powers of Europe clashed over territorial interests. Morocco, a backward country, bordering on the French empire in Africa, became the scene of international rivalry. The independence of Morocco had been guaranteed by an international Congress at Madrid in 1880. But the French were anxious to gain control of Morocco. French control of Morocco would round off her large African empire stretching from Tunisia, Algeria, then to Morocco and through the Saharan desert hinterland to French West Africa. The French Foreign Minister Delcasse had obtained the assent of Italy in 1900 and Great Britain in 1904; and he had just reached an agreement with Spain giving the latter a protectorate over the part not appropriated by France.

Germany, anxious to weaken the Entente between France and Britain, decided to exploit the Moroccan question for this purpose. Taking advantage of Russia’s defeat by the Japanese when the former could give no support to France, the Kaiser (William IT) landed at Tangier in Morocco at the end of March 1905. He dramatically declared the Sultan’s independence in whose lands all foreign powers were to enjoy equal rights. Since Germany had no direct interest in Morocco, this was a provocative act. The French appeared to give way. The Germans demanded the removal of Delcasse, the French Foreign Minister and the architect of Entente. In June 1905 he

was forced to resign. France also agreed to Germany’s demand for an international conference to settle Morocco’s question. The conference met at Algeciras in Spain in January 1906. While France’s special position in Morocco was recognised by the majority of powers, the French annexation of Morocco was forbidden and the ‘open door’ theoretically established. The settlement of 1906 did not solve the Moroccan crisis. A second crisis arose in 1908 when three German deserters from the French Foreign Legion were sheltered by the German consul at Casablanca. The incident ended in arbitration at the Hague Tribunal which was unfavourable to Germany (November 1908). In February 1909 France and Germany signed a Declaration known as the ‘Morocco Pact’. This recognised France’s special political influence in Morocco, while giving to Germany equal economic opportunities.

Agadir Crisis :

But the Franco-German agreement was not observed. The French discriminated against German trade and the Germans protested against the tightening of French control. The domestic situation of Morocco was also not stable. The Sultan was overthrown in 1908 and his brother usurped the throne. Though the new Sultan was recognised by the powers, he was not obeyed by many of his subjects. He appealed to France for aid. In April 1911 France sent troops to Fez, the Moroccan capital, to restore order. This action annoyed Germany. The Foreign Minister Alfred Von Kiderlen Wachter, without warning, despatched the German gunboat Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir in July 1911. Kiderlen’s action was intended to be a ‘bluff. He demanded from France a large slice of the French Congo in return for her abandoning political designs in Morocco.

This menacing action puzzled Europe. To the Western Powers, German claim seemed as a mere pretext for military action. On July 21, 1911, Grey, the British Foreign Secretary, categorically told the German ambassador that Britain thought Germany’s demands for the Congo excessive. The British Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lloyd George, in a public speech, threatened to take action if Britain was disregarded in a matter affecting its interests. Encouraged by the British attitude, the French refused to make any concession. In the end, however, tension was relaxed when an accord was reached in the second week of October.

Finally an agreement was signed on November 4,1911. France was allowed to establish her protectorate over Morocco on the condition that the ‘open door’ was maintained. In compensation, Germany obtained two large strips of French Congolese territory. The Agadir crisis in 1911 served to quicken anti-German feeling in France and helped to consolidate the friendship between France and Britain. On the other hand, it accentuated Anglo- German rivalry and inflamed public opinion in Germany in the cause of national prestige.

The Balkan Crisis:

In the Balkans, the national aspirations of new-born states threatened the Ottoman rule in Europe. A pan—Slav movement began in the Balkans under Serbia. This was supported by Russia ‘who regarded Serbia as a sort of outpost of the Balkans calculated to strengthen her supremacy in the Near East. But Russian claims in the Balkans were contested by Austria. In 1908 she annexed the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina which greatly enraged Serbia. This also proved a serious setback to Russia’s prestige. Though Russia had been humiliated, she began in 1909 the reconstruction of her armed forces on a large scale. In 1912 a league was formed between Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria.

Its object was to prevent any further increase in the threatening Austo-German control of the peninsula. The two great Powers   Austria and Russia most interested in the Balkans intervened. An international conference which met at London in May 1913 restored peace by creating an independent Albania and compensating Serbia with territory in the interior. The creation of an independent Albania cut off Serbia from the sea. During the Second Balkan war, Austria planned to launch an attack upon Serbia. But she was held back by Germany and Italy. The Austro-Serbian feud was greatly aggravated. The influence of Russia in the Balkans had changed the balance of power. After the Second Balkan War Russia was preparing further alternations in her favour. Germany could not passively watch the establishment of absolute Russian hegemony in the Balkans.

Question 8. Give an account of the industrial development of England and her neighbouring countries.
Answer:

(1) Industrial development of England :

During the years 1950-1870 the proportion of Western European trade which was purely internal decreased. The change is commonly described, for the United Kingdom, as her becoming ‘the workshop of the world’- a change which was well on the way by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851, but which was to become of supreme importance, both for Britain and for Europe, by 1871. What had been true for the cotton industry in the first half of the century became more and more true for the heavy industries and for the ship building and engineering industries in the third quarter of the century.

