WBBSE Solutions For Class 9 History And Environment Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century  Introduction

In the early years of the 20″ century, the political atmosphere of the European continent was quite tense. Europe was in the throes of a devastating war—the First World War (1914-18).

Never before had a war been fought over an area which was nearly as wide as the world. It was fought between the Allied Powers comprising Britain, France, Russia, and Serbia and the Central Powers comprising Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Turkey. With the surrender of Germany in 1918, the First Wold War came to an end.

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As an answer to all European problems the President of America, Woodrow Wilson. came up with peace proposals known as the Fourteen Points. The defeated Germans expected a peace settlement to be based upon the Fourteen Points.

The Treaty of Versailles. This treaty imposed unjust and humiliating terms on defeated Germany. Naturally, Germany continued to nourish grievances about the treaty.

The next major event of 20th century Europe was the establishment of an established after the First World War. Its aim was to prevent armed conflict and to establish honourable and just relationships among different nations.

The next historical event was the establishment of dictatorial governments in different parts of Europe. After the First World War, the situation in Italy was very serious.

Prices soared high and poverty and insufficiency stalked the land. Mussolini’s party became the dictator of Italy. The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles brought in a host of evils like unemployment, price rise and taxation.

The Weimar Republic in Germany failed to solve the economic problems. Hitler fully exploited the discontent of his countrymen. and became a dictator.

Another epoch-making event of the 20th century was the outbreak of the Russian Revolution (1917). Various socio-political, economic and intellectual causes were responsible for the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Revolution had a tremendous impact on the Russian and non-Russian nationalities. It ushered in a great socialist movement and created panic in the capitalist world. The revolution era of nationalist struggle against colonial rule. The Russian Peasants stood against the Czarist rule due to the legislation of 1861.

Russia witnessed a series of revolts between 1861 be and 1863. In this concern, the names of the Nihilist and Narodnik movements are worthy to be mentioned.

Narodnik:

The most important political movement that gained prominence in Russia in the 60s of the 19th century was the Narodnik (or Narodniki) Movement. The Russian word ‘narod’ means the ‘People’ of course during the nineteen 19th century the term narod was used to denote the peasants rather than common people.

One who sought to help the people (peasantry, i.e., narod) take the road of revolutionary struggle for a just and happy life was known as a narodnik. Hence, their movement is known as the Narodrik Movement. The peasants were tortured humiliated and exploited in many ways.

Aims and Method :

(1) Overthrow of the Tsarist autocracy
(2) Destruction of the prevalent social structure
(3) Its repacement by an agarian socialistic society

As an ideological movement, the Naodnik were not a homogeneous body. Its leaders like Bakunin, Labrov, Peter Teacher, etc. had the same objective but they adopted different methods. For example, Bakunin advocated a revolutionary struggle, and Lavrov believed in propagating consciousness among the peasants about revolutionary struggle.

Result: The Narodrik Movement was crushed and ended in failure. It failed to evoke interest among the peasantry. Anyway, after the failure of Narodnik, a section of the formed

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century 1 Mark Questions And Answers:

Multiple Choice Type :

Question 1. The Paris Peace Conference took place in
(1) 1919
(2) 1920
(3) 1921
(4) 1922

Answer: (1) 1919

Question 2. ‘Fourteen Points’ were put before Germany by
(1) Lloyd Gorge
(2) Orlando
(3) Woodrow Wilson
(4) Clemenceau

Answer: (3) Woodrow Wilson

Question 3. Name the country which did not join the League of Nations.
(1) America
(2) Germany
(3) Spain
(4) England

Answer: (1) America

Question 4. The Bolshevik Revolution broke out in Russia in
(1) 1915
(2) 1916
(3) 1917
(4) 1918

Answer: (3) 1917

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 5. Mussolini’s party came to be known as
(1) Fascist Party
(2) Socialist Party
(3) Nazi Party
(4) Communist Party

Answer: (1) Fascist Party

Question  6. The formation of Union of the Soviet Socialist Republic was formally declared in
(1) 1920
(2) 1921
(3) 1922
(4) 1923

Answer: (3) 1922

Question 7. The Bolsheviks captured power in Russia by the
(1) November Revolution
(2) July Revolution
(3) February Revolution
(4) October Rovolution

Answer: (4) October Rovolution

Question 8. Lusitania was
(1) A country in Europe
(2) The name of a ship
(3) The name of a captain
(4) The name of an island.

Answer: (2) The name of a ship

Question 9. The American President during World War I was
(1) Woodrow Wilson
(2) Abraham Lincoln
(3) George Washington
(4) George Barlow

Answer: (1) Woodrow Wilson

Question 10. A special secret police was formed by the Bolsheviks called
(1) Duma
(2) Cheka
(3) Soviets
(4) Aurora

Answer: (2) Cheka

Question 11. President Wilson belonged to
(1) Britain
(2) China
(3) America
(4) Japan

Answer: (3) America

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 12. The First World War broke out in
(1) 1912
(2) 1915
(3) 1913
(4) 1914

Answer: (4) 1914

Question 13. The First World War came to an end in
(1) 1919
(2) 1918
(3) 1913
(4) 1914

Answer: (2) 1918

Question 14. Who of the following was most active in the establishment of the League of Nations?
(1) Lloyd George
(2) Orlando
(3) Clemenceau
(4) Woodrow Wilson

Answer: (4) Woodrow Wilson

Question 15. The League of Nations was formed after
(1) First Balkan War
(2) World War I
(3) 2nd Balkan War
(4) World War II

Answer: (2) World War I

Question 16. What was the date and year of Bloody Sunday?
(1) 9 January 1905
(2) 12 January 1905
(3) 4 April 1906
(4) 9 August 1906

Answer: (1) 9 January 1905

Question 17. Rasputin was a
(1) Minister
(2) Czar of Russia
(3) Mystic Saint
(4) Close relative of Czar

Answer: (3) Mystic Saint

Question 18. The Bolshevik Revolution was led by
(1) Stalin
(2) Lenin
(3) Trotsky
(4) None of them

Answer: (2) Lenin

Question 19. Nazism cropped up after the First World War in
(1) Italy
(2) Spain
(3) Russia
(4) Germany

Answer: (4) Germany

Question 20. Hitler became the Prime Minister of Germany in
(1) 1931
(2) 1932
(3) 1933
(4) 1934

Answer: (3) 1933

Question 21. Who was known as ‘Czar the Liberator’ ?
(1) Czar Alexander II
(2) Czar Nicholas II
(3) Czar Alexander III
(4) Czar Nicholas III

Answer: (2) Czar Alexander II

Question 22. Hitler concluded the Non-Aggression Pact with
(1) England
(2) France
(3) Russia
(4) Italy

Answer: (3) Russia

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 23. Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated in
(1) Bosnia
(2) Sarajevo
(3) Herzegovina
(4) Poland

Answer: (2) Sarajevo

Question 24. The leadership in the march to St. Petersburg by the workers was given by
(1) Stalin
(2) Father Gapon
(3) Trotsky
(4) Lenin

Answer: (2) Father Gapon

Question 25. The Great Depression of 1929 first started in
(1) Germany
(2) America
(3) France
(4) Spain

Answer: (2) America

Question 26. The members of the Fascist party were known as
(1) Red Shirts
(2) Brown Shirts
(3) Black Shirts
(4) Blue Shirts

Answer: (3) Black Shirts

Question 27. Swastika was the symbol of the
(1) Nazi Party
(2) Fascist Party
(3) Communist Party
(4) Socialist Party

Answer: (1) Nazi Party

Question 28. The leader of the Spanish Civil War was
(1) Goebels
(2) Hitler
(3) General Franco
(4) Himmler

Answer: (3) General Franco

Question 29. The Central Powers of World War I were
(1) France, Britain and Russia
(2) Russia, Italy and Romania
(3) Germany, Austria and Turkey
(4) Italy, France and Britain

Answer: (3) Germany, Austria and Turkey

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 30. Germany was declared a ‘republic’ by the provisional Government set up under
(1) The leadership of Hitler
(2) The Chancellorship of Ebert
(3) The viceroyalty of Mussolini
(4) The Chancellorship of Lenin

Answer: (2) The Chancellorship of Ebert

Question 31. The Russian Revolution of 1917 brought an end to
(1) The autocratic rule of the Czar
(2) The rule of the Fascists in Russia
(3) Monarchical rule in Russia
(4) Democracy in Russia

Answer: (1) The autocratic rule of the Czar.

Question 32. A parallel Government was set up in St. Petersburg by
(1) The Kerensky Government
(2) Social Democratic Party of Russia
(3) The Mensheviks
(4) The Bolsheviks

Answer: (4) The Bolsheviks.

Question 33. The Treaty of Brest Litovsk was signed between Germany and
(1) The federal Government of Russia
(2) The independent Government of Russia
(3) The communist Government of Russia
(4) The democratic Government of Russia

Answer: (3) The communist Government of Russia

Question 34. USSR joined the League of Nations in 1934 but was expelled
(1) For aggression in 1939 when it invaded Finland
(2) When it invaded Abyssinia
(3) Because it lacked the power to solve disputes
(4) It was the root of the Great Depression

Answer: (1) For aggression in 1939 when it invaded Finland

Question 35. The immediate cause of the First World War was
(1) The formation of secret and diplomatic alliances among the European powers
(2) The rise of the feeling of ultra-nationalism
(3) The problem of Bosnia-Herzegovina
(4) Because the murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand

Answer: (4) Because the murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand

Question 36. The League of Nations was established
(1) To find a way to maintain peace
(2) To end the First World War
(3) To try and improve the condition of the labourers
(4) To settle the dispute that arose between Sweden and Finland

Answer: (1) To find a way to maintain peace.

Question 37. One characteristic feature of the New Economic Policy of Lenin was
(1) Encouragement to artisan industry
(2) Emphasis on large-scale heavy industry
(3) A special detachment sent to collect foodgrains
(4) Industrial establishment factory committee formed

Answer: (1) Encouragement to artisan industry

Question 38. America joined the First World War because
(1) American ships were destroyed by Germany
(2) Germany conquered America
(3) Germany joined France against America
(4) England pressurised America to join

Answer: (1) American ships were destroyed by Germany.

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 39. By the Treaty of Versailles Germany was demilitarised
(1) To establish balance of power
(2) To take control of German arms
(3) So that Germany could not disturb peace in future
(4) So that Germany would not declare war against the Allied powers

Answer: (3) So that Germany could not disturb peace in future.

Question 40. Which policy shows that appeasement does not always prevent war?
(1) United States policy towards Cuba in the early 1960s
(2) Iraqi policy towards Iran in the 1980s
(3) British policy towards Germany during 1930 s
(4) French policy towards Indo-China in the 1950s

Answer: (3) British policy towards Germany during 1930 s

Question 41. The harsh conditions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles after World War I helped to lay the foundation for the
(1) Uprising during the French Revolution
(2) Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
(3) Rise of fascism in Germany
(4) Division of Korea along the 38th parallel

Answer: (3) Rise of fascism in Germany.

Question 42. One reason the Fascist Government of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini came to power in Italy and Germany was that these nations
(1) Supported the civil liberties of people
(2) Faced economic and political difficulties
(3) Were threatened by the United States of America
(4) Failed to join the League of Nations

Answer: (2) Faced economic and political difficulties

Question 43. A major cause of the Russian Revolution of 1917 was the
(1) Appeal of Marxism to the Russians
(2) Defeat of Germany in Russian campaign
(3) Existence of sharp economic differences between social classes
(4) Marriage of Czar Nicholas II to a German princess

Answer: (3) Existence of sharp economic differences between social classes

Question 44. The Russian peasants supported the Bolsheviks in the Russian Revolution of 1917 because the Bolsheviks promised to
(1) Redistribute the land owned by the nobility
(2) Introduce modern technology to Russian farms
(3) Redistribute the land owned by the Government
(4) Establish collection farms

Answer: (1) Redistribute the land owned by the Government

Question 45. A significant cause of the Great Depression of 1929 was that
(1) Some banking policies were unsound and had led to the over-expansion of credit
(2) Consumer goods were relatively inexpensive
(3) A wave of strikes had paralysed the industries
(4) A decrease in protective tariff opened America to competition from abroad

Answer: (1) some banking policies were unsound and had led to the over-expansion of credit.

Question 46. During the First World War the Emperor of Germany was
(1) Charles X
(2) Kaiser William II
(3) Frederick William IIT
(4) Kaiser William IIT

Answer: (2) Kaiser William II

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 47. After the First World War, the humiliating treaty which was imposed on Germany was the Treaty of
(1) Brest-Litovsk
(2) Versailles
(3) Lussane
(4) Sevres

Answer: (2) Versailles

Question 48. People of the Weimer Republic lost confidence in the democratic
(1) Alliance
(2) Parliamentary
(3) Values
(4) Attitude

Answer: (2) Parliamentary

Question 49. After the First World War; the new Republican Government of Germany was established in
(1) Berlin
(2) Weimer
(3) Brussels
(4) Sicily

Answer: (2) Weimer

Question 50. By the October Revolution of 1917 the captured power in Russia.
(1) Mesheviks
(2) Bolsheviks
(3) Communists
(4) None of the above

Answer: (2) Bolsheviks

Question 51. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed between Germany and
(1) Britain
(2) Italy
(3) Russia
(4) Spain

Answer: (3) Russia

Question 52. The Red Army was organised by
(1) Stalin
(2) Trotsky
(3) Lenin
(4) Engels

Answer: (2) Trotsky

Question 53. The New Economic Policy of Lenin was a compromise between Socialism and
(1) Capitalism
(2) Communism
(3) Nazism
(4) Fascism

Answer: (1) Capitalism

Question 54. The Great Depression was a period of
(1) Political crisis
(2) Economic crisis
(3) Religious crisis
(4) Global Crisis

Answer: (2) Economic crisis

Question 55. General Franco was the dictator of
(1) Netherlands
(2) Sardinia
(3) Sicily
(4) Spain

Answer: (4) Spain

Question 56. The SAAR Valley was put under an international commission for
(1) 13
(2) 14
(3) 15
(4) 16
Answer: (3) 15

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 57. The Treaty of St. Germain was signed between the victorious allies and defeated Austria in
(1) 1916
(2) 1918
(3) 1919
(4) 1920

Answer: (3) 1919

Question 58. The Revolution of 1905 in Russia broke out during the reign of
(1) Czar Alexander II
(2) Nicholas I
(3) Peter the Great
(4) Catherine II

Answer: (1) Czar Alexander II

Question 59. The Treaty of Portsmouth was signed between Japan and
(1) China
(2) France
(3) Russia
(4) Italy

Answer: (3) Russia

Question 61. ‘Pravda’ was the mouthpiece of the party.
(1) Menshevik
(2) Bolshevik
(3) Communist
(4) Socialist

Answer: (2) Bolshevik

Question 62. formed the paramilitary force known as ‘Storm Trooper’.
(1) General Franco
(2) Mussolini
(3) Hitler
(4) Tojo

Answer: (3) Hitler

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 63. The Treaty of contained the seeds of the Second World War.
(1) Trianon
(2) Neuilly
(3) Versailles
(4) Portsmouth