Their prosperity depended on imported raw materials or on exported manufactured goods or on both. In general, Britain came to rely for essential food stuffs expecially grain—upon imports. She paid for these imports by exporting industrial products, by shipping and insurance services and by interest upon her capital investments abroad. Britain committed herself fully to being an industrial state.

In consequence, she became a crucial factor in the whole economy of the world.In the 1850 many of the railways in the Western Europe were built by British contractors, partly with British and partly with local capital. In the following decade, Western European enterprise completed the railroad networks, expanded home industries, and mechanised manufacture. Meanwhile, after the financial crisis of 1857 and the Indian Mutiny of the same year, British interests moved on to the outerzone of raw material supplies. The great age of British railway building in India began to be financed almost entirely by British capital and in Argentina and Brazil the first railway were built in 1850s, with the new bulk of railroads and during the 1860s, of ships—which it had become a great new industry of Britain to build—the two zones became more and more closely interconnected.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 was the symbol of the demand for quicker transit between the centre and the periphery of the new economic complex. Though it was built with the French capital and by French enterprise, more than half the shipping that passed through it was British. Moreover, Britain, because of her world wide colonial connections, set the pace in forging new economic links between the inner and the outer zones. After the middle of the century, the colonies were turned from remote outposts and bases, difficult of access, into a more closely knit mesh of economic interests.

(2) France :

France, like Britain, got most of her raw cotton from United States and cotton imports made the fortune of La Harve as a port. During the second Empire, France’s imports tended to exceed her imports, and she was sending capital abroad heavily. But this was for the first time, and most of it went into railways, canals, mines and government bonds. Internally theré was great concentration in the control of some industries, most notably in iron. The famous comite des Forges was founded in 1864 and its interests were éxtended to Belgium and Germany. Great families like the Pereiras and the Foulds controlled large sectors of national industry and business. French colonial possessions were increasing too, though less spectacular than Britain’s. Algeria had been completely taken over by 1857.

Though its products were too similar to France’s own for it served the same purposes as were served by Britain colonies, it became a good market for French cotton goods. Tahiti and Ivory Coast had been added, even before 1850, and the Second Empire sent an expedition to Peking in 1859-1860 and to Syria in 1861. Explorers to West Africa, and new settlements to Dahomey and the Guinea Coast. New Caledonia was occupied in 1853 and after the capture of Saigon in Indo-China in 1859 three provinces of Coachin-China were annexed and a protectorate was established over Cambodia. In these ways France, like Britain, became indisputably a world colonial power with national interests strading both in the inner and outer zones of the world economy. She differed from Britain in that her colonies were not used primarily for settlement, being mainly tropical or semi-tropical character, and her industrial development no less than her geographical position, anchored her firmly in Europe.

(3) Belgium :

Until 1860’s Belgium was the only European country to keep pace with Britain in industrial growth. In her resources of coal, iron and zinc she was particularly fortunate, and she enjoyed, as did Britain, the advantage of the early establishment of iron and engineering industries. By 1870 she too had adopted a policy af free trade as regards the import of food and raw materials. By that date her own mineral resources of iron and zinc were being exhausted, but she remained a manufacturing and exploring country because she had the technicians and skilled workers, the industrial plant, enterprising management and business

Organisatian, and good communications. She exported heavy equipment such as machines locomotives, and rails, as well as lighter goods such as glass and textiles. In 1860′ she was exporting capital for the construction of railways in Spain, Italy, the Balkans and even South America. On balance she was, like Britain, a heavy importer af food, ” particularly wheat and cattle feed. After her separation from the Netherlands, Belgium lacked colonies until she acquired the rich territory of the Congo in the last quarter of the century.

(4) Russia :

The forces of change fermenting in Russian life by 1871 were the consequence of the reforms af Tsar Alexander II rather than the result of any marked industrial development. The Crimean War (1854-1886) led toa rapid growth of railroads. A special body called the General Company of Russian Railways ramated them and by 1870 there were more than 1,06,000 kilometrés of track, combined with the emancipatian of serfs, even this moderate amount of railroad construction was enough to carry Russia forward, for the first time into a money economy.

But even then industry remained subservient to the land, and factory workers aften went back to agricultural labour in the summer. By Western or German standards industrial progress in Russia was slow, industrial organisation primitive, until at least at the end of the century. In mining, transport and the building industries, a favourite method of organisation was the cartel or cooperative labour group. Each member performed his agreed share of the work in return for an agreed share of the earnings, and a leader conducted the bargaining for the whole group.

Travelling artels of carpenters or masons, numbering anything from 20 to 200, moved from their villages to the towns each year, completing the work contracted for and then returning to the villages for the winter, spinning and weaving, metal work and wood work, were often organised along similar lines in the villages themselves by the peasants working in their own homes or in the co-operative workshops. These peculiarly Russian modes of production had many admirable features. They served to strengthen the bargaining power of the otherwise.

Helpless workers ensured a good level of craftsmanship and industriousness and prevented widespread unemployment. But they linked industry very closely to an agriculture that was primitive and to a domestic system that resisted mechanization. The general retarding of the economic development of Russia in these years was to have far-reaching consequences in the twentieth century.

Question 9. Brief discuss the development of industry in Germany.
Answer:

Industrial development in Germany :

Germany outplaced all other nations in the production of wealth. If the output of France’s blast furnace increased six fold between 1870 and 1904, that of Germany’s grew ten fold. By exploiting the rich mineral resources of the Ruhr, the Saar, and Alsace-Lorraine, as well as the newly unified labour power of the Reich, Germany by 1914 had become the greatest industrial nation in Europe. The ratio of industrial potential between Germany and her two Western neighbours at that date has been estimated as Germany three, Britain two and France one. This rapid ascendency of Germany in the economic life of Europe was the most significant feature of the pre- war generation. Moreover, whereas France manufactured for home rather than world markets, and her industrial structure of small farms slowed down standardization and total output, Germany manufactured increasingly for export.

This made her the chief European rival to Great Britain as the ‘worshop of the world’ as well as banking, insurance and shipping. This rivalry added greatly to the international fears and tensions that sprang from other considerations of national security, naval power and colonial possessions. The rule of the Iron Chancellor Bismarck inaugurated an age of iron and steel-commodities which the Reich, as he forged it, was especially well- equipped to produce. Within the territories of the Reich a rapid expansion of all means of transport and communication—-of road, railroad and water ways, mail and telegraph service—welded the country into one great economic unit. The 11,000 kilometres of railways in 1860 became 19500 by 1870, 43000 by 1890 and 61,000 by 1910. Between 1879 and 1884 most of the Prussia’s roads were brought under state control.

Germany’s coal output multiplied nearly seven fold between 1877 and 1913, and her output of lignite, ten fold. The marriage of coal and iron gave her the greatest iron and steel industry in Europe. The firms of Krupp, Thyssen, Stumm- Halberg arid Donnersmark developed huge steel empires. British coal production kept ahead of German, but in the output of pig-iron Germany overtook the United Kingdom before 1900. After 1878 English discovery of the Thomas Gilchrist process for smelting ore made the phosphoric iron ores of Lorraine available for German steel manufacturing, and was partly responsible for its rapid expansion. The heavy industries of the Ruhr, the Saar, Lorraine and Silesia became the very foundation of German prosperity and power in Europe.

German electrical and chemical industries expanded no less impressively. Warner Von Siemens, who invented the electric dynamo, built up the firm of Siemens and Halske, which specialised in heavy incurrent and in 1905 merged into the Siemens- Schuckert Werke Combine. Imil Rathenau created the German Edison Company of 1883, which later became the famous AEG (Allgemeine Elektrizitats Gasselschaft). Between them these two gigantic concerns literally electrified Germany, and by 1906 this new industry was employing more than 1,00,000 people. In 1913 electrical equipment and electrical goods of all kinds were among Germany’s most valuable exports. Her chemical industries prospered partly because of her excellent scientific education could be married to rich mineral resources.

With the production of wide variety of industrial and agricultural chemicals, ranging from sulphuric acid and ammonia to pyrites and potassium salts, there grew up important national industries in dyes and fertilizers as well as the explosives and armaments. The number of people employed in the chemical industries nearly quadrupled between 1885 and 1913, the years of most rapid expansion. The combination these two especially modern electrical and chemical industries modernized Germany’s whole industrial equipment, and gave her immense advantages over other nations. It was inevitable in these circumstances that German trade should come to rival that of United Kingdom in European markets. The completion of the railway. network in Europe brought Germany immense advantages. It also converted her geographical position, previously a handicap, into a positive asset.

It no longer mattered that several of her rivers ran northwards into the Baltic, nor that mountains hammed her in on the south. As the great central land power in Europe, she became the focus of the whole European network of railroads, with access by rail to Russia and Turkey, by tunnel to Italy, the Balkans and the Mediterranean ports, by steamship to Atlantic and Pacific. From 1880 onwards the Reich also promoted the reconstruction of its already good internal canal system and widened and extended waterways to take steamer traffic. The Kiel Canal was built more for strategic than for economic reasons. From 1886 onwards the great Hamburg-Amerika line was expanded by Albert Ballin. The ports and harbours of Hamburg and Bremen had to be repeatedly extended and even between 1900 and 1914 their tonnage of shipping was doubled, when the war began, the German merchant fleet was the second largest in the world, exceeded only by Great Britains.

Its steam fleet had come to exceed that of France during 1880’s and by 1910 was three times as great, and the total tonnage of the
German merchant marine in 1913 was nearly 490 times greater than its tonnage in 1870. In 1913 the value of German exports to all foreign and colonial countries was a little less than two and a half billion dollars; that of British exports was a little more than this figure. French foreign trade was in value little more than half the British, Russian only half the French and even less than that of Belgium. But the most important overriding fact in the fifteen years before 1914 was that world trade as a whole was rapidly expanding and a very high proportion of it was European trade. It was Germany’s share of this European and world phenomenon, her place in a rapidly expanding global economy, that gave her an irrefutable claim to be a world power.