Answer: (3) Versailles

Question 64. Morocco is in
(1) Africa
(2) America
(3) China
(4) Japan

Answer: (1) Africa

Question 65. The two factions of the Social Democratic Party are the Bolsheviks and
(1) Communists
(2) Mensheviks
(3) Socialists
(4) Bonapartists

Answer: (2) Mensheviks

Question 66. Czar showed his liberalism by releasing the Dekabrists.
(1) Alexander I
(2) Alexander II
(3) Nicholas I
(4) Nicholas II

Answer: (2) Alexander II

Question 67. The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was signed in
(1) 1932
(2) 1933
(3) 1934
(4) 1935

Answer: (1) 1932

Question 68. Kaiser William II abdicated the throne in
(1) 1916
(2) 1917
(3) 1918
(4) 1919

Answer: (3) 1918

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 69.  The Weimer Republic was established in
(1) 1915
(2) 1916
(3) 1918
(4) 1919

Answer: (4) 1919

Question 70. The U.S.A. entered the First World War in
(1) 1917
(2) 1918
(3) 1919
(4) 1920

Answer: (1) 1917

Question 71. Herbert Hoover was the President of
(1) Britain
(2) America
(3) France
(4) USSR

Answer: (2) America

Question 72. Archduke Francis Ferdinand was the heir to the throne of
(1) Spain
(2) Austria
(3) Bosnia
(4) Herzegovina

Answer: (2) Austria

Question 73. was called the ‘Father of the League of Nations’.
(1) Llyod George
(2) Woodrow Wilson
(3) Gorky
(4) Clemenceau

Answer: (2) Woodrow Wilson

Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 74. ‘War Communism’ was introduced by
(1) Trotsky
(2) Lenin
(3) Franco
(4) Hitler

Answer: (2) Lenin

Question 75. In the American share market crashed.
(1) 1928
(2) 1929
(3) 1930
(4) 1932

Answer: (2) 1929

Question 76. is known as the Black Day in the history of the U.S.A.
(1) 24 October 1929
(2) 26 October 1929
(3) 22 October 1939
(4) 25 June 1930

Answer: (1) 24 October  1929

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century Introduction Very Short Answer Type

Question 1. By which Treaty the First World War came to an end?
Answer: Treaty of Versailles, 1919 brought to an end World War I.

Question 2. Who were the ‘Big Four’ at the time of the Treaty of Versailles?
Answer: Among the leading Allied Powers, Great Britain was represented by Lloyd George, France by Clemenceau, Italy by Orlando and the United States of America by President Wilson. They were the ‘Big Four’ who for several months made the principal decisions.

Question 3. When was the Armistice between Germany and the Allied Powers signed?
Answer: On November 11, 1918, the Armistice between Germany and the Allied Powers was signed.

Question 4. Who was known as “The Tiger’?
Answer: M. Clemenceau of France is known as ‘The Tiger’.

Question 5. Who was the President of the Peace Conference of Paris?
Answer: M. Clemenceau was the President of the Peace Conference of Paris.

Question 6. On which day was the Treaty of Versailles signed?
Answer: On June 4, 1920, the Treaty of Versailles was signed.

Question 7. Name the treaties which were signed with the Axis Powers.
Answer:

The terms of the peace were embodied in five main Treaties: Of Versailles with Germany, of St. German with Austria, of Trianon with Hungary, of Neuilly with Bulgaria and of Sevres with Turkey.

Question 8. Which treaty was imposed on Russia by Germany during World War I?
Answer: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 9. What was the name of the final treaty concluded between Turkey and the Allied Powers?
Answer: The Treaty of Lausanne, July 9, 1923, was concluded between Turkey and the Allied Powers.

Question 10. When was the League of Nations formed?
Answer: January 13, 1920.

Question 11. Where was the headquarters of the League of Nations?
Answer: Geneva, Switzerland.

Question 12. Name the main organs of the League of Nations.
Answer: The General Assembly, Council, Secretariat, Permanent Court of International Justice and International Labour Organisation were the main organs of the League of Nations.

Question 13. Where was the headquarters of the Permanent Court of International Justice located?
Answer: The headquarters of the Permanent Court of International Justice was at the Hague, Netherlands.

Question 14. Who was the Czar of Russia when the Russian Revolution, of 1917 broke out?
Answer: Czar Nicholas II was the Czar of Russia when the Russian Revolution broke out in 1917.

Question 15. What do you know of Rasputin?
Answer: Gregory Rasputin was a Russian monk who possessed a great influence on the court of Czar Nicholas II.

Question 16. What do you know of Benito Mussolini?
Answer: Mussolini was born in Italy in 1883 and died in 1945. He was the founder of the Fascist Party and Dictator of Italy from 1923 to 1943. He was better known as Duce.

Question 17. What plans were formulated to have separation from Germany?
Answer: Dawes Plan and Young Plan.

Question 18. When did the Spanish Civil War start?
Answer: In 1936 Spanish Civil War started.

Question 19. Who was Venezoles?
Answer: Venezoles was the Prime Minister of Greece. He represented Greece the Peace Treaty of Paris in 1919.

Question 20. When did the Second World War start?
Answer: On September 1, 1939, when Hitler invaded Poland without any declaration of war, the Second World War started.

Question 21. What was the period of the First World War?
Answer: The period of the First World War was 1914-1918.

Question 22. Which country declared war on Serbia in 1914?
Answer: Austria declared war on Serbia in 1914.

Question 23. What is the ‘Polish Corridor’?
Answer: According to the Treaty of Versailles (1919), a 27-mile-wide corridor through Germany was given to Poland to reach the Baltic Sea, which is known as the ‘Polish Corridor’.

Question 24. When did the Paris Peace Conference meet?
Answer: The Paris Peace Conference met in 1919.

Question 25. Name the treaty that was concluded after the end of the First World War.
Answer: The treaty that was concluded after the First World War was the Treaty of Versailles.

Question 26. Which treaty contained the seeds of the Second World War?
Answer: The Treaty of Versailles contained the seeds of the Second World War.

Question 27. Between whom was the Battle of Jutland fought?
Answer: The Battle of Jutland was fought between England and Germany.

Question 28. In which year was the Treaty of St. German signed?
Answer: The Treaty of St. Germain was signed in 1919.

Question 29. What was achieved by the Treaty of Bucharest?
Answer: By the Treaty of Bucharest the Second Balkan War came to an end.

Question 30. What was the Russian Parliament called?
Answer: The Russian Parliament was called the Duma.

Question 31. What is ‘Narodnia Volya’ ?
Answer: Narodniya Volya was a secret society of Russia.

Question 32. Why did the Narodnik movement fail?
Answer: The Narodnik movement failed due to the repressive measures of Czar Alexander III.

Question 33. What were the revolutions which broke out during the reign of Czar Alexander II?
Answer: The Revolution of 1905 and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 broke out during the reign of Czar Alexander II.

Question 34. Between whom was the Treaty of Portsmouth signed?
Answer: The Treaty of Portsmouth was signed between Japan and Russia.

Question 35. What were the two groups into which Russia’s ‘Social Democratic Party’ came to be divided? 
Answer:

Russia’s ‘Social Democratic Party’ came to be divided into two groups:

(1) The Bolsheviks and
(2) The Mensheviks.

Question 36. Which incident marked the end of the Romanov dynasty of Russia?
Answer: The Romanov dynasty of Russia ended after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.

Question 37. Who was Queen Alexandra?
Answer: Alexandra was the queen of Czar Nicholas II.

Question 38. Which incident led to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)?
Answer: The conquest of Manchuria and Korea by Russia led to the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War.

Question 39. Which revolution is known as the ‘Socialist Revolution’?
Answer: The November Revolution of 1917 in Russia is known as the Socialist Revolution.

Question 40. What is ‘Pravda’?
Answer: Pravda was the mouthpiece of the Bolshevik Party.

Question 41. When did Czardom come to an end in Russia?
Answer: Czardom came to an end in Russia on 13 March 1917.

Question 42. Who was the Czar of Russia when the Bolshevik Revolution broke out?
Answer: Nicholas II was the Czar of Russia when the Bolshevik Revolution broke out.

Question 43. Who was Leni?
Answer: Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik Revolution and the first President of Soviet Union.

Question 44. Who was Trotsky?
Answer: Trotsky was a leader of the Bolshevik Revolution and the first foreign minister of the Soviet Union.

Question 45. What was the new name of Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution?
Answer: The new name of Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution was the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic.

Question 46. What is the full name of Lenin?
Answer: Lenin’s full name is Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov.

Question 47. In which year did the Bolshevik Revolution break out?
Answer: The Bolshevik Revolution broke out in 1917.

Question 48. Name the leader who led the procession of workers to the Winter Palace.
Answer: The leader who led the procession of workers to the Winter Palace was Father Gapon.

Question 49. Into how many classes was Russian society divided in the 19th century? What are these?
Answer:

The Russian society was divided into two classes in the 19th century. These were:

(1) The aristocrats and
(2) The peasants.

Question 50. Who established the Bible Society and when?
Answer: The Bible Society was established by the Russian Czar Alexander I in 1812.

Question 51. What is the ‘Third Section’?
Answer: The ‘Third Section’ or the secret police was a body vested with unlimited powers to arrest, imprison, exile and even execute people.

Question 52. Name two intellectuals of Russia who demanded the abolition of serfdom.
Answer: Two intellectuals of Russia who demanded the abolition of serfdom were Tolstoy and Turgenev.

Question 53. What is the most remarkable contribution of Czar Alexander II?
Answer: The most remarkable contribution of Czar Alexander II was the abolition of serfdom.

Question 54. Who announced the ‘New Economic Policy’ (NEP) in Russia?
Answer: Lenin announced the ‘New Economic Policy’ in Russia.

Question 55. What does the Russian word ‘Narod’ mean?
Answer: The Russian word ‘Narod’ means ‘the people’.

Question 56. What does ‘NEP’ stand for?
Answer: ‘NEP’ stands for New Economic Policy.

Question 57. What were the two factions of the Social Democrats of Russia?
Answer:

The two factions of the Social Democrats of Russia were:

(1) The Bolsheviks and
(2) The Mensheviks.

Question 58. Name the reigning Czar of Russia when the Revolution of 1917 broke out.
Answer: The reigning Czar of Russia during the outbreak of the Revolution of 1917 was Nicholas II.

Question 59. Who was Rasputin?
Answer: Alexandra, the queen of Czar Nicholas II, was enamoured by a fake priest named Rasputin who charmed the Queen to such a degree that his voice became the ultimate commanding force in the Government.

Question 60. What is the importance of 1917 in the history of Europe?
Answer:

The importance of 1917. in the history of Europe are :

(1) Fall of Czardom in Russia
(2) Under the leadership of Lenin Bolshevik Revolution broke out in Russia;
(3) Russia emerged as the first socialist state in the world.

Question 61. Name one Russian philosopher who helped to create the climate for the outbreak of the Russian Revolution.
Answer: The Russian philosopher Gorky contributed to preparing the climate for the outbreak of the Russian Revolution.

Question 62. When and where was the ‘Social Democratic Party’ established? What were its two factions?
Answer: The ‘Social Democratic Party’ was established in Russia in 1898.

Its two factions were:

(1) The Bolsheviks and
(2) The Mensheviks.

Question 63. Who announced the ‘April Thesis?
Answer: Lenin announced the ‘April Thesis’.

Question 64. Mention any one of the principles of NEP (New Economic Policy).
Answer: One principle of NEP introduced by Lenin was that henceforth peasants could sell their surplus produce freely in the open market according to market prices.

Question 65. Who was ‘the Father of the Russian Revolution?
Answer: Lenin was the ‘Father of the Russian Revolution’.

Question 66. In which year did Hitler occupy Austria?
Answer: Hitler occupied Austria in 1938.

Question 68. What do you mean by the October Revolution in Russia? Or, What do you mean by the November Revolution in Russia?
Answer: The Bolshevik Revolution of 7th November (common calendar) took place on 25th October according to the old Russian calender. That is why the Boshevik Revolution of Russia is known as both the ‘November’ and ‘October’ Revolutions.

Question 69. What was the name of the Bolshevik Party’s newspaper?
Answer: The Bolshevik Party’s newspaper was Pravda.

Question 71. Who set up a republican Government after the fall of monarchy in German?
Answer: Fredrick Elbert set up a republic Governement after the fall of monarchy in Germany.

Question 72. In which year did Kaiser William II of Germany abdicate the thron?
Answer: Kaiser William II of Germany abdicated the throne in 1918.

Question 73. What do you mean by ‘Storm Troopers’?
Answer: Hitler formed a paramilitary force with unemployed youths known as ‘Storm Troopers’. They used to manhandle opposition leaders and disturb meetings convened by the opposition parties.

Question 74. What is ‘Gestapo’?
Answer: A secret police force organised by Hitler was known as Gestapo. The main function of which was to arrest those persons whose activities were found doubtful and against the principles of Nazism.

Question 75. Mention two similarities between Nazism and fascism?
Answer:

Two similarties between Nazism and Facism were :

(1) Both were against
(2) Both generated hatred against communication

Question 76. In which year and by whom was the ‘Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis’ signed? Or, Mention the names of the Axis powers.
Answer: The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was signed in 1932 between Italy, Germany and Japan.

Question 77. What was the two opposite blocks in Europe before the outbreak of the Second World War?
Answer:

The two opposite blocks before the outbreak of the Second World War were :

(1) Allied Powers: Britain, France and Soviet Union.
(2) The Axis powers: Italy, Germany and Japan.

Question 78. In which year was the Weimer Republic established?
 Answer: The Weimer Republic was established in 1919.

Question 79. What were the territories Hitler occupied before the Second World War?
Answer: Before the outbreak of the Second World War Hitler, the Chancellor of Germany, occupied Saar region (19350), Rhineland (1936), Austria (1938), Czechoslovakia (1938), etc. After this when he invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, the Second World War started.

Question 80. Who was Mussolini?
Answer: Mussolini was the leader of the Facist Party and the dictator of Italy.

Question 81. Which part of Poland was demanded by Hitler?
Answer: Danzig was demanded by Hitler.

Question 82. Who was General Franco?
Answer: General Franco was the leader of the Spanish Civil War.

Question 83. Which war is known as the ‘Little World War’?
Answer: The Spanish Civil War is known as the ‘Little World War’.

Question 84. Which day is known as the “Black Day’ in the history of the U.S.A?
Answer: 24 October 1929 is known as the Black Day in the history of U.S.A.

Question 85. What new weapons were manufactured during the First World War?
Answer: During the First World War many new weapons were manufactured, such as machine guns and tanks, and German-made submarines called U-boats; ‘poison gas’ was used for the first time as were chloramines, mustard gas and phosgene.

Question 86. Which period is known as the period of armed peace?
Answer: 1871-1913 is the period of armed peace.

Question 87. Who was murdered in Sarajevo and when?
Answer: Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne and his wife Sophia were murdered in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914.