Question 10. Give an exposition of Marxian socialism or scientific socialism.
Answer:

(1) Marxian Socialism :

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the earlier brands of socialism were swallowed up by the now theory of history propounded by Karl Marx. He was the son of a Jewish lawyer of Germany. For revolutionary activities, he was forced to leave Germany and to go to Paris in 1843. There he met Engels, the son of a wealthy Prussian manufacturer, and their life long collaboration in writing and other activities began. Marx stayed at Brussels for some time and after 1849 moved to London where he spent the rest of his life of exile.

(2) The Communist Manifesto :

Marx and Engels constructed a philosophy of “scientific socialism” by analysing the strong forces and impulses which govern human nature and mould its environment. It is the business of social philosophy to discover these forces and not to describe panaceas or to work out the details of an Utopia as the earlier socialists had done. His theory, with all. its consequences, embodied in the Communist Manifesto which appeared in 1848, and which has been aptly described as “the birth-cry of modern socialism.” It begins by declaring that “the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” It then proceeds to describe in some details the evolution of history as the inevitable result of the struggle between those who have and those who have not, leading ultimately to the dictatorship of the proletariat.

The Manifesto is thus a ringing call to the labouring class to rise in revolt against the tyranny of the capitalist class. The“s Manifesto is a document whose influence has not been matched by any other in modern history except the French Declaration of the Rights of Man. The teachings of Marx and Engels were further elaborated in the Das Capital, of which the first volume was published by Marx in 1867 and two other volumes after his death, by Engels. This massive treatise became, and has since remained, the Bible of the socialist the world over.

(3) Economic interpretation of history :

The philosophy of history as propounded by Marx is based upon “economic determinism” or economic interpretation of history. In his opinion the fundamental impulse of life is economic, and economic factors have always determined the course of historical development, in all aspects of human life. Among the economic factors, the most important are the means of production and the manner in which they are exploited. Those who control the means of production dominate the society, and it is their interest so to fashion the laws and institutions as to perpetuate their social and political pre-eminence. Thus arises the division of society into those who control and those who are controlled, those who have and those who have not.

It is from this division of the society into two antagonistic sections that there arises class war and history is a record of such class struggles. Marx points out that the present society has been evolved gradually out of many class struggles in the past. There had been struggles between freeman and slave, between lord and serf, between the landed aristocracy and the bourgeoisie. History is simply the record of how one class has gained wealth and political power only to be overthrown and succeeded by another class. The Industrial Revolution has destroyed the power and political influence of the old aristocracy and magnified those of the bourgeoise, the middle-class capitalists.

But it has also created a class of wretched wage—earners; the proletarians, who are being mercilessly exploited by the capitalists. Hence these two classes are set in mutual hostility with the result that a severe conflict between the two is inevitable. This would be the last and final struggle leading to a terrible revolution, which would establish the dictatorship of the proletariat. This would be ushered in a classless, socialist state. The class struggle would come to an end for there would be only one class.

(4) Theory of surplus value :

Economic interpretation of history and class war are the two main principles of Marxian Socialism. Marx next directs his attack upon capital through the economic theory of surplus value. According to it, all wealth is the product of labour, and labour is the only measure of value. Hence workmen have the right to the whole produce of labour. “Lastly, Marx is of opinion that capitalism is digging its own grave. Its inevitable tendency is the progressive concentration of wealth in the hands of increasingly fewer men, the big capitalists swallowing up the little ones. The result of this tendency would be to swell the number of the proletariat, so that, society would come to be composed of only two classes sharply differentiated by increasing wealth and increasing misery. The only
logical outcome of this state of things is revolution in which the many will dispossess he few, and inaugurate the communist state. The social revolution which will bring about the fall of capitalism is thus inevitable.

(5) International character of Marx’s socialism :

Another feature of Marxian socialism is its international character. Marx appeals to working men of all countries. He holds that labourers of one country have far more in common with the labourers of other countries than they have with the capitalists of their own. To promote this unified interest of the labourers Marx took a leading part in organising “the International Workingmen’s Association” which met in London in 1864 and which is known as the First International. It was attended by delegates from most of the countries of Europe and was pledged to the advocacy of Marxian teachings. For several years it held annual congresses in different European towns and advocated socialistic measures, but in the seventies several events conspired to bring about the failure of the First International.

The first blow came when Bakunin and his anarchist followers joined it. This led to a clash of programmes, giving rise to bitter internal dissensions. In the end the anarchists were expelled. The failure of the communist uprising of 1871 in Paris with which Marx heartily sympathised, discredited the International in the eyes of those who stood for law and order. Attacked from without and torn within by rival factions the First International lost its vitality and died of inanition. Its last congress was hold at Geneva in 1873. The international organisation of socialism wag sought to be revived in 1889 when the Second International was founded. But it was no more successful than the first. It collapsed with the outbreak of the Great War. The Third International was orgationised by the Russian communists in 1919 at Moscow.

(6) Influence of Socialism :

The failure of the International meant by no means the failure of Marxian socialism. Marx had brought down Socialism from the clouds, had clearly defined its aims and methods, had made it a living force in every country. Specially this was the case in Germany. There, under the brilliant leadership of Ferdinand Lassalle, a Social Democratic Party grew up which in course of time became the largest party in Germany. It became the model for similar organisation for the spread of Marxian socialism in other countries. Even an unbending autocrat like Bismarck had to bow before the storm and had to pass measures in conformity with the principles of Socialism. He nationalised the railways and established asystem of old age pensions and workmen’s insurance. After Lassalle the ablest leader of the Social Democratic party was George Ebert, a saddler who rose to be the first President of the German Republic in 1919.

In England the cause of socialism was represented by the Fabian Society and the Independent Labour Party. As a matter of fact the working class movement was one of the chief features of the forty years preceding the Great War. Every country has a socialist party and nearly every statesman has to contend with socialism. Legislation to prevent the many abuses of the factory system has been undertaken in almost every civilised state. Education, health, sanitation and schemes for the welfare of workmen, such as, old age pensions and insurance against the vicissitudes of life, occupy an ever-increasing share of the legislator’s attention. In foreign affairs, however, the influence of the socialists is negligible.

Their internationalism has been eclipsed by the militant nationalism of the period. They are opposed to militarism and imperialism but hitherto their cry against them has been in the wilderness. It should be noticed that although socialism is an important factor in politics, and rival parties bid against one another for the support of the working class, it was till 1914 urging a purely propagandist war. But the capture of the Russian state by Lenin in 1917 and the Bolsheviks made it clear that Marx was no more doctrinaire but exportor of a faith that could be translated in to practice.

In general, Britain, however, had asserted and reinforced her naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean and the Straits, and France had opened new door for her diplomacy of recovery and her future policy of colonialism. Territorial gains such as Russia’s occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina were of little profit. If the legacy of inflamed, frustrated Balkan nationalism was to continue to embroil all the powers in future crisis and wars. International tenion was increased, not eased, by the events of these years. The new balance of power, now clearly centred on Germany, was destined to preserve the peace for another whole generation. But it was doomed to be the most uneasy and unstable peace, subject to recurrent crises and threats of war. The next general European Congress met forty years later, not in Berlin but in Paris, and as it were to be no representatives of the Dreikaiserbund.

Question 11. Give an account of the partition of Africa.
Answer:

Partition of Africa

(1) Introduction :

In 1780’s, except for a few coastal areas, Africa was still a dark and little known continent. Of all the underdeveloped of the regions of the world, none offered such a vast wealth in raw materials, such golden opportunities for trade as the continent of Africa. From 1850 onwards explorers like David Living stone and Stanley revealed to the world the untapped wealth in the rubber and tropical products locked up in the heart of the continent. The ‘grab for Africa, began and between the years 1875 and 1900, practically the whole of the continent had been partitioned among the European powers—Great Britain, Russia, France Belgium Germany and Italy. The ‘Scramble for Africa’ led to serious diplomatic complications among these nations.

(2) Scramble for Africa :

The ‘Scramble for Africa’ began with international Congress at Berlin in 1885. This Congress permitted king Leopold II of Belgium to erect his holdings in Africa. Into the Congress Free State, Leopold poured considerable capital. He soon reaped a rich reward. Later, due to pressure of public opinion, he transferred the Congo Free State to the Belgian Government. It was henceforth called the Belgian Congo. The Congo was merely a start. Within a brief span of 27 years, beginning in 1885 and ending in 1912, the whole of Africa except Ethiopia and Liberia, was taken over by the European countries. In the general scramble, Great Britain and Germany came off with the richest prizes.

(1) Great Britain’s Share :

The lion’s share in the partition went to Britain and to France. Before 1880, Britain already held the Cape colony at the extreme south. England secured the Cape Colony from the Dutch at the Congress of Vienna. The Dutch or the Boers who had difference with the British migrated to north and established the colonies of Transval and Orange Free State. As both the British and the Boers were threatened by native tribes, the British annexed Natal and the New Boer Colonies. This led to two Boer Wars in which Britain defeated the Boers. However, in 1907, they were granted autonomy and the states of Natal, Transval. Orange Free State and Cape Colony were joined into the union of South Africa.

Britain also established control over Egypt by virtue of her buying shares in the Suez Canal and conquered Sudan. It addition, she secured Zanzibar, Uganda, the Gold Coast, Nyasaland and Rhodesia and British East Africa. On the whole, she secured a territory larger in area than the whole of Europe and extending in an almost continuous line from the Cape to Cairo.

(2) France’s Share :
France secured Algeria and a large territory in North-West Africa (Sahara). She established a protectorate over Tunis and brought Morocco entirely under her influence.

(3) Germany’s share :
Germany secured Togoland, Cameron, German East Africa and German South-West Africa.

(4) Belgium’s share :
Belgium’s share was Congo Basin. It is perhaps the richest area of all because of the rubber wealth of the Congo Basin.

(5) Italy’s share :
Italy got Eritrea and Tripoli.

(6) Portugal’s share :
Portugal secured Mozambique, Angola and Guines.

(3) Trouble Sports :
(1) Fashoda :

In 1883, a revolt broke out in Sudan and Britain occupied it. This brought about complications with France. The French Major Merchand marched his army to Fashoda on the Upper Nile which was in the British sphere of influence. This incident seemed likely to lead to a European War. In the end, France withdrew and smooth relations were established between the two countries in the Anglo-French Entente, 1904.