Question 88. Who was responsible for the murder at Sarajevo?
Answer: Naverilo Princep, a member of the terrorist organisation ‘Black Hand’ was responsible for the murder at Sarajevo.

Question 89. Who received the ‘Polish Corridor’ according to the Treaty of Versailles?
Answer: Poland received the ‘Polish Corridor’ according to the Treaty of Versailles.

Question 90. What was the amount of reparation imposed on “German?
Answer: The amount of reparation imposed on Germany was 660 crore pounds.

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century 2 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. What do you know of Agadir Incident?
Answer:

Agadir Incident

In 1911 France sent an army to Fez, the capital of Morocco. Thereupon Germany sent a gunboat, the Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir to exert her right in that area. At the result of this, a highly critical situation developed between France and Germany. At last the situation was calmed by the intervention of England.

Question 2. When was the Archduke of Austria murdered? What was the significance of the murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand?
Answer: Francis Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria was murdered in the Bosnian Capital Europe ablaze and the World War I began.

Question 3. What were the outstanding results of the World War I?
Answer:

Outstanding results of the World War I

(1) Victory of Nationalism
(2) Rise of Democracy, and
(3) Rise of Dictatorship were the outstanding results of the World War I.

Question 4. Who announced the famous ‘Fourteen Points’ ?
Answer: President Willson of U.S.A. In January, 1917, President Willson of U.S.A. made a statement of the war aims of the Allies in his address to the Congress. In his famous ‘Fourteen Points’, he had outlined the basis of a peace settlement and given expression of his ideal of establishing a lasting peace among the war scared nations of the world.

Question 5. What was the Appeasement policy of Chamberlain British Prime Minister, in regard to Germany?
Answer: When Hitler came to power he pledged to recover for Germany the position of power and importance which she had-held before the First World War, his first significant step was to withdraw from the disarmament Conference and announce a programme of conscription.

Next he left the League of Nations and openly flouted it by occupying the demilitarised Rhineland. England and France timely acquiesced in the violation of treaty obligatons and Hitler was encouraged to take large risks.

In the cases of Austria and Sudetenland Hitler became successful only for the weakness of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. This policy of appeasement paved the way for the World War II.

Question 6. What do you know of Hitle ?
Answer:

Hitle

Hitler was born in,1899 and died in 1945. He rose from the rank of a corporal to become a dictator of Germany (1933-1945). He was appointed Chancellor of the Reich in 1933 and became Fuehrer in 1934.

He involved his country in the World War II and was defeated in 1945. He is presumed to have committed suicide when the Russians encircled Berlin on April 30, 1945.

Question 7. What is Fascism?
Answer:

Fascism

The word Fascism is derived from the term ‘Facis’ which means a bundle of rods. Mussolini developed unit communistic anti-liberal anti-democratic system based on extreme nationalism and militarism known as fascism.

Question 8. What is Nazism?
Answer:

Nazism

The Nazi Party was’ an abbreviated from National Socialist Party. Nazism could be defined as ‘Fascism Plus Racialism’. It was totally dictatonal in charcter.

Question 9. Which peace treaty was known as the ‘dictated peace’?
Answer: The Peace Treaty of Versailles, 1919 is known as dictated peace.

Question 10. What do you mean by NEP ? :
Answer:

NEP

The New Economic Policy introduced by Lenin is known as NEP. Its novel feature was to improve the economic condition through planning. The Bolsheviks wanted to construct a new social order by improving the lot of the people by NEP.

Question 11. What do you know of Lenin ?
Answer:

Lenin

Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov, better known as Lenin (1870-1924), was the founder of the Bolshevik communism in Russia and was by far the greatest single driving force behind the Soviet Revolution of November 1917.

Question 12. Who were the authors of the Geneva Protocol? What was the aim of the Geneva Protocal of 1924?
Answer: Mr. Macdonald, Prime Minister of England and M. Herriot, Prime Minister of France were the authors of the Geneva Protocol of 1924. The Geneva Protocol required its members to renounce all war and to take offensive measures against any nation which went to War by refusing to accept League arbitration.

Question 13. When was the Locarno Pact signed? Why was the Locarno Pact concluded?
Answer: In 1925 Locarno Pact was signed by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Italy. The treaty provided that any dispute arising among the signatory States would by settled either by diplomatic conferences or by a tribunal or by the International Court of Justice.

Question 14. When did the Spanish Civil War start?
Answer: In 1928 Kellong Briand Pact was signed. The main object of the treaty was to outlaw war.

Question 15. When was the Munich Pact signed? What was its significance?
Answer: The Munich Pact was signed in 1939. By the terms of the Pact Hitler was allowed to annex Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia to Germany. It was signed England, France, Italy and Germany. Daladier of France, Chamberlain of England, Mussolini of Italy and Hitler of Germany were the signatories of the Pact. By this Pact the independece of Czechoslovakia was left at the mercy of Germany.

Question 16. Why did Russia sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
Answer: As a result of the Revolution of Russia in November 1917, the Czar Nicholas II was expelled from the throne and the power soon passed into the hands of the Bolsheviks. Anarchy followed and the army was demoralised and disorganised:

Question 17. Who was the author of the ‘Main Kampf’? What was the importance of the book?
Answer: The author of Main Kampf is Adolf Hitler. The book was written when the author was in prison. The book lays stress on the sovereignty and greatness of the German people. The author also discusses vividly in this book the aims and ideals of the Nazis. So, Main Kampf is also called the Bible of the Nazis.

Question 18. Who signed the Treaty of Rapallo (1922)?
Answer: In 1922 Soviet Russia and Germany signed the Treaty of Rapallo. By the treaty Soviet Union was officially recognised by a great European Power. Here also, in embryo, was the future Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939, heralded the Second World War.

Question 19. What is the Anti-Commintern Pact ? Who concluded it?
Answer: At Berlin on November 25, 1936, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Commintern Pact. It was concluded to oppose the growth of communism, especially the influence of Soviet Russia.

Question 21. What do you know of Washington Conference?
Answer:

Washington Conference

The first concrete step towards disarmament was taken at the Washington and the United States. Japan’s strength in capital Ships was fixed at 60 percent of the British and American figures. The French and Italian quotas were 35 percent. There were substantial measures, but their scope was limited to naval power only.

Question 22. What were the immediate effects of the Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact?
Answer:

The immediate effects of the Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact

From the theoretical point of view Hitler made an important concession; he had to swallow all his anti-communist utterances. From the practical point of view Hitler gave Russia an opportunity to exploit strategic adventages in the Baltic States over the eastern half of Poland to Russia.

In turn he secured a free hand in dealing with the western half of Poland and Lithuania including Vilna. Hitler also felt assured that Russia would not assist the Poles against a German invasion. He also felt assured that he would not have to fight simultaneously on two fronts; in the east against Russia and in the west against France and Britain.

Question 23. What were the effects of Spainsh Civil War, 1936?
Answer:

The effects of Spainsh Civil War, 1936

In Spain, Franco’s victory did not give Fascism the politics dividend which they expected. Spain observed neutrality throughout the Second World War; Franco did not consider it necessary to assist his partrons— Italy and Germany. But the immediate effect of his victory was to raise the prestige of Facism in Europe.

Another consequence was that the no-intervention policy of Britain and France drove a further wedge between Soviet Russia and the Western Powers. This was indirectly helpful for Hitler in his diplomatic reapproachement with Stalin.

Question 24. What do you mean by ultranationalism?
Answer:

Ultranationalism

During the late 19th century and the beginning of 20th century there was the development of ultranationalism in different countries of Europe.

The ultranationalists loved their own country only. They thought of the interests, aspirations and urges of their own nation. They regarded their country as the best nation in the world. This feeling of ultranationalism was indeed an alarm of danger for world peace and internationalism.

Question 25. Give two examples of insatiated nationalism before the outbreak of the First World War.
Answer:

Two examples of insatiated nationalism before the outbreak of the First World War were :

(1) Italians of Trieste, Trentio and Tyrol who were under the rule of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary wanted to join Italy.

(2) Ambition of Alsace and Lorraine which was under German occupation to join France.

Question 26. What were the two rival contending parties in the First World War?
Answer:

In the First World War the two rival contending parties were :

(1) On one side was the Triple Entente of twenty-three countries including France, England and Russia. Later on Italy (which was a member of Triple Alllance), Romania, Japan, China, Portugal joined the Triple Entente. They were known as Allied Powers.

(2)On the other side were the members of Triple Alliance-Germany/ Austria, Turkey, Bulgaria, etc. They were called ‘Axis Powers’ or ‘Central Powers’.

Question 27. What was the Bosnia-Herzegovina problem before the outbreak of the First World War?
Answer: Before the First World War Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed by Austria. This injured the nationalistic feelings of the people of these two places as they desired to unite with Serbia. The people supported by Serbia Government rose in revolt against Austria.

Question 28. What is Moroccan crisis?
Answer:

Moroccan crisis

France had vital colonial interests in Morocco in north Africa—a region rich in mineral resources and dominated by the Muslims. Kaiser William Il of Germany protested against the supremacy of France in Morocco and appeared in the port of Tangier in 1905.

He provoked the Sultan of Morocco against the French and declared that he would support Moroccan independence against France. This led to a war situation between France and Germany. This is known ‘as Moroccan Crisis (1905).

Question 29. What was Agadir Crisis?
Answer:

Agadir Crisis

In 1911 in Morocco in North Africa some Europeans lost their lives during a tribal movement. Under this circumstance France occupied a part of Morocco. Germany protested against this and the German gunboat ‘Panther’ was sent to the port of Agadir in Morocco with the ulterior motive of establishing German claim in Morocco. England in support of France sent warships to Agadir. This led to a war situation which is known in history as the Agadir crisis.

Question 31. Mention three territorial clauses of the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer:

Three territorial clauses of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) were:

(1) The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were taken away from Germany and were given back to France.

(2) The Saar Valley on the western frontier of Germany was handed over to France for fifteen years, after which the fate of the region was to be settled by a plebiscite.

(3) The port of Danzig was also snatched away from the possession of Germany and was declared a free port under the League of Nations.

Question 33. Mention three military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer:

Three military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles were:

(1) The German board of staff or generals of the army was dissolved
(2) The universal compulsory military service was dissolved
(3) Germany had to surrender her fleet to the Allies

Question 32. What were the economic implications of the Treaty of Versailles (1919)?
Answer:

The economic implications of the Treaty of Versailles (1919)

In the First World War Germany was defeated and the Treaty of Versailles was imposed upon Germany. The heavy burden of compensation imposed upon Germany brought in a host of evils like unemployment, taxation and hyperinflation. The hyperinflation combined with the effects of the Great Depression underminedthe stability of the German economy and destabilized the Weimer Republic and paved the path for Hitler’s rise to power.

Question 33. Why is the Treaty of Versailles known as a ‘dictated peace’?
Answer: The treaty of Versailles has been called a ‘dictated peace’ because the treaty was imposed upon defeated Germany by the victorious powers of World War |. The delegates of Germany were not invited to the Conference of Paris and the treaty was not based on mutual negotiation. The German representative was forced to sign the treaty on threat of aerial bombardment of Germany.

Question 34. When did Russia withdraw her self from the First World War?
Answer: Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in 1918. After signing the Treaty Russia withdrew herself from the First World War.

Question 35. Why was the new republican Government set up in Germany after the First World War known as the Weimer Republic?
Answer: After the defeat of Germany in -the First World War there were protests from the industrialists, intellectuals and the common people. As Berlin, the capital of Germany was a hotbed of discontent, the new republican Government began to function from nearby Weimer. This is why the Republic was called Weimer Republic.

Question 36. What was the main cause of the failure of the Weimer Republic?
Answer:

The main cause of the failure of the Weimer Republic

After the First World War there was an acute economic crisis in Germany. The main cause of the failure of the Weimer Republic was its inability to solve the economic crisis of the post-war period.

Question 37. Why did the United States of America join the First World War?
Answer: The United States of America joined the First World War due to the aggressive policy of Germany. The U.S.A suffered great losses when American ships were destroyed by Germany. America asked Germany not to attack the vessels of neutral countries and the American ships in the open seas but Germany paid no heed to this. So the U.S.A joined the First World War.

Question 38. What is Fascism?
Answer:

Fascism

Fascism means autocracy or dictatorship where all the powers of the state are vested in one person only and nobody can question, criticise and oppose that authority. It denies individualism, democracy and socialism.

Question 40. What kind of political system did Mussolini set up in Italy?
Answer: Mussolini established a totalitarian state with himself as ‘The leader’ or ‘Il Duce’. He controlled everything in the state, including the Fascist Party. Political liberty was abolished, censorship and espionage were introduced and all associations were placed under the Fascist Party. Fascism was directed against individualism, democracy, socialism and international peace. As for the political system, majority rule was rejected in favour of dictartorial rule.

Question 41. What kind of racial segregation was practised by the Nazis?
Answer: Once in power, the Nazis in Germany quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial community of pure Germans by physically eliminating ll those who were seen as ‘undesirable’ in the extended empire. The Nazis wanted a society of only pure healthy Nordic Aryans who were considered ‘desirable’. This meant that even those Germans who were seen as impure or abnormal had no right to exist

Question 42. Mention two instruments through which Czar Nicholas I followed a policy of repression.
Answer:

Two instruments through which Czar Nicholas I followed a policy of repression were:

(1) The Board of Censorship kept a close watch on the people. The universities, the schools and the press were particularly controlled by it.

(2) The Third Section or the secret police was a body vested with unlimited powers to arrest, imprison, exile and even execute people.

Question 43. Mention two important contributions of Czar Nicholas I.
Answer:

Two contributions of Czar Nicholas I were:

(1) His reign was marked by the emergence of industrial revolution in Russia. There was tremendous growth of light industry and particular progress in cotton textile and beet sugar industries.

(2) Study of literature was encouraged by him so that people might forget politics.

Question 44. Give some examples of the withdrawal of the repressive policy by Czar Alexander II.
Answer:

Examples of the withdrawal of the repressive policy by Czar Alexander II

Czar Alexander II withdrew fe repressive Asters existing in Russia.

(1) He showed his liberalism by releasing the Dekabrists from the prison and calling back the others from exile, who had been punished by his father 30 years ago for revolting against him.
(2) He relaxed the censorship.

Question 45. What was the total number of serfs in Russia at the time of emancipation?
Answer: At the time of emancipation there were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising about 50% of the total population. Of the total number of serfs, 23 million belonged to the crown and the rest to the private lords.

Question 46. Name the important movements which broke out during the rule of the Russian Czars.
Answer:

The important movements which broke out during the rule of the Russian Czars were:

(1) Russian literary movement (1840’s)
(2) Nihilist movement (1860’s)
(3) Populist ,or Narodnik movement (1870’s)
(4) The Revolution of 1905 and (v) ane Botshevik Revolution of 1917.

Question 47. What is ‘October Manifesto’ ?
Answer:

‘October Manifesto’

After the violent incident on 9 January, 1905 (Bloody Sunday), Czar Nicholas ll of Russia bowed down to the storm and purchased peace by introducing certain liberal reforms published in a document known as October Manifesto.