(2) Tunis :

Trouble arose in 1881 between France and Italy over the question of Tunis. Italy denied to secure Tunis and the action of France drove her to join the alliance of Germany and Austria which became the Triple Alliance. However, Italy needed the help of France to secure hold on Tripoli. So in 1902, she concluded a secret alliance with France which diminished the importance of the Triple Alliance.

(3) Morocco :

The ambitious policies of German Emperor Kaiser William IT forced England to abandon her policy of splendid isolation and she concluded the Dual Entente. This breach was completed by the Morocco crisis. France forced the Sultan of Morocco to introduce reforms, but the Sultan took shelter under assurance from the Kaiser to protect his independence. The matter was settled in 1906 in the Algeciars Conference. France with the support of Britain established a protectorate over Morocco. British attitude on the Morocco question widened the gulf between England and Germany. Thus the scramble for Africa played a considerable part in the formation of the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance in Europe.

Question 12. Give an account of the subjugation of China by Western Imperialism.

Answer:

The subjugation of China by Western Imperialism

(1) Introduction :

China is one of the oldest nations of the world and is more extensive and probably more popular than Europe. She was highly civilised long before Europe. Her people were devoted to the peaceful pursuits of industry and despised the arts of war. China had always lived a life of isolation hating the outside world. She had no diplomatic relations with any country and no foreign ambassadors lived in Peking. Foreigners were permitted to trade in only one Chinese port, Canton, and even there under severe restrictions. The Chinese desired nothing better than to be let alone. But this was not to be in the Modern Age. As the nineteenth century progressed, the isolation of China was gradually shattered and China was forcibly ‘opened’ by the newly industrialised Great Powers of Europe by a series of aggression of territory and trading privileges and to enter into dipolomatic intercourse.

(1) The Opium War :

First Opium War; 1839-1842 :

The process of European agression which forced open the doors of China to European influence, began in 1840, with the so-called ‘Opium War’ waged by Great Britain against the Chinese Empire. The Chinese Government had forbidden the importation of opium as injurious to their people. The British traders at Canton it is persisted in bringing it from India into China as they had no wish to give up the enormous profits of the opium trade. In 1839, Chinese Government appointed a special commissioner to check smuggling. He seized and destroyed 20,000 chests of opium at Canton. Thereupon, the First Opium War broke out. It lasted for two years and the British bombered several Chinese cities on the coast. The war ended in a victory for Great Britain. The Chinese sued for peace and concluded the treaty of Nanking. The terms of the treaty ofNanking (1842)

That brought the First Opium War to a close were as follows:
(1) China was forced to pay a large indemnity.
(2) The city of Hong Kong was ceded to Britain.
(3) The four ports of Amoy, Ningpo, Foochow and Shanghai were thrown open to foreign trade.
(4) By the principle of most favoured nation clause, the French, the Germans, the Dutch and the Russians received the above privileges.
(5) They were also granted ‘extra-territorial’ rights by which the Chinese laws did not apply to foreigners.

(2) The Treaty of Wanghsia (1844) :

The United States sent Caleb Cushing to make a commercial treaty with China and accordingly the treaty of Wanghsia was concluded in 1844. The number of the treaty ports was increased to over forty and China was obliged to abandon her policy of isolation and to send and receive ambassadors. Thus, the fruits of British victory was shared with other Western powers—America, Russia, France, Belgium Prussia, Dutch and the Portuguese. At last the doors of MChina were opened to foreign influence.

(3) The Second Opium War; 1856-1860 :

In 1856, both France and Great Britain waged war on China. The former wanted to avenge the murder of a missionary and the latter the arrest of a crew sailing under a British flag as pirates by a Chinese official. The British again occupied Canton, the combined Franco-British forces captured Tientsin and advanced towards Peking, the capital of the Chinese Empire. The Second Opium War ended by the Treaty of Tientsin, 1860. By the Treaty of Tientsin,

China agreed to the following conditions :
(1) To open six additional ports including Tientsin to foreign trade.
(2) To legalise the opium traffic.
(3) To receive foreign ministers at Peking.
(4) To tolerate and protect Christian missionaries.
(5) To guarantee the safety of Europeans travelling in the interior of China.

(4) Russia secures Amur District :

In this very year, 1860, Russia extorted from China the Amur coastal district in the far north-east. Then Russia founded the port
of Vladivostok and used it to radiate her influence in Manchuria.

(5) Further Dismemberment :

More steps towards the dismemberment of the Chinese Empire were taken in 1890’s. They were inaugurated by the Sino—Japanese War of 1894-1895 war. This was a period of critical importance in China’s relationwith Europe. The immediate cause of the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1894 was the relation of the two powers with Korea. After her defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, the alarmed Chinese Government made peace with Japan in 1895 at Shimonoseki. China paid a large war indemnity to Japan and in addition, ceded to her Port Arthur, the Liaotung Peninsula, the island of Formosa and the Pescadores Islands. China also recognised the complete independence of Korea.

(6) European Intervention :

In the hour of its triumph, Japan war deprived of the fruits of her victory by European intervention. In particular Russia with the support of France and Germany forced Japan to restore Port Arthur and the Liaotung Peninsula to China.

(7) Germany and Shantung :

In 1897, two German missionaries were murdered in the province of Shantung. Germany took advantage of it and by way of redress, secured from China a ninety-nine year lease of the fine harbour of Kiauchau and extensive commercial and financial privileges in the whole province of Shantung. Shantung became a German ‘sphere of influence’.

(8) Russia secures Port Arthur :

The action of Germany encouraged Russia to make further demands. She acquired from China a lease for 25 years of Port Arthur, the strongest position in Eastern China. In addition, Russia obtained permission to extend the Trans Siberian Railway to Viadivastak.

(9) Britain and France secure Ports :

Britain occupied the naval strong hold of Weihaiwei and france secured the Bay of Kwangchaw in South China.

(10) Sphere of Influence :

The Western Imperialists carved out ‘sphere of influence’—Britain in Yantse Valley, Russia in Manchuria and Mongolia, France in South-West China, Japan in Fukien and Germany in Shantung. It seemed in the summer of 1898 that China was about to undergo the fate of Africa.

(11) The Open Door Policy of U.S.A. :

The actual partitioning and annexation of China by the Great Powers were prevented by the rivalry among the imperial powers themselves. Britain and USA opposed all ideas of partition. In 1899 John Hay, the Secretary of State of the United State proclaimed of famous ‘Open Door Doctrine’. This Doctrine did not abrogate any of the privileges that the Powers had already secured in China. But it was laid down that all parts of China should be open on equal terms to the citizens of all foreign countries for commerce and investment The policy was acceptable to all and China was saved from annexation. Although she continued as an independent country, her independence was only nominal.

Question 13. What were the conditions favourable for Industrial Revolution in England?
Answer:

The conditions favourable for Industrial Revolution in England

The Industrial Revolution started in England, because of the fact that certain essential conditions prevailed in England more completely than in any other country.

They were as follows :

(1) Capital :

For intensive industrialisation, capital in‘ large quantities is necessary to build factories and machines to hire workers and to buy raw materials. This was made available in England by the following agencies—the Bank of England, the London Money Market, the sound system of coinage and Paper Money and Joint | Stock Banks. It was further provided by the efficient handling of governmental finances. Thus the formation of joint stock corporations for industry, commerce and finance was made simple and easy.

(2) Labour :
Workers for the new industries come from a number of sources. The British population was growing very rapidly and in addition, there was immigration of continental and Irish labour in England.

(3) Techniques :
England developed techniques, processes and machines necessary for large-scale industries.

(4) Resources :
England possessed just the resources needed for industrialisation. Its climate was damp and highly suitable for cotton industry. Its water resources were ample. Above all, England was rich in iron and coal.

(5) Transportation :
England had many ports and extensive shipping for seaborne transport. In addition, she constructed a network of roads and canals.

(6) Markets :
The union of England, Scotland and Ireland provided an extensive home market free of tariffs. Moreover, England had established markets all over Europe, in the New World, in Africa and Asia. She had no serious competitors. From these places flowed in raw materials in abundance. India supplied cheap cotton.

Question 14. What were the Great inventions that favoured the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:

Great inventions that favoured the Industrial Revolution

(1) Weaving and Spinning :

The 18th century came to be known as the century of inventions. In 1738, John Kay of Lancashire invented the Fly Shuttle which doubled the output. In 1764 a man called Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny which increased the production of yarn. Next came Arkwright who made the Water Frame, a spinning machine worked by water power. It could spin a hundred threads at a time. In 1779, Samuel Crompton brought together the best feature of Hargreaves and Arkwright machines and it came to be known as the Mule which in its modern improved form carries 2000 spindles. The inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright and Crompton gave the English textile industries a stimulating that was truely remarkable. In 1785 Cartwright invented a powerloom worked by water and this completely modernised the cotton industry.

(2) Coal and Iron :

The old handlooms had been made of wood but the new machines were made of iron and steel. This increased the demand for iron, which in turn necessitated the invention of machinery for increasing the output of iron. In 1735, Abraham Darby discovered the process of smelting iron ore and coke. Before the end of the century, the modern blast furnace and iron foundry were established. Watt’s steam pump overcame the problem of floods and Humphrey Davy’s ‘Safety Lamp’ reduced the danger of underground explosions in coal mines. Thus Darby, Waitt and Davy laid the foundation of modern coal and iron industry.

(3) Steam :

The greatest achievement of James Watt was the invention of effective steam pump for mining operations. In 1785 he produced a steam engine ‘Beelzebub’ which could turn belts and wheels on any machine. As a result steam power rapidly displaced water power in driving the new spinning and weaving machines. The Age of Steam had arrived. James Watt was, in truth, ‘the father of modern industry’.

(4) Communications :

In 1814, George Stephenson, the creator of the locomotive, constructed a steam engine to run on rails. In 1830, Stephenson’s engine, the ‘Rocket’ travelled at 35 miles an hour. Soon in England there was established a network of railways. The first steam boat was launched in the Clyde canal. In 1819, an American ship, the Savannah crossed the Atlantic. Modern road—making engineering began with Metcalf, the blind road maker. After him came Telford, a Scot by birth. Macadam, another Scottish engineer, established in 1827, the ‘mechanised’ road made by small broken rolled and bitten hard. Macadam’s system held the field until the coming of the modern concrete road. The beginning of hundreds of miles of canals was begun by James Brindley. In 1761, he constructed the Bridgewater Canal. In 1777, the Grand Canal was dug.