Througn this Manifesto he granted:

(1) Freedom of speech
(2) Freedom of press
(3) Freedom of public meetings
(4) Legislative powers to the Duma,
(5)That a new legislative assembly would be elected on the basis of universal suffrage.

Question 48. What was the condition of the serfs during the rule of the Czars?
Answer:

The condition of the serfs during the rule of the Czars

During the rule of the Czars the condition of the serfs was miserable. They were like the personal possessions of the lords and had no freedom. They lived on small portions of land assigned to them and had to work four to five days per week in the lord’s manor without any wage. The law did not acknowledge or protect their rights. Their masters treated them as animals. They could be auctioned and they were subjected to physical punishment.

Question 49. What do you understand by the term ‘War Communism ?
Answer:

‘War Communism

During the civil war in Russia the Bolshevik Government faced a major problem of production and supply of necessary articles due to the occupation of food-producing and industrial areas by the opponents or the ‘whites’. To tide over the situation, Lenin introduced ‘War Communism’ which meant total control of state over every aspect of economic activity.

Question 50. How did economic crisis begin in U.S.A?
Answer: In U.S.A economic crisis began with the crash of the Wall Street Exchange in 1929, when U.S.A could not recover back loans. Fearing a fall in price, people made frantic efforts to sell their shares. On a single day, 13 million shares were sold. Factories were shut down, banks became bankrupt, exports fell, farmers were badly hit, leading to unemployment.

Question 51. Why is 24 October, 1929 known as the ‘Black Thursday’?
Answer: 24 October, 1929 is known as the ‘Black Thursday’ because on this day the American share market crashed. As the share holders were traumatised, millions of shares had been sold on this fateful day.

Question 52. Why is the share market crash of 24 October, 1929 known as Wall Street Crash?
Answer: On 24 October, 1929 the American share market crashed because on this day the panicked shareholders sold millions of shares. The crash is known as Wall Street Crash because Wall Street in New York, U.S.A was the location of the principal share market.

Question 53. What was the effect of the Great Depression of 1929 on U.S.A?
Answer: The Great Depression of 1929 had profound effect on U.S.A. Over the next three years, between 1929 and 1932, the national income of the U.S.A fell by half. The speculators withdrew their money from the market. Factories shut down, exports fell, farmers were badly hit and millions of workers lost their jobs.

Question 54. Was the Treaty of Versailles (1919) based on Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’?
Answer: The Treaty of Versailles made between the victorious powers and Germany was not purely based on Fourteen Points. Throughout the Paris Peace Conference there was a conflict between Wilson’s idealism and nationalist realism. In fact, the Fourteen Points of Wilson was given only lip service. Wilson had to make a compromise between Clemenceau’s practicalism and Lloyd George’s opportunism. The Fourteen Points did not provide for any partition of German territory.

Question 55. What do you know about ‘Bloody Sunday’ ? Or, Who was Father Gapon?
Answer: In 1905, on 9 January Sunday about 6000 industrial workers under the leadership of Gapon assembled in front of the Winter Palace at St. Petersburg to present a petition to Czar Nicholas II.

The demands of the workers were:

(1) Release of the political prisoners
(2) Summoning of a representative assembly
(3) Eight hours of work a day for the workers.

The peaceful assembly was headed by Father Gapon, a priest who was in reality a secret police agent. Nicholas II ordered his troops to open fire on the workers. The firing caused the death of about one thousand workers and more than 2000 were injured. This incident is known in history as the Bloody Sunday as January 9 (1905)was a Sunday.

Question 56. When did the Nihillist movement break out in Russia? What did the Nihilists believe in?
Answer: The Nihilist movement broke out in Russia during the reign of Czar Alexander II (1855-81).

They believed in :

(1) Total destruction of the Old Order and to create a vacuum so that only then-a new civilisation could grow.
(2) Liberty and freedom of thought and action as the starting point of liberty.
(3) What is real and useful to the people.
(4) War against the Czardom, the orthodox church, the feudalism, the aristocracy, the existing values of society.

Question 57. Name two repressive measures introduced by Czar Alexander III.
Answer:

Czar Alexander Ill or Russia introduced the following repressive measures:

(1) Russification of minorities.
(2) The administration of the Mirs or village communities were put under the control of the landed proprietors who were appointed by the Central Government.

Question 58. What was the impact of the Bolshevik Revolution on Europe and the world?
Answer:

The impact of the Bolshevik Revolution on Europe and the world

The Bolshevik attempts to bring about a global socialist revolution through the Third International formed in 1919 ended in failure. But as years went by the ideal of socialist Government became popular. As a result, several states in North, Central and Eastern Europe like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania and East Germany set up communist governments. Outside Europe the most successful country with a communist regime is provided by the People’s Republic of China. Cuba in South America is another country that is a communist state.

Question 59. With what aims was the League of Nations founded?
Answer: After the First World War (1914-18), an international organisation known as the League of Nations was established in 1920 with

The following aims in view :

(1) To prevent armed conflict and to promote international peace and cooperation;
(2) To establish honourable and just relation among different nations
(3) To implement the provisions of the treaties registered at the Paris Peace Conference;
(4) To promote international disarmament in order to reduce tension and to find out ways and means for peaceful settlement of international disputes.

Question 60. Mention two problems faced by the Weimer Republic.
Answer:

The problems faced by Weimer Republic were the following :

(1) The infant Weimer Republic was forced to pay for the sins of the old empire. The republic carried the burden of war guilt and was financially crippled by being forced to pay compensation.
(2) There was the economic crisis of 1923. Prices of goods soared high.

Question 61. How far was the Great Depression of 1929 responsible for the rise of Nazism?
Answer: The Great Depression of 1929 was to a large extent responsible for the rise of Nazism: The German Government faced economic problems like mass unemployment and inflation.

The American investors recalled their short term loans from Germany. One of Germany’s joint stocks bank collapsed in 1931. When America withdrew he loans from Germany her export trade and production declined considerably. The number of unemployed people rose. Faced with economic crises the Germans lost their faith in the Republican Government.

The Nazis promised to nationalize the big businesses, provide employment for all workers and implement land reform for peasants. It is not surprising that the people turned to Nazism for a remedy.

Question 62. Name two agencies which Hitler used to suppress all opponents and create total Nazi domination?
Answer: Hitler used different agencies to suppress all opponents and create total Nazi domination.

(1) Hitler formed a para-military force with unemployed youths known as “Storm Troopers’ who manhandled opposition leaders and disturbed the meetings convened by the opposition parties.
(2) He also organised ‘Youth Brigade’ and ‘Girl Brigade’ who constantly shouted ‘Hail Hitler’ and silenced all criticism against him.

Question 63. What was the effect of the Great Depression of 1929 on Germany?
Answer:

The effect of the Great Depression of 1929 on Germany

The Great Depression of 1929 had profound effect on Germany. The German economy was the worst hit by the Great Depression. By 1932, industrial production was reduced to 40% of the 1929 level. Workers lost their jobs or were paid reduced wages.

The number of unemployed people touched an unprecedented 6 million. On the roads of Germany men could be seen with placards around their necks saying, ‘Willing to do any work’. Unemployed young men played cards. or simply sat at street corners or desperately queried up at the local employment exchange. As the young men had no jobs, they took to criminal activities.

Question 64. Write about the foreign policy of Hitler.
Answer:

Foreign policy of Hitler

In foreign affairs Hitler, after coming to power in 1933, sought to implement four principles.

These were as follows:

(1) Rejection of compromise and the reliance on force, and to restore and increase the armed strength of Germany
(2) Rejection of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles as the Germans called its a ‘dictated peace’
(3) To build up a vast German Empire (Third Reich) to include all the Germans.
(4) Hitler also aimed at conquering Eastern Europe to provide the Germans Lebensraum (living space). It is obvious that the implementation of such foreign policy objectives would involve aggressiveness.

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century 4 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. What were the “fourteen points” of Woodrow Wilson?
Answer:

“Fourteen points” of Woodrow Wilson

Woodrow Wilson of America had been genuinely stunned by the savagery of the Great War. He could not understand how an advanced civilisation could have reduced itself so that it had created so much devastation. He had already written about what he believed the world should be like in his

“Fourteen Points.” The main points in this document were:

(1) No more secret agreements (Open covenants openly arrived at).
(2) Free navigation of all seas.
(3) An end to all economic barriers between countries.
(4) Countries to reduce weapon numbers.
(5) All decisions regarding the colonies should be impartial.
(6) The German Army is to be removed from Russia. Russia should be left to develop her own political setup.
(7) Belgium should be independent like before the war.
(8) France should be fully liberated and allowed to recover Alsace-Lorraine.
(9) All Italians are to be allowed to live in Italy. Italy’s borders are to “along clearly recognisable lines of nationality.”
(10) Self-determination should be allowed for all those living in Austria-Hungary.
(11) Self determination and guarantee of independence should be allowed for the Balkan states.
(12) The Turkish people should be governed by the Turkish Government. Non- Turks in the old Turkish Empire should govern themselves.
(13) An independent Poland should be created which should have access to the sea.
(14) A League of Nations should be set up to guarantee the political and territorial independence of all states. :

Question 2. Write a note on the other peace settlemens besides the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer:

The other peace settlements : Austria-Hungary had to sign two peace settlements indicative of the fact that this state was shortly to be divided into two :

(1) Austria signed the Treaty of Saint Germain
(2) Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon

Austria and Hungary were treated as two completely new countries after these treaties were signed. Both lost land to neighbouring countries; the new state of Czechoslovakia was effectively created out of this carve up of land; large blocks of land went to Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia.

Part of Austria went to Italy. Both new countries had to reduce their military capability and both states had to pay reparations for war damage. However, the figures involved were nowhere near as high as the figure imposed on Germany.

Bulgaria had to sign the Treaty of Neuilly. Bulgaria lost land to the new state of Yugoslavia, had to reduce her military capability and had to pay reparations. Turkey or the Turkish Empire, to be, sprecieg, had to sign the Treaty of Sevres.

Turkey lost :

(1)most of her land in Europe. Turkey was left with but a toe hold on what is considered Europe.

(2)The Turkish Straits was put under the control of the League of Nations at a time when it was dominated by Britain and France. the land held by Turkey in Arabia was made into a mandate.

(3)The land was ruled by the British and French until the people of the areas were ready to govern themselves. Syria and Lebanon went to France while Iraq, Transjordan and Palestine went to Britain.

Armies from Britain, France, Greece and Italy occupied what was left of Turkey, the area known as Asia Minor. The treaty only served to anger the nationalist Turks who sought to overturn it. This they started to do it in 1921.

Question 3. What were the causes of Russian Revolution?
Answer:

The causes of Russian Revolution

Like the other revolutions of the world, the Russian Revolution was also the result of various accumulated factors. The causes of Russian Revolution may be classified under following groups.

(1) Political Causes: The political condition of the country was unstable. Censorship was notorious and the police system ruthless. Nicholas was, however, well intentioned and patriotic but was extremely weak. He was under the influence of his queen Alexandria who exercised a baneful influence upon the day-to-day administration of the country.

She herself was again under the hypnotic influence of a Siberian monk, named Rasputin. Nicholas was compelled to grant his people a parliament called Duma.

(2) Social Causes: Social inequalities were one of the main reason behind the Russian Revolution. The wealthy class, nobles, and aristocracy enjoyed all the privileged. The majority of people were deprived of social facilities.

Out of every 1000 Russians, there were 17 nobles, 125 merchants and more than 800 peasants. The lands belonged to the community and peasant had no right on it. Thus, the social condition in Russian during the pre-revolutionary period was worst in- Europe.

(3) Economic causes : Marxist historians think that un equal distribution of wealth was one of the main reasons behind Russian Revolution. The peasants were tortured, humiliated and exploited.

The industrial workers were forced to work in the factories in unhygeinic condition for more than 12 hours. Strikes were suppressed with force. Trade unions were broken.In 1905 there were many6 strikes and rights in cities of Russia including St. Petersburg and Moscow. All these prepared road to the Russian Revolution.

(4) Intellectual class: Just as French Revolution was result of influence of philosophers, similarly the Russian philosophers and Marxist writers had profound impact on Russian people. The writers like Gorky, Tolstoy, etc. inspired the Russian People. The writing of Bukanin, Karl Marx, reidrich Engels and the ideal of a society free from exploitation inspired the Russian people significantly.

(5) Conclusion: Thus, the above-mentioned factors prepared road to the Russian Revolution. In fact, the Revolution of 1905 was a dress rehearseal of Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.

Question 4. What were the consequences of the Balkan Wars?
Answer:

The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 had many consequences.

(1) The Balkan nations for the first time defied the great powers and tried to settle their fate by themselves. The hegemonistic attitude of the great powers no longer paid any dividend.

(2) By the Treaty of Bucharest all the terms of the Treaty of London were revised by them except Albanian terms.

(3) The territorial gains for Serbia were great. Rumania got some strategic positions.

(4) Turkish empire in Europe vanished. The vacuum caused by Turkish withdrawal was fatal. Austria and Russia tried to fill the vacuum. This led to bitter Austro- Russian rivalry in which Germany became involved too.

(5) Serbia’s relations with Austria became most critical. Serbia demanded restoration of Bosnia and Herzegovina from Austria which contained predominantly Serbian population.

(6) Bulgaria changed her policy of seeking protection from Russia. She turned to Russia’s enemies Germany and Austria. As a result Serbia changed her allegiance. She now became a pro russian power tied to Russia by alliance.

(7) Last of all, the Russian Government found that she failed to wipe out Art. 65 of the Treaty of Berlin, closing the straits to her fleet during the Balkan wars. Unless a great war did upset all previous treaties, she had no hope to fulfil her ambition. She took a more assertive and aggressive role of power politics. Thus the Balkan wars prepared the way for the outbreak of the First World War.

Question 5. What were the German objections against the Versailles Treaty ?
Answer:

German objections against the Versailles Treaty

Germany criticised the Versailles Treaty as grave injustice done to her. She used choicest words to express her contempt for the treaty. In her opinion it was “dictated peace”, because it was imposed on Germany by the victorious allies. She was not invited to join the Peace Conference. She was not permitted to discuss the terms of the treaty. Her delegates were given the option of either to sign the treaty or face aerial bombardment on Germany.

(1) Having no other way, the German delegates signed the treaty under protest. Hence Germany protested that the treaty was one sided and unjust. It was a Machievellian treaty written by the blood of Germany.

(2) She had no moral obligation to respect the treaty imposed on her without her consent.

(3) Germany objected that a grave injustice was done by partitioning her frontier areas and transferring them arbitrarily to her neighbours. German population as a result was separated from their fatherland and compelled to live as minorities in neighbouring countries. Germany coal, iron mines and fertile tracts were handed over to her neighbours. This was highly unjust because it violated the Wilsonian doctrine of one nation one state.

(4) Germany further protested that gravest injustice was done to her on the Eastern front.

(1) West Prussia, Posen, Danzig which were exclusive German territories, were transferred to Poland.
(2) The Polish corridor separated German East Prussia from German mainland.
(3) Silesia, an exclusive German territory, was partitioned and Sudetenland was given to Czechoslovakia. All these arrangements violated the one nation one state principle of Wilson.

(5) The Versailles Treaty as a whole was a departure from the fourteen points of Wilson. The fourteen points did not mention eB enAy OR But Germany had to accept reparation demand.

(6) Wilson spoke of general disarmament. But only Germany was forced to disarm. France and England remained fully armed. Germany was only decolonised while France and Britain multiplied their colonies.

Question 6. What were the merits of the Treaty of Versailles ?
Answer:

Merits of the Treaty of Versailles

It is said, the merits of the Versailles Settlement should not be over looked.

(1) The settlement washed out the old order of dynasties of Europe. The hereditary dynasties held Europe under their feet and prevented the progress of nationalism and democracy. The Romanovs, the Kaisers, the Hapsburgs were replaced and in their place came parliaments and elected democracies.

(2) Europe was reshaped mainly on the basis of one nation, one state. The familar picture of modern Europe was drawn at Versailles which has survived even to-day.

(3) Kaiser’s militarism and welt politics were buried. The League of Nations laid down a new world order based on security and independence of all nations.

(4) The Versailles Settlement sought to give Europe a protracted period of peace by disarming German militarism. No longer sword was the arbitrer of all questions. The League of Nations tried to solve international disputes by peaceful means.

(5) Nation states grew by the Versailles Settlement A long standing problem that plagued Europe was solved.

(6) International rivalries and the problem of Franco-German, Austro-Serbian rivalries were buried by the Versailles Settlement.

Question 7. What was the impact of the Great Depression on Germany?
Answer:

Impact of the Great Depression on Germany

Germany: After the Treaty of Versailles, a Republican Government came to power in Germany in 1919 by a general election. The National Assembly met at a place called Weimar because Berlin was still torn by political unrest.

The Weimar constitution gave its name the Weimar Republic. This Republic lasted till 1933 when it was destroyed by Hitler. From the very beginning, the Republic was unpopular because it had accepted the humiliating treaty of Versailles.

The German people never forgave it for that reason. The Republic faced serious economic problem from the very beginning. In 1919 Germany was very close to bankruptcy because of huge war expenditure. Moreover, the payment of reparation instalments made the situation worse.

French occupation of the Ruhr industrial area and sub sequent German policy of passive resistance also weakened the economy. The inflation crisis became a serious one. The lower middle class suffered most. Inflation wiped out pensions, savings and insurance.

This class never recovered from this blow and became bitter towards the Republic. It was from this class of Germans that Hitler got his fanatical followers.

Question 8. Briefly narrate the rise of Mussolini.
Answer:

Rise of Mussolini

Mussolini, son of a blacksmith, was born on July 29, 1883. He taught at a school for some time. In 1902 he went to Switzerland, engaging in Socialist journalism. Expelled from Switzerland, he returned to Italy in 1904 to serve in the army.

His subsequent participation in Socialist agitation cost him an imprisonment in 1908. Shortly afterwards he went to the Austrian district of Trent (Trentino) where he edited a newspaper in support of revolutionary socialism of Italian cause. After his expulsion from Trent, he returned to Italy.

He denounced the parliamentary system of Government and advocated violence. In 1911 he was jailed by the Italian Government for his attacks upon government policy in North Africa.

In 1912, he became the editor of Awanti, the official paper of the Italiarr Socialist Party. But when he began to propagate the idea of nationalism and urge intervention in the war, he was made to resign from Awanti. Thereupon Mussolini founded his own paper, at Milan and campaigned for, intervention. He served in the army from 1915 to 1917. After being wounded, he returned to patriotic journalism.

Mussolini observed the weakness of parliamentary Government after the war. In March 1919 he founded at Milan the fasci (bundle) which gave rise to a network of similar fasci all over Italy. The new organisation was at first more a movement than a party. Unemployed war veterans, passionate nationalists and exploited peasans – all joined the Fascists. After September 1920, the Fascists took the lead in a violent campaign against Socialists and communists.

They broke up Socialist and Communist mettings and burned trade union halls. By these actions, the Fascists won the sympathy of employers and others who feared revolution. In April 1921 some 35 Fascists were elected to the Chamber of Deputies.

In the November of the same year, the Fascist political party was organised with a graded hierarchy and rigid discipline. Fascists wore black shirts in imitation of Garibaldi’s Red Shirts. The Fascist militia, squadristi, bound by an oath to Mussolini, was founded.

‘The Fascist movement gathered momentum during 1921-22 while its opponents Liberals, Socilist and Catholic remained divided. The Government, first led by Bonomi and then by Facta, failed to form a stable ministry. In August 1922 the Socialists declared a general strike which irritated the public who was tired of strikes.

The Fascists declared open war on socialism and destroyed all Socialist and union headquarters in Genoa and other key cities. Conditions were ripe for Mussolini’s bid. In October 1922 Mussolini held a party conference in Naples at which he demanded that the Government be turned over to him.

Other wise he would march on Rome and seize control. Then as the Liberal Prime Minister, Luigi Facta resigned on October 27, 1922, Mussolini marched with his followers on Rome. King Victor Emmanuel III asked Mussolini to form a ministry. The Fascist dictatorship of Italy had begun.

Question 9. Write a short note on the organisation of Nazi Party.
Answer:

The organisation of Nazi Party

The advent of the Great Depression in 1929 served to bring about the weakness of the Weimer Republic. Adolf Hitler who had established the National Socialist or Nazi Party in 1920, found his opportunity in an atmosphere of discontent and frustration. In 1923 having failed to seize political power he went to jail and wrote Mein Kampf in which he told how Germany‘s wrongs would be righted.

On emerging from prison, Hitler rebuilt his party of National Socialists, called Nazis in short. The party had a number of organs, like the political organisation which looked after foreign affairs, labour relations, agriculture, justice, and national economy. There was also a separate propaganda division in which Hitler took prominent interest, a department to study defence questions and a youth organisation.

He organised the party’s paramilitary forces, the Schutzstaffel or S.S. Originally designed as a personal bodyguard of Hitler, this body found its permanent chief in-Heinrich Himmler. They adopted a brown shirt uniform and the emblem of a black swastika on a red field.

At the head of the elaborate organisation stood Hitler himself. He maintained his control of the party by the sheer strength of his will. Most of his close associated  Hess, Goebbels, Goering regarded him with awe and veneration. Hitler sought to strengthen his influence among the people, especially the middle class youths who turned to National Socialism after 1929.

After a slow growth during the years 1925-29, the party gained considerably after 1929. The economic depression and the growing unemployment generated a sense of frustration among the people who sought salvation in National Socialism. In the elections of 1930, the Nazis made their first breakthrough by winning 107 seats to become the second largest party after the Socialists.

Question 10. How did the German attack on Poland trigger the Second World War?
Answer: On March 21, 1939 Hitler seized from Lithuania the port of Memel. In April, Italy occupied albania. Simultaneously, Hitler demanded from Poland Danzig and the narrow corridor that separted East Prussia from the rest of Germany.

Poland refused to accept these terms. She was fortified by the British offer of an Anglo- French guarantee against aggression, which Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, made in the House of Commons on March 31. On April 6, Poland accepted the mutual obligation and one week later Britian and France guaranteed the independence of Greece and Rumania. In May, Britain signed with Turkey a mutual assistance pact.

As things were looking ominous, Britain introduced conscription. Germany countered this by denouncing the Anglo-German Naval agreement of 1935. Germany also drew closer to Italy, On May 22, 1939 Foreign Ministers Ciano and Ribbentrop signed a ten-year alliance at Berlin, the so-called ‘Pact of Steel’, It provided for immediate military aid in case either signatory became involved in hostilities. On the following day, Hitler confidentially reported to his chief advisers that Poland must be attacked ‘at the first suitable oppotunity’.

After concluding a Non-Aggression Pact with Russia on August 23, 1939, Hitler proceeded swiftly. On August 25, Britain signed a formal alliance with Poland. On August 31, the German Government broadcasted a sixteen-point proposal for the settlement of all German-Polish differences. At dawn on September 1, Germany without declaring war, sent its army and plane to Poland. Both Britain and France sent warning notes to Berlin on the 1.

Fifty hours later, on September 3, 1939, after a German refusal to withdraw from the territory it had already occupied, Chamberlain declared war against Germany. Within a few hours France also declared war. Thus, twenty-five years after the outbreak of the First World War, Europe entered the Second World War.

Question 11. Write a short note on Lenin’s New Economic Policy.
Answer:

Lenin’s New Economic Policy

In 1921, Lenin proclaimed a New Economic Policy  generally known in the abbreviated form as the NEP. It was a temporary halt in the revolutionary policy of socialism, a step back in order to move two steps forward later. The policy of forced grain collections was abandoned. The peasant was allowed to trade on the open market with whatever surplus he might have.

This measure was supplemented bothers to restore a limited market economy in food and other consumer goods, to permit revival of the handicraft and cottage industries, and to make possible the operation of small industrial and commercial enterprises. The state retained complete control of banking, foreign trade and large-scale industry.

The NEP served its purpose successfully. By the end of 1922, Soviet Russia made so called ‘Scissors Crisis’ developed in the Soviet economy. Industrial prices rose dramatically at the expense of agricultural prices. At the twelfth Party Congress in April 1923, Trotsky produced a diagram which showed how the ‘scissors’, representing the blades of agricultural and industrial prices, had opened more and more widely.

In October the ratio of industrial prices to agricultural prices was three times as high as in 1913. The crisis was overcome by the establishment of a system of price controls, under which prices on industrial goods were brought down.

By the summer of 1924, a growing confidence was visible in Soviet economy. Therecovery of Russian agriculture in the years of the mid-twenties was destroyed. Industry steadily revived. The currency reform was completed in March 1924, when the gold-based currency was adopted, and the old Soviet rouble notes withdrawn.

Foreign trade, managed by a separate commissionariat, reached favourable figures for the first time in the year 1923-24. Of exports, 75 per cent were agricultural products, including grain; of imports, nearly 75 per cent were taken by industry.

Question 12. What was the nature of the Tsarist rule in Russia?
Answer:

The nature of the Tsarist rule in Russia

Tsardom or the Tsarist Rule : The Government under the Tsars was a pure and simple autocracy. The Russian emperor was an absolute autocrat. There was none to check on his exercise of power. The selection of ministers and Governmen to fficials was solely decided by the Tsar.

National policies were also formulated by him. A word from the Tsar was enough to change or abolish any existing institution or law. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries attempts were made to introduce some kind of reforms that would control the unlimited power of the Tsar.

But none of these was successful. It was not before the revolutionary distrubances of 1905 that Nicholas II, the last Tsar of Russia, was compelled to grant certain concessions.

For example, he agreed to hold elections to the legislative assembly called Duma; political parties were legalized, a set of Fundamental Laws were promulgated, etc. Inspite of such concessions the form of Government remained basically absolute autocracy. The combination of representative assembly and the autocracy of the Tsar and his reforms were impractical and so it eventually failed.

Question 13. Narrate the circumstances in which Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the throne.
Answer:

The circumstances in which Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the throne

Russia in 1917 Due to of Russia’s participation in the World War I the Russian people were exposed to great hardships. Meanwhile, the dignity and popularity of the royal family of Russia was totally lost due to the undue influence of Tsar’s wife, Empress Alexandra and Rusputin, a Siberian monk. At the beginning of the year 1917, a series of strikes were called in Petrograd (later renamed Leningrad), the capital city. Troops were called in to disperse the mobs roaming the streets.

Abdication of Nicholas II During the turmoil the representatives of the workers organized an assembly known as the Petrograd Soviet. They took the cooperation of the rebel troops. Thus, the Petrograd Soviet was able to take control of the city. On 1 March 1917, a Provisional Government was formed that sent messengers to Tsar Nicholas II urging him to step down from the throne. On 12 March Nicholas II fearing form being dethroned resigned as the Tsar.

Question 14. Would you say that in the process of peace-making after the First World War there was a conflict between realism and idealism?
Answer:

Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points The United States of America did not wish any territorial gains but entered into the war to ‘make the world safe for democracy’ and to end the wars. Woodrow Wilson, the then President of the USA, in a document called Fourteen Points issued in January 1918, enunciated his goals for keeping peace in future.

The Fourteen Points were :

1. Abandonment of secret diplomacy and negotiation
2. Freedom of the seas
3. Removal of tariff barriers
4. Reduction of armaents
5. Absolutely impartial adjustment of colonial claims
6. Providing for the lost territories of Russia
7. Restoration of Belgium
8. Restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France
9. Readjustment of the Italian frontiers
10. Accepting of the principle of self-determination
11. Central Powers to evacuate the Balkans
12. Autonomy for all non-Turkish nationalities and opening of the Dardanelles to the ships
13. Creation of an independent state of Poland
14. Creation of an association of nations to guarantee the independence of all nations.

Idealism versus Realism : While some points of Wilson’s Fourteen Points coincided with the aims of the Allies, the spirit of it was different from the spirit of the secret treaties executed by the Allies. The spirit of the Fourteen Points was betrayed more in their breaches.

Yet the Fourteen Points were accepted by the Allies for being the basis on which peace could be made. The problem of the peace making was to be the problem of reconciling the selfish revengeful ambitions of the Allies with the idealism propounded by the Fourteen Points.

Question 15. Write about the revolutionary tradition in Russia?
Answer:

Revolutionary Tradition in Russia :Revolutionary forces had been active in Russia since when the foundations of the Romanoff dynasty were laid. In fact, the Romanoffs who were wiped away by the Revolution of 1917, themselves had ascended the throne by way of revolution.

However, the early revolts were not specially directed against the Tsar, or precisely, against the autocracy as an institution. The first open attempt at revolutionary change was the ill-fated Decemerist Revolt (so called after the date of the insurrection on 14 December) of 1825.

It was only after the Emancipation Statute of Tsar Alexander II that any practical revolutionary activity took place. The political movement having tremendous importance that gained prominence in the 60s of the nineteenth century was the Narodnik (or Narodniki) movement.

The Narodniks were ‘populists’ who sincerely believed peasantry to be the leading figure in the liberation struggle in Russia. But the movement was unsuccessful. After the failure of the Narodnik movement a fraction of them formed a terrorist organization called Narodnaya Volya (meaning People’s Will).

One of its members is said to have committed the assassination of Tsar Alexander III. But in the economic sector he effected regeneration by the industrialization of Russia. At the same time, by doing so a situation was created which provided incentive to the spread of mass discontent expressed in workers’ strike, working class consiousness, agitation and propaganda of revolutionary activities. Among these were some who were attracted towards the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

Question 16. What were the economic implications of the Treaty of Versailles ?
Answer:

The Economic Implications of the Treaty of Versailles: The economic implications of the Treaty of Versailles signed by the Allies with Germany was a matter of grave concern for the Germans. In the pre-armistice terms Germany had agreed to compensate for all the damage done to the civilian population of the Allies and also the property damaged due to her aggression by land, sea and air.

Since the Allies could not agree upon a fixed amount to be charged from Germany, the fixation of the final amount was postponed for the time being. A Reparation Commission was to be established to determine the German obligation. The Commission assessed the debt as high as 660 crores of Sterling Pound.

Meanwhile Germany was responsible to deliver large quantities of coal to France, Belgium and Italy for 15 years. A large number of horses, cattle, sheep, etc. was to be delivered to France and Belgium by Germany. For 5 years the Allies were given concessions on certain imports into and exports from Germany. Besides, various other demands were pressed on Germany that disrupted the German economy.

(1)Under the strain of the post-war economic problems German monetary system collapsed.

(2)The result was disastrous. The German currency Mark (Deutsch Mark) was not worth the paper it was printed on. The German shopkeepers refused to accept money in exchange for goods. In such asituation the German people were forced to resort to the ancient system of barter to get the goods they required. This was the period of ‘hyperinflation’.

(3)Before the war most countries of Europe used coins made of gold. But after the war the gold coins were replaced by paper currency.

(4)In Germany where money was in great shortage the Government began to print more and more currency notes. This resulted in a decrease of the value of money.

(5) Reduction in the value of money ruined those who depended on wages and salaries paid in cash. As their life savings and hopes vanished in front of their eyes, they became ready to listen to anyone who would promise them a better future.

Question 17. Comment on the rise of General Franco?
Answer:

Rise of General Franco : In the elections of February (1936) a ‘Popular Front’ which was a political term, consisting of members from the republicans, socialists and communists, won and formed the Government. The new Government was opposed by the right-winger Falange or the Spanish Fascist Party (founded by Jose Antonio).

Gradually Spain was once again in the grip of chaos and confusion. Strikes, burning of churches, assassinations and such other social disorder became absolutely common. It became clear to everybody that the Government had lost ontrol over the country. In such a disastrous situation General Franco, a soldier of military ability, organized a revolt that ultimately assumed the proportions of a civil war.

Question 18. How did the Treaty of Versailles lead to the growth of aggressive nationalism?
Answer: The Settlement of Versailles and the Growth of Aggressive Nationalism: The Treaty of Versailles Allied Powers singed the with Germany after her defeat in the World War | The Germans called the treaty a ‘dictated peace’ because they had had no voice in its drafting.

The treaty caused great bitterness among the Germans especially because of the war-guilt clause, which stated that the Germans accepted the full responsibility for having caused the war. First World War was one cause of the the strong feeling of nationalism prevailing in different European countries. The

Germans felt betrayed by the treaty presented to them. Because of all this every political party in Germany condemned the Treaty of Versailles as ‘unjust and unacceptable’. In a situation like this Germans were attracted to aggressive or extreme nationalism.

The aggressive nationalism found expression in the Nazi ideology which developed out of the particular circumstances of Germany. The Versailles treaty . needed to be cancelled; the lost territories had to be restored to Germany. But the aggressive nationalism appealed for more than a mere restoration of the 1914 frontiers.

This meant creation of an empire to include all the Germans who lived beyond the territorial limits of Kaiser William’s Germany (i.e., before the World War |). This meant the Austrian Germans, the Sudeten Germans, Germans living along the Baltic coast all were to be included within the Greater German empire.

However, the Nazi national aims hadonly just begun there. The aggressive nationalism of the Nazis under Hitler dreamt of a Germany that would be a superpower and compete with the British Empire and the USA. Such an objective could be fulfilled only by a territorial expansion on a greater scale.

The aggressive nationalism of the Nazi variety was not original. As pointed out by Geoff Layton, the every aspect of the Nazi thinking as produced by Hitler got reflected in the nationalist and racist writings of the nineteenth century. In fact, his nationalism was an extension of the fervour generated in Germany in the years between Prussia’s struggle against Napoleon and the unification of Germany in 1871.

Question 19. What were the causes of victory of the Allied Powers in the First World War ?
Answer:

The First World War ended in 1918 with the victory of the Allied Powers and defeat of the Central Powers.

The causes of victory of the Allied Powers are discussed below:

(1) The Allied Powers had greater manpower and resources than Germany.

(2) The entry of U.S.A. in the war turned the tide in favour of the Allied Powers.

(3) The Allied Powers had greater manpower than Germany.

(4) The democratic countries like England, France got the support of the people than an autocratic country like Germany.

(5) The Allies by opening two fronts in the war forced Germany to meet the challenge from two sides. Germany could not continue the war because Germany had neither the war equipment nor financial resource to continue the war for long on two frontiers.

(6) One important reason for the victory of the Allied Powers was their superiority in naval strength compared to Germany and her associates.

Question 20. Justify the Treaty of Versailles (1919).
Answer:
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed on Germany by the victorious Allied Powers has been justified on the following grounds:

(1) According to the principles laid down by President Wilson, the League of Nations was established with the avowed aim to establish permanent peace and order in the world.

(2) When the frontier areas of Germany were partitioned, the principal and integral part of Germany was kept united under a sovereign Government.

(3) The colonies of Germany were divided among the Allies on the basis of the Mandate system.

(4) Germany was not asked to pay the whole expenses of war. She was asked to pay only the damages suffered by the civilian population of the Allied countries due to the German aggression.

(5) According to the principle of nationalism and self-determination, many new states were created, viz. Poland, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Lithuania, etc. It was. for the first time, when the principle of nationalism was enforced on a large scale. As a result of this, only three percent people of the total population of Europe remained under the yoke of the foreigners.

Question 21. Comment on the international significance of the Russian Revolution?
Answer:

International significance of the Russian Revolution

The Revolution of 1917 is an epoch-making event in the history of the world. Marx and Engels visualised the proletarian revolution sweeping all over Europe. By a systematic appeal to peace, the Bolsheviks hoped to lead the European masses towards a general revolution. The example and propaganda of the Bolshevik Revolution helped to found Communist parties in different countries.

These were federated in 1919 in a Third International (Comintern) with headquarters at Moscow. Through the Comintern, Russia directed the policies and activities of Germany, France, Italy and most other countries on the European continent.

The Indian Communist Party was formed in 1925 and Manabendra Nath Roy (M.N. Roy) was the first Indian to be elected to the Communist International. The Bolshevik Revolution ushered in a great socialist movement and created panic in the capitalist world.

As a matter of fact, the Fascist revolution after 1920 was the outcome of the hatred and fear of Communism. The impact of the Bolshevik Revolution was felt not only in western Europe but also in the colonial world. It opened an era of nationalist struggle against the colonial rule. By propagating the doctrine that the last of capitalism in imperialism, the Bolshevik Revolution became an eloquent champion of racial equality and freedom. The Bolshevik Revolution influenced the Chinese nationalist revolution.

The example of the Bolshevik success inflamed imaginations everywhere. European labour became militant and tried to forge the unity of workers as whole. Socialism, as opposed to imperialism, emerged as a great force for order and stabilisation in Western and Central Europe. Moreover, the success of Russia’s economic planning gave great encouragement to various countries of the world to reach the goal of economic progress.

22. Briefly describe the causes of the failure of the League of Nations?
Answer:

After the First World War (1914-18) an international organisation, known as the League of Nations, which was formed to promote

International cooperation andpeace failed due to various reasons :

(1) The League was never able to make itself truly ‘representative of the entire world’. Countries like U.S.A, Russia, Germany, Japan and Italy were not members of the League at different stages and no international organisation can be really successful if some of the Great Powers remain outside its orbit.

(2) Mere protests could not check the aggressive policy of the members of the League. Effective economic and military sanctions were necessary but military sanctions were left to the discretion of the members. Without military punishment the aggressor could not be checked.

(3) The League had no army, navy or airforce of its own nor was it in a position to apply economic sanctions without the cooperation of the great powers. But the great powers looked after their own interests instead of fulfilling their obligations to the League. (iv) The rise of dictatorship in different countries in the third decade of the 20th century frustrated the peace-making efforts of the League.

Question 23. Briefly describe the reasons for the rise of the Nazis to power.
Answer:
The reasons for the rise of the Nazis were as follows :

(1) In the First World War (1914-18) Germany was defeated and the humiliating Treaty of Versailles was imposed upon Germany in 1919 and the rise of Nazis is traced to the severity of the terms imposed upon Germany by this shameful Treaty of Versailles.

(2) The heavy burden of compensation imposed upon Germany brought in a host of evils like unemployment, price rise and taxation.

(3) Democracy in Germany remained as weak as it could be and the suffering of the people knew no bounds. Hitler cleverly exploited the discontent of his countrymen and his theory of the superiority of the German race restored confidence in the people.

(4) His oratory, uniform (Brown Shirt of the Nazi members), the swastika flag, use of violence—all together appealed to many classes of the German people.

(5) The Nazis provided an outlet for the military leanings of the German youths. The German minds reacted favourably to dictatorial movements. (vi) Moreover, due to the fear of a communist revolution, the opponents of communism supported the Nazis and it was under these circumstances that Nazism gained ground in German soil.

Question 24. Write a note on Paris Peace Conference.
Answer:

Paris Peace Conference

The First World War came to an end with the surrender of Germany in 1918. The Great Powers decided to convene a conference at Paris to find out the possibilities of the establishment of peace and to conclude the treaty with the defeated nations.

The main aspects of the conference were:

(1) The Big Four Thirty-two nations sent their spokesmen to assemble at the Paris Peace conference and effect a territorial resettlement of the war-torn. world. The leaders of the conference, the Big Four, were President Woodrow Wilson of the U.S.A, Clemenceau of France, Lloyd George of Great Britain and Orlando of Italy.

(2) Foundation of the League of Nations Wilson, the President of America, joined the Paris Peace Conference with the aim of establishing such an organisation which might work effectively to prevent wars in future and to establish permanent peace in the world.

(3) Five Treaties The terms of the Peace Settlement were embodied in five main treaties:

(1) The Treaty of Versailles (1919) between Allied powers and Germany
(2) The Treaty of St. Germain (1919) between Allied powers and Austria
(3) The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) between Allied powers and Bulgaria
(4) The Treaty of Sevres (1920) between the Allied Powers and Turkey and the
(5)Treaty of Trianon (1920) between the Allied Powers and Hungary

Question 25. What were the treaties signed in the Paris Peace Conference (1919)?
Answer:

The treaties signed in the Paris Peace Conference (1919) Are

The First World War came to an end in 1918 with the surrender of Germany. In the Paris Peace Conference (1919) the following peace treaties were concluded

(1) The Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles was concluded in 1919 between the victorious allies (comprising Britain, France, Russia, Serbia) and the
defeated Germany after World War I.

(1) Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine to France, Upen, Malmedy, Morisnet to Belgium, Memel to the Allies, west Prussia and most of Posen to Poland. She handed over the province of Schleswig to Denmark.

(2) Danzig was made a free port.

(3) The Saar Valley was put under an international commission for 15 years.

(4) Germany was required to surrender her colonies, navy and coal mines.

(5) Germany had to pay heavy war reparations.

(2) The Treaty of Saint Germain :This treaty was signed between victorious Allies and defeated Austria in 1919. By this treaty

(1) the old House of Hapsburg was abolished and(2) Austria had to accept the true existence of Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia.

(3) The Treaty of Neuilly : This treaty was signed between the victorious allies and Bulgaria in 1919. According to this treaty

(1) Four provinces of Western Bulgaria were given to Yugoslavia and
(2) The strength of Bulgarian army was reduced to ten thousand.

(4) The Treaty of Trianon : The Allied powers concluded this treaty with Hungary in 1920. By this treaty

(1) a large portion of territory was taken away from Hungary and
(2) the strength of the Hungarian army was reduced.

(5) The Treaty of Sevres : The victorious Allies concluded this treaty with Turkey in 1920. By this treaty

(1) The Turkish empire was abolished and
(2) Turkey had to give up her rights over Egypt, Cyprus, Morocco, Palestine, Arabia and Mesopotamia. Turkey’s army was also reduced.

Question 26. Criticise the Treaty of Versailles Or, “The Treaty of Versailles contained the seeds of the Second World War”.Discuss.
Answer:

Treaty of Versailles

(1) The Treaty of Versailles has been called ‘a dictated treaty’ which was imposed upon by the defeated Germany by the Allied powers. The delegates of Germany were not invited to the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and the treaty was a vengeful treaty.

(2) The Treaty did not adhere to the principle of self-determination. The right of self-determination was not applied for Sudetenland which was transferred to Czechoslovakia, It led to a loss of balance of power in Europe.

(3) While England and France increased their colonies, German colonies were confiscated in the name of good government.

(4) Germany was saddled with a huge reparation amount by the Treaty which was impossible for her to pay.

(5) According to Wilson‘s Fourteen Points, it was decided that all the states would reduce their war armaments. But this clause was only applied to Germany. Humiliated Germany was looking forward to another war as an opportunity to avenge her defeat. It is thus said that the Treaty of Versailles contained the seeds of the Second World War.

Question 27. What do you mean by Great Economic Depression ? What were the causes of the economic depression of 1929 ?
Answer:

Great Economic Depression

The Great Economic Depression was a severe worldwide economic crisis in the decade preceding World War II that affected most of the developed world except Soviet Union throughout 1930. The causes of the Great Depression in America or world economic crisis were as follows:

(1) After the First World War there was overproduction of industrial goods in America. The surplus goods could not be sold in the domestic market or across the Atlantic.

(2) After the First World War different European countries increased their industrial production. As a result demand for American goods dropped leading to economic
crisis.

(3) During the First World War farmers produced far more food than the population consumed. Farmers expanded their production to aid the war effort. After the war as demand

dropped with increasing supply, the prices of products fell and farmers suffered. They fell into debt.

(4) On 24 October, 1929 the American share market crashed. As the shareholders were panicked millions of shares had been sold on this fateful day.

(5) America imposed high rate of tariff on goods imported from different European countries. The European countries also adopted the same policy. As surplus goods could not be sold in the market America’s foreign trade suffered. Many industries were closed and the people became jobless.

Question 28. What was the Narodnik Movement  ? What was the aim of the movement  ? Was the movement a failure?
Answer:

Narodnik Movement

The most important movement in Russia in the 50s of the 19% century was the Narodnik movement. The Russian word ‘Narod’ means the ‘people’, One who sought to help the people (peasants, i.e., narod) take the path of revolutionary struggle for a just life was known as Narodnik.

The aim of the Narodnik movement was :

(1) overthrow the rule of the autocratic Czars in Russia
(2) destruction of the prevalent social structure and
(3) agrarian socialist society to be established.

The Narodniks failed to motivate the peasants with their ideology. Their movement, though a failure, made the doctrine of socialism known to the people. People were trained for future revolution.

Question 29. What were the causes of Russian Revolution?
Answer: The Russian Revolution of 1917 is a very important event in world history. It brough t an end to Czarist autocracy and established socialist Russia.

The causes of the Russian Revolution are as follows:

(1) The Czars were corrupt. There was absolutely no progress in any aspect of life’ of the common Russians. Though the life of the people was miserable, no effort was made to remove their grievances. Naturally the Russians desired the fall of Czarist rule.

(2) The mental climate for the outbreak of the revolution was prepared by philosophers like Gorky, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy and others.

(3) The Russian army was inefficient. Russia was defeated in the Crimean War (1854-66) and the Russo-Japanese War (1905). This exposed the weakness of the Czarist rule.

(4) Russian society was divided into the ‘Haves’ and the ‘Have-nots’. The ‘Haves’ were those who were very rich. The ‘Have nots’ were poor farmers and labourers. This created a feeling of class struggle among the people.

(5) The Industrial Revolution was another factor contributing to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution. Owing to the use of machines the labourers were thrown out of employment and were forced to live in miserable conditions.

(6) The bureaucracy of Russia was also responsible for the outbreak of the Russian revolution. Most of the high officers belonged to rich families. They had no sympathy for the common people and always exploited them. The people of Russia were thus firmly determined to bring about a thorough change in the system of administration. Thus the Russian Revolution broke out.

Question 30. What was Lenin’s ‘April Thesis’?
Answer:

Lenin’s ‘April Thesis’

Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik party in Russia, was the pioneer of the October Revolution. The Menshevik thesis was rejected by Lenin. The people were attracted to the Bolshevik when they promised bread to the workers, peace to the army and land to the peasants. Yet the people could not decide their future plan. In early April 1917 Lenin returned from his exile in Switzerland and announced his famous ‘April thesis’ titled “What is to be done”.

In his thesis he said :

(1) History has given a very opportune time to the Bolsheviks.
(2) The provisional republic is yet out of roots. Once it wins a general election it will be impossible for the Bolsheviks to overthrow it. So Lenin put forward his idea of ‘Now or Never’.
(3) Since the Bolsheviks were the aipehiettc of the 1917 revolution, they have every right to hold a government lawfully.
(4) The bourgeoisie and the proletarian revolution—both will happen simultaneously and the proletarian will overthrow the bourgeoisie system.
(5) The Russian peasants and soldiers will offer their allegiance to,the Soviet only and those who will not do so will be punished.
(6) In the villages and towns workers will capture power and they will defy the provisional republican Government.
(7) The war with Germany launched by the Provisional Government was an imperialist war—the Russian people had no sympathy for it.

Question 31. Write a note on the Spanish Civil War and progressive movements in India.
Answer:

Spanish Civil War and progressive movements in India

After the First World War the political, social and economic condition of Spain was not stable. In 1931 general elections were held in Spain in which the monarchists were defeated. Democratic Republican Government was established in Spain. But the newly established republican Government could not work successfully. General Franco attacked the republican Government and overthrew it. Thus a civil war broke out in Spain.In this civil war Italy and Germany helped General Franco.

The attitude of India was different In the Faizpur session of the Indian National Congress (1936) Jawaharlal Nehru, a leader of the Indian freedom movement, in his presidential address said that the civil war in Spain was not simply a war between Franco and the republican Government or a war between Fascism and democracy.

He called it a war between reactionary and progressive forces. He remarked, “The struggle today is fiercest and clearest in Spain and on the outcome of that depends war or peace in the world in the near future”.

An association was established in London by the Indians in support of the republican Government in Spain. This association also raised a fund to support the republican Government in Spain in 1937. During the Spanish civil war Jawaharlal Nehru visited Spain in June 1938. In this year on 13, October Mahatma Gandhi sent a message to the Prime Minister of Spain telling him that his full sympathy was with them.

Question 32. Write a note on Hoover’s Moratorium ?
Answer:

Hoover’s Moratorium

Herbert Hoover became the President of the U.S.A in 1929. He said, “We in America are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land”. But very soon came the economic crash of 1929.

Total industrial production fell by 48 percent, the result being a rapid growth of unemployment. The business houses faced a great deal of losses. In order to speed up economic revival, However proposed an international moratorium from mid 1931 to mid 1932. To meet rising unemployment, the Government allotted large sums for the constructionof public buildings and highways.

The threatened insolvency of many banks and many railways forced the Government to underwrite the credit structure. A Reconstruction Finance Corporation was created which was authorised to lend money . for three years for financing commerce, industry and agriculture and for exportation of agricultural and other products.

All these measures to solve the economic depression of the country failed. By 1932 over five thousand banks collapsed and the number of unemployed people rose to over 12 million. The Americans turned with hope to the new leadership of Franklin Roosevelt.

Question 33. What is the ‘New Deal’ of Roosevelt ?
Answer:

‘New Deal’ of Roosevelt

When Franklin Delano Roosevelt became the President of U.S.A in 1933 the country was on the verge of complete collapse. He prophesied that U.S.A would ‘revive and prosper’ and he promised a New Deal for the American people.

The New Deal was a series of domestic programme enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938 and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term (1933-37) of President Roosevelt.

The programme were in response to the Great Depression and focussed on what historians call the 3R’s- ‘Relief, Recovery, Reform’, that is Relief for the unemployed and poor, Recovery of the economy to normal level and Reform of the finances.

In the realm of Relief the Government gave federal loans to rich business. It inaugurated a programme of public works in order to stimustimulate business and provide employment. It set up elaborate system of conservation of nature resource.

The New Deal reopened banks under strict supervision of the Government. It controlled the selling of stocks and bonds and other securities. The New Deal paid particular attention to agriculture, labour and social security.

Question 34. What were the reasons that led to the substitution of Europe by the U.S.A as the power centre of the world ?
Answer:

The reasons that led to the substitution of Europe by the U.S.A as the power centre of the world are

In the beginning of the 20th century the centre of power of the world was shifted from Europe to U.S.A due to the following reasons:

(1) With the entry of U.S.A into the First World War in 1917 a new chapter area in world history. Her participation changed the course of the war and enabled Britain and France to win the war.

(2) At the Paris Peace Conférence (1919) President Wilson was one of the Big Four who laid the foundation of the world peace organisation, the League of Nations. U.S.A‘s prestige was raised and she became a prominent power in the world.

(3) U.S.A’s emergence as a world power was also caused by her economic prosperity. The economic depression of 1929-33 affected not only U.S.A but also other countries of the world. President Roosevelt of U.S.A helped other countries to tide over this economic crises and U.S.A‘s prestige was raised as a first class world power.

(4) U.S.A rendered military and material help to the allies and totally changed the course of the war. U.S.A forced Japan to surrender in 1945 and played a leading role in the Second: World War. She made her the arbitrer of international politics.

(5) U.S.A’s advancement in science and technology especially in weapons of mass destruction raised her status. She was the first to invent atom bomb and the successful dropping of it in Japan made her the most prominent power in the world.

(6) U.S.A took the lead to counteract Russia’‘s influence. She took the initiative of extending economic assistance to Europe, especially through the Marshall Plan. U.S.A helped to restore all economies and modernise the armed forces of western Europe and became the centre of world politics.

(7) The Second World War (1939-45) weakened Britain and France. Britain’s economic crisis after the war was relieved to some extent by loan from the US which heightened the prestige of U.S.A.

Question 35. What was the impact of World War I on Europe?
Answer:

There was left a great impact on Europe of the World War 1.

Some of them are as follows:

(1) End of great powers:  The major Europen empires, i.e., Germany, Russia, Turkey and Austria-Hungary were destroyed.

(2) Development of Nationalism: The feeling of nationalism developed in many countries. Poland, Ireland, Turkey, Yugoslavia witnessed the emergence of Nationalism.

(3) Establishment of Democracy: The declining monarchy paved the way for democracy such as Weimer Republic was established in Germany. The Sultan of Turkey was dethroned and a democratic Government was established there under the leadership of Kamal Pasa.

(4) Emergence of autocracy:
 As the democratic Government failed to solve the socio-economic problems like price rise, unemployment, food crisis, etc. the emer- gence of autocracy took place in Europe. For example, Hitter gave rise to Nazism in Germany and Mussolini to Fascism in Italy.

(5) Formation of League of Nations: The 14 points programme of U.S. Presi- dent Wilson led to the formation of League of Nations.

(6) Decline in the position of Anglo-French powers: Though the Anglo-French powers won the World War I, their prestige and position declined to some extent. Russia and America emerged as big powers.

(7) End of hegemony of Europe: The hegemony of Europe had in the world trade and in industrial production in the pre war years came to an end after the end of World War I.

(8) Spread of Trade Union Movement: Trade Union Movement gained strength in the post war days.

(9) The Great. Depression: The most important economic feature in the post war years was the Great Depression (1929) in U.S.A. Each and every country of the world felt the burnt of it.

(10) Internationalism: spread as an upshot of the World War I. Eagerness for nternational co-operation gave birth to the League of Nations.

Question 36. To what extent did imperialist rivalry lead to the outbreak of the First World War?
Answer: Commercial and colonial rivalry among the European nations was a major cause of the First World War. The Industrial Revolution resulted in a huge rise in production in most European countries. Native industrialists and capitalists became more prosperous with a large capital which they wanted to invest in new markets.

The search was on for colonies which would serve as markets for products, sources of raw materials and as investment opportunities; pressures were mounted on governments for urgent colonisation.

Since Industrial Revolution happened early in England, France, Russia, Portugal and Spain, their colonising drive took off earlier too in the underdeveloped countries of Asia and Africa. The Industrial Revolution arrived much later in Germany and Italy. But soon German industries made a marked progress, especially during the reign of Kaiser William II and Germany too felt the need for colonisation to secure markets and raw materials.

Pressure was exerted on the Government by German capitalists in this regard. But by this time, England, France, Russia, Portugal and Spain had consolidated their control over most of the countries of Asia and Africa and very little was left for Germany, Austria and Italy. With an object to expand trade in the Middle East, Kaiser planned to build the Berlin-Baghdad railway. England.

Opposed the plan from security concern for the Indian empire. The Kaiser tried to interfere in the French colony of Morocco. At this time, Italy was busy to colonising Tripoli in north Africa, Russia in Middle East and Far East, and Japan had imperialist schemes in the Far East Europe was thus caught in feuds over colonisation and the natural outcome was the First World War. Lenin, in his booklet, “Imperialism – the Highest Stage of Capitalism”, points at this economic reason behind the First World War.

Question 37. What is imperialism? State its causes?
Answer:

Imperialism

By imperialism is generally meant “the domination or occupation of one country by another, going against the people”. New imperialism is a total concept which engulfs the economic, cultural and social life of the colonies. The period between 1870-1914, points out David Thomson, “has come to be known in some specially significant and discreditable sense, as the age of imperialism”.

Causes:

The most prominent causes of imperialism are as follows :

(1) The industrial advancement of most of the european countries led them to look for markets beyond Europe, in Asia and Africa.
(2) Political domination would secure markets in the two continents.
(3) Besides market, the import of raw materials also lay behind imperialism.
(4) Imperialism was considered necessary for safety of investment.
(5) Strategic consideration was an important factor in imperialist domination.

38. What was the economic condition of European countries at the end of the First World War ? Account for the failure of democracy in Italy and Germany. Which political party rose to power in Italy?
Answer:

The economic condition of European countries at the end of the First World War

The First World War which was longest for about 4 years, both the parties faced a huge loss of wealth. As a result of this, England’s national debt raised upto 74,350 lakh pound, French’s 14,74,750 lakh frank and Germany’s 16,06,000 lakh mark. During the First World War, unrest mounted steadily in Italy, peasants and working men suffered from the increased prices, heavier taxes, and other war burdens. After the war with peace, however, came a disastrous economic crisis.

Industry and trade became disorganized, agriculture stagnated and unemployment grew in the cities. The condition in Germany was far from normal. The Republic was born as a result of defeat in war. It was associated with sufferings and humiliation. One crisis followed another in quick succession. The national currency collapsed. For the German default in paying reparation the French took possession of the factories in Rurh. Elbert was too weak to meet the situation.

The situation in Germany was grave enough. In despair many of the German people turned to any party and any programme that held out the prospect of better times. Some joined the Monarchist party, some became Communist, while the vast majority of the Germans joined the party of the National Socialists. It was then led by Adolf Hitler. On 28th October, 1932 Mussolini organized a march in Rome. There was no resistance, rather the King of Italy asked Mussolini to join the Government. Hence the Fascist Party rose to power in Italy.

Question 39. When did the First World War start and end ? Which of the countries took part in it ?
Answer:

Duration of the First World War : The First World War commenced in 1914 and continued upto 1918 A.D.

Participating Countries: The First World War was fought between two rival and hostile blocs. On one side were the Allies or the countries like Serbia, Russia, France, England, Japan, America and Italy. On the other side were the Central powers or the countries like Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. These two groups prepared themselves to measure their armed strength. The very emergence of these two hostile camps was a sure indication of the World War.

Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance. She remained neutral before jumping into the war against Germany and Austria in 1915 AD. Her enmity with Austria was on the issue of the control of the new colonies. Roughly speaking, eighty-six countries of the world participated in the First World War.

40. How was Rome-Berlin Tokyo-Axis formed ? Or, Write a note on Rome-Berlin Tokyo Axis?
Answer: Formation of Rome-Berlin Tokyo Axis wrecked the balance of power and prepared road to the Second World War.

Formation of Rome-Berlin Axis :

(1) Germany was diplomatically isolated in Europe by Anglo-French Powers. A.G.P, Taylor has remarked, “Hitler was the 3rd Bismark of Germany”. Hitler planned to form a close alliance with the Fascists in Italy in order to break the isolation.
(2) Gemany and Italy were frustrated due to the Versailles Treaty of 1919.
(3) Gemany and Italy thought that they would encircle France from East and South-East.
(4) Ideologically, Nazism and Fascism were dictatorships. Thus, Germany and Italy both concluded Anti-Comintern pact in 1936 which later on came to be known as Rome-Berlin Axis.

Joining of Japan in the Axis – After Manchurian invasion in 1931, Japan deserted the League of Nations and remained diplomatically isolated. Japan found that she would end her isolation by joining the axis. On the other hand, the Italy-German Government thought if Japan kept British and America busy in Asia, their plan of expansion in Europe would face less obstruction. Thus, Japan joined the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1937. Hence Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was formed. This Axis was one group which began the Second World War.

Question 41. Write a note on the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer:

Treaty of Versailles

As a result of the discussions at the Paris conference on June 29, 1919, theTreaty of Versailles was signed. The treaty was designed to prevent Germany fromgoing to war again.

Terms The treaty contains the following terms:

(1) Germany had to pay 33 billion dollars as war compensation.
(2) German colonies were snatched in China and Africa.
(3) The land, air and naval forces of Germany was to be dissolved.
(4)Germany lost Lorraine to France, Eupen-et-Malmedy to Belgium, Schleswing to Denmark.
(5) The area of the Rhine valley was to be demilitarised.
(6) The coalmines of Germany area called SAAR was ceded to France for 15 years.

Reaction of Germany – The Marxist historians said that the provisions of the Treaty were imposed on Germany. That is why the treaty was called a dictated peace by the Germans. Hitler took full advantage of German discontentment and grabbed the power in his own hands. Thus, the treaty was absolutely one sided. Germany was reduced to the status of hermit kingdom. Acc. to E.W. Caar, “There was no justice behind the Versailles Treaty”. Historians think that this eventually led to the World War II.

Question 42. What were the principles of Fascism?
Answer:

The features of fascism are as follows :

(1) No place for opposition Fascism was a supporter of one party and one leader. There was no place of opposition in Fascism. Mussolini had said, “All parties must end, must fall. I want to see a panorama of ruins around me, the ruins of other political forces so that Fascism may stand gigantic and dominant”.

(2) All powerfull leaders – All power would rest with the leader and none else. The leader would be the symbol of the state and the unity.

(3) Denies the existence of Individual – Fascism was against the individual. It laid more stress on the duties of the individual and the rights of the state. That is why it has been said, “The individual exists solely for the society of which he forms a part that the state delibertates all individual rights”.

(4) Power and prestige of the country – Fascism wanted to enhance the power and prestige of the country by making it powerful.

(5) Establishment of peace – According to Fascism, peace should be established in the country and private property should be maintained.

(6) Imperialist and aggressive policy Fascism was the supporter of an imperialist and aggressive policy. According to Mussolini, “Fascism is based on the resolutions, looks and objectives of the state. According to it, state is complete but the individual associations are incomplete”.

Question 43. What were the ideals of Nazism?
Answer:

The ideals of Nazism are as follows :

(1) The state is above all. All powers hould be with the state and it should have hold on all political, social and economic programmes.
(2) To end the parliamentary institutions.
(3) To have control over press, education, radio and to maintain its own powers.
(4) To crush all sorts of party formations and oppositions.
(5) To root out communism and liberalism.
(6) The right to private property was recognised only upto a limit which wasn’t harmful to the national interest.
(7) The Nazi Party considered Germany superior to all other nations and wanted to have her influence all over the world. It was of the view “The stronger must rule and not fuse with the weaker and so sacrifice its own greatness.”
(8) To turn out the Jews from Germany as they was a great loss due to the economic hardship of the people of Germany.
(9) To denounce the degrading Treaty of Versailles.
(10) To increase the German military power and the expansion of the German empire.

Question 44. Write about the internal policy of Mussolini?
Answer:

Internal policy of Mussolini

Internally, Mussolini wanted to transform Italy into a Fascist State. State would be all powerful, and Mussolini himself as the leader of the Fascist Party would control everything.

(1) Immediately after establishing himself as the Fascist dictator of Italy, Mussolini in 1926 passed a law organizing unions and employers into corporations. The greater part of the population was grouped according to occupation into corporations.

(2) The corporations were authorized to settle wages and working conditions. In case of any dispute, the same was to be referred to tribunals.

(3) Strikes, lockouts, etc. were strictly forbidden.

(4) Mussolini abolishe the parliament which was replaced by a body representing the Fascist Party. With the help of these measures Mussolini made himself the Fascist dictator of Italy. In 1926 Mussolini assumed the title II Duce.

(5) By the Lateran Treaty (1929) signed between the Church and the Fascist Government the breach between the two was finally resolved. The Vatican City was recognized as an independent state, and in return the Church recognized the Kingdom of Italy.

(6) Mussolini projected the public works like construction of roads, bridges, canals, railways and similar other things as the chief solution to unemployment. It must, however, be remembered that despite all this the standard of living hardly increased.

(7) Mussolini established total governmental control over the press.

(8) It must, however, be pointed out that despite all these efforts the Fascist rule could hardly improve the economic condition of the general people. The unemployment problem also could not be resolved. When the popular discontent reached such a pitch by 1935, Mussolini sought to divert the attention of people away from it by pursuing a vigorous foreign policy.

45. Write about the foreign policy of Mussolini.
Answer:

Foreign policy of Mussolini

(1) Motives:Mussolini pursued a strong foreign policy in which the general objects were as follows:

(1) To raise Italy’s prestige in Europe so that Italy is respected and feared. Mussolini knew that he had to improve Italy’s international status, for this was the criterion by which his regime would stand or fall.

(2) Formation of a vast Italian colonial empire so that the growing Italian population may be accommodated.

(3) Expansion of Italy’s colonial empire in Africa.

(4) To expand Italian influence in the Mediterranean region. With these ends in view, Mussolini followed a strong and active foreign policy. ;

(2) Implementation of the Foreign Policy: With the above objectives in view Mussolini followed a strong and aggressive foreign policy.

(1) In 1923, on the ground that four Italians were murdered in Greece, Mussolini placed a demand of 500 million Lira (Italian currency) as compensation, also he threatened to occupy Corfue. However, Mussolini had to rest his content by compensation only.

(2) In 1924 Mussolini occupied Fiume, an Italian speaking area of Yugoslavia. This occupation no doubt increased the prestige of Mussolini.

(3) Italian aggression of Ethiopia (Abyssinia) in 1935 was an example of Italian expansionism towards Africa. On the complaint of the Abyssinian Emperor, Haile Selassie the League of Nations declared Italy an ‘aggressor’. The League, however, was unable to take any effective step against Mussolini and as such Ethiopia could not be saved. The. result of the affair strained relations between Italy and Britain and France. But at the same time it led to closer relations between Italy and Germany.

(4) Again, in the Spanish Civil War in Spain (1936) the Spanish dictator General Franco was supported by Hitler and Mussolini. This helped closed ties between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. However, till 1940 Mussolini’s aggressive foreign policy may be said to be successful. But after 1940 Mussolini had been increasingly enslaved to the overlordship of Nazi Germany.

Question 46. Write about the internal policy of Hitler?
Answer:

Objectives and Implementation : Internally, Hitler’s objectives were :

(1) Totalitarianism That is to say, to bring everything under the control of the party. The totalitarianism differs from the democratic State because the former prohibits all political parties other than the party that supports the Government.

(2) Extreme nationalism or racial exclusiveness It exalted the purity of the race as the sole criterion of nationality. In this case it was stated that the Germans were the only. nation that came from the Aryan stock. It denied the rights of citizenship to those born and reared in the German soil, if the blood of ‘non-Aryans’ flowed in their veins With these objectives in view, Hitler’s measures of implementation were as follows:

(1) The national life of Germany was placed under the total control of the Nazi Party. The influence of the party was all-pervasive in every sphere of life whether Political,
economic or cultural.

(2) There was to be only one political party, the Nazi Party, in. Germany.

(3) All the trade unions were annulled. Instead workers were organized into the ‘German Labour Front’. German industries were all placed under the control of this German Labour Front.

(4) The Nazi Government abolished freedom of the press, of the radio, of the universities and schools. Strict censorship was imposed.

(5) It did not recognize the personal rights or safety of the individual, who could be arrested and imprisoned without ever being brought to trial.

(6) The Reichstag was restricted to the members of one party, that is, the Nazis, and met only at rare intervals.

(7) To intimidate people ‘concentration camps’ were instituted where prisoners were kept for unlimited period without any trial. Considering all aspects of the internal policy, it may be said that the Nazi regime was not a Government by consent, but Government by coercion.

(8) The Gestapo or Secret State Police was formed and run by Himmler who was the most powerful man after Hitler.

Question 47. What were the unjust features of the treaty of Versailles?
Answer:

Unjust features of the Treaty: The peace treaties belied the hopes of the European powers and the world had failed to lay the foundation of a just and stable peace.

Its main causes were :

(1) The treaties contained certain provisions which were the seeds of further conflicts.

(2) Some victorious countries also felt that they had been cheated because all their hopes had not been realised.

(3) The Allies had entered into many secret treaties for dividing the spoils of war. The Allies had claimed that the war was being fought for freedom and democracy, but inspite of this, the distribution of the colonies of defeated countries took place among the victors. The League of Nations also recognised the division of the spoils. The former German and Turkish possessions given to Britain, France and others as “mandates” in the interests of the people, were actually treated as their colonies.

(4) Imperialism was not destroyed. The victorious powers had enlarged their possessions and the factors which had caused rivalries and conflicts among imperialist countries remained as before.

(5) The emergence of the Soviet Union was thought to be a danger to the existing social and economic systems in many countries. So they wanted to destroy it

(6) The League of Nations that had been established for the preservation of peace and to guarantee the independence of all States was never an effective organisation. In 1930s, many countries resorted to aggression and defied the League. Besides these factors, certain other developments took place in the following two decades which made another world war inevitiable.

Question 48. What were the causes of rise of the Nazism in Germany ?
Answer:

After the World War I, Germany had to face an economical crisis. Due to unrest and lawlessness that ppeared at that time, there were revolts in many places which could not be controlled by the Government. So, Kaiser William Il resigned and a new republican government called ‘Weimar Republic’ was formed on 10th August, 1919. But this government also failed giving rise to dictorship or Nazism in Germany under the leadership of Adolf Hitler.

Causes of the rise :

1. Humiliating Treaty of Versailles: Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles by which she had to pay a huge war compensation. This created a feeling of dissatisfaction among the Germans. When Hitler assured the Germans about the establishment of the old prestige, they became his followers.

2. Economic Crisi : Germany had to face an economic depression after the World War I. Many soldiers died and many became unemployed. Trade and commerce was also ruined. The republic also failed to solve the economic crisis. Then the ‘people believed that a brilliant like Hitler could bring back the promised prestige of Germany.

3. Spread of Communism: Being inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917, the German communists also tried.to bring a revolution in Germany. But Hitler feared that Germany would become a slave of Russia as communism spread there, so he provoked the people against communism and masses joined the Nazi Party in large.

4. Germany had no faith in democracy: The Germans had no faith in the democracy. They prefered prestige and glory to liberty and freedom. So, they gave support to Hitler who could tranform their dreams into reality instead of the republican Government.

5. Personality of Hitler: Hitler possed a very influenting and charming personality. He was a very good orator. He was a resourceful person, a tireless worker and an able organiser. Naturally, the people began to havea blind faith in him and they started thinking of him as a great leader.

Question 49. Briefly describe the causes of failure of League of Nations?
Answer:

The causes of failure of League of Nations

During the World War I, people experienced untold sorrows and sufferings. So the need of establishment of an International Organisation was felt to maintain peace and security in the world. As a result the League of Nations was found in 1920.

But the League failed in its mission owing following reasons :

1. Aloofness of great powers: The League of Nations was actually an organisation of the victors. Germany, Italy, Japan,.USA were absent from.the League for a long time. The USA never joined the League of Nations. The absence of all these powers made the League weak.

2. Refusal of great powers to honour their pledges and obligations: Provisions of the Treaties were violated by the great powers. Neither the League nor its members were sincere enough to maintain peace and security. Whenever their national interest clashed with the principles of the League, they ignored the League.

3. Weakness of the organisation: The League of Nations showed weakness in front of aggressive policy of the great powers. Italy invaded Abyssinia and conquered it Japan occupied Manchuria, Germany occupied Austria and Czechoslovakia. The League was a silent spectator of all these cases.

4. Absence of Arm: The League have no army of its own. It had no power to compel any nation to abide by its decision.

5. Failure of Disarmament: Disarmament was one of the objectives of the League. But Geneva Disarmament conference could not succeed as the allied powers wanted to Disarm Germany.

6. Rise of Dictatorship and Socialism: After the First World War, Dictorship was. established in Germany, Italy and Spain. The Dictators adopted Millitant Nationalism. In Russia, Socialism was founded during the war. All these developments paralysed the League. It lost its significance and could do nothing when the Second World War broke out.

Question 50. “The Treaty of Versailles had in itself the germs of Second World War”. Explain?
Answer:

“The Treaty of Versailles had in itself the germs of Second World War”

After World War I, many conventions were held at Versailles in France to decide the peace treaties. The American President Woodrow Wilson, British Prime Minister Lloyd George and the French Prime Minister, Clemenceau also attended these conventions.

They prepared a document for world peace. As a result many peace treaties were concluded with the defeated countries – Germany, Austria, Hungary and Turkey. But they succeeded in bringing peace to the world for a temporary period only and the world saw another war after a period of 20 years only.

The following points can be stated to prove that the treaties were unjust and harsh :

(1) These treaties were forcibly imposed upon the defeated countries by the victors. Germany: and other defeated countries were not called to decide their terms and conditions.

(2) Germany was solely held responsible for the war. It was wrong because other countries like Serbia, France and Russia were also equally responsible for it.

(3) German territories and colonies were taken away from her. She was also forced to reduce her army. It was unjust because such conditions were not binding on the allies, i.e., England, France and Russia, etc.

(4) Germany was also forced to pay a huge war indemnity of 600 crores. It was a very heavy punishment.

(5) Like Germany, her allies (Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria, etc.) were also treated harshly. Many of their territories were taken away from them. Their military power was reduced and they were forced to pay heavy war indemnities. Thus, Treaty was absolutely one sided. According to E. W. Caar, “There was no justice behind versailles treaty”. Historians think that defects in treaty of Versailles prepared ‘road to the World War II.

Question 51. Write a note on the League of Nations?
Answer:

League of Nations

The scheme for a League of Nations, sponsored with special enthusiasm and fervour by President Woodrow Wilson but eventually modified in accordance with British and French proposals, could be viewed in two different lights.

In one aspect it was the revival and elaboration of the idea of the Concert of Europe into a Concert of most of the world, that is, it provided regular occasions when the representatives of all member States could meet and discuss not only common problems but any matter that seemed liable to endanger world peace.

In proving standing machinery for such gatherings and permanent means of joint discussion, the League was an improved and wider version of the series of Congresses which the great powers of Europe had held from time to time throughout the century before 1914.

In another light it was something new and very different, it was a multilateral agreement by which each participant bound itself not only to seek peaceful means of settling any dispute in which it became involved, but also to shoulder some share of responsibility for defending every other signatory against aggression.

This notion known loosely as a ‘system of collective security’, was the teeth within the Concert-the supposed sanction which by deffering an aggressor would keep the peace. In this second aspect only was it based on a new concept, and in this aspect it failed.

The composition and function of the principal organs of the League of Nations are described in the Convenant. The principal organs were the Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat, and the Permanant Court of International Justice.

 

Question 52. Write a note on the causes of the rise of Hilter?
Answer:

Causes of the rise of Hitler :

Causes of Hitler’s rise to power are to be found in two factors :

(1) the German view of the Treaty of Versailles; and

(2) the failure of the Weimer Republic to solve the political and economic problems of the post-war years. The war and the peace settlement left Germany crushed spiritually and materially. The Germans could not forge the humiliation of defeat and of the ictate of Versailles which injured their national self-respect and caused grave material injury. The suffering caused by the inflationary crisis and even by the world economic depression of the thirties was attributed to reparations and the loss of Danzig, the Rhineland, the Saar, etc. which were integral parts of the peace settlement.

The Weimer Republic, it was generally felt, had failed to deal boldly with the legacies of war and defeat. It had adopted a policy of conciliation and proved its incapacity to assert itself strongly in international affairs. The complacent republican politicians were depriving Germany of a glamorous and secure future by their ‘treachery’ and ‘cowardice’.

Apart from specific complaints, there was a general weariness about the manner in which the democratic parliamentary system was functioning. Many people were impatient with the bickering and quarrelling that marked the proceeding of the Reichstag. Empty promises took the place of effective system; there was a clear contrast with the old days of order and discipline. German prestige and prosperity could be restored.

Psychologically, also the Weimar Republic failed to respond to some deep seated popular sentiments. It tolerated attempts to drag down the ideals and heroes of imperial Germany. The abandonment of the old flag and military uniforms implied a break with the past which was not popular. Believers in