Question 15. What were the effects of the Industrial revolution?
Answer:

The effects of the Industrial revolution were far-reaching and widespread.

Good effects-Economic results :

(1) Increased Production :
Manual labour was replaced by elaborate machinery worked by power which resulted in increased production.

(2) Improvement of agriculture :
Increase of production created a great demand for raw materials which led to an increase in agricultural output by the application of scientific methods.

(3) Reduction in prices :
Increase of production reduced the prices of articles and greater comforts were made available for greater number of people.

Evil effects :
(1) Rise of Capitalism :
Large-scale industries require larger capital and hence it led to the rise of capitalism, the evil effect of which is the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few.

(2) Low Wages :
The motive of the capitalist being greater profits in the earlier stage of the Industrial Revolution, low wages and long hours of work were common features.

(3) Unemployment :
The displacement of cotton industries by machines created unemployment.

(4) Imperialism :
The demand for raw materials and markets resulted in a race for colonies and imperialistic rivalries among the nations of Europe.

(4) Social Results :

(1) Unhygienic condition of living :
Large-scale industries led to the concentration of population in towns. Overpopulation and crowding resulted in unhygienic conditions of living, especially in the slums.

(2) Specialisation :
Division of labour and specialisation characteristic of modern industry is monotonous for the labourer. He began to find relief.in vices like drink, gambling and the yellow press.

(3) Employment of children and women :
In the earlier stages children and women were employed in dangerous jobs and were treated cruelly.

(5) Political Results :

The Industrial Revolution divided society. into two distinct groups—the rich middle class-bourgeoisie comprising of manufacturers, merchants, bankers and professional men on the one hand; and the wage-earning proletariat consisting of mill and factory workers on the other. The gap between employer and employee gave rise to many of our present-day economic and social problems. The evil effects of society led to humanitarian movements for the betterment of the conditions of labourers such as the methodist movement. As workers grew more and more conscious of their weight in the life of the country, they began to demand political rights and representation in the Government by organising themselves into Trade Unions. Some of such movements can be mentioned, the Chartist Movement and the various Franchise Acts in England. Thus, it led to the growth of democracy.

(6) Rise of New Doctrines :

Laissez-faire :

The nineteenth century was dominated by the philosophy of laissez- faire or unrestrained competition propounded by Adam Smith. It demanded free competition and least interference on the part of the state. Laissez-faire is extreme individualism.

Socialism :

The opposite of Laissez-faire is Socialism whose best exponent is Karl Marx. Socialism demanded abolition of private ownership of meens of production and advocates state ownership. It is the result of class rivalry between the capitalists and the working class.

Question 16. Give an account of the western bid for supremacy in China.
Answer:

The western bid for supremacy in China

For thousands of years since the beginning of her history China lived in a state of isolation but the western powers were keen to establish contact with her. In the mid-nineteenth century, Britain and U.S.A made attempts to penetrate into the Chinese empire. Opium was introduced in China by the English traders. Opium in large quantities was imported in China by the British. All classes of Chinese people gradually became addicted to opium. The Chinese Government issued orders putting a bar on the import of opium. War broke out when the Chinese seized British vessels carrying opium and destroyed their cargo. In the First Opium War (1839-42) the Chinese were defeated by the British and the Treaty of Nanking was concluded between Britain and China. The Treaty of Nanking

(1) Legalized the opium trade,
(2) Opened up five ports including Canton to foreign trade,
(3) Ceded Hong Kong to the British,
(4) Proclaimed that the British subjects would no longer be subject to Chinese law and
(5) Made China pay war indemnity.

France and England took advantage of China’s weakness and declared war:
The Second Opium War (1857-58) like the first war ended in China’s defeat. The Tientsin Treaty (1861) which ended the war

(1) Opened eleven more ports to foreign trade,
(2) Compelled China to set up foreign mission in Beijing,
(3) Pay heavy war indemnity and
(4) Admit that foreign residents in China would be under the laws of respective countries and not the laws of China.

After 1860 the ambition of the European powers continued to grow. They now wanted more territories. Russia, France and England obtained bases of territories or spheres of influence in China, Japan too followed their example and declared war on China (1894-95) and compelled China to surrender. The weakness of China encouraged the western powers to make fresh bids for territorial gains in China, but it was soon found that the gains obtained by one power at China’s expense made other powers jealous. In other words, while many powers wanted to cut China into slices as if it was a melon, the interests of one power came into conflict with those of others.

The western powers were torn with jealousies against one another to such an extent that they had little hesitation in accepting the Hay Memorandum (1901)which recommended
(1) Equal opportunities for all nations to trade in China,
(2) That the western powers should throw their respective spheres of influence open to all, and above all,
(3) They should guarantee the territorial integrity of China. Thus China was saved from being partitioned among the western powers.

 

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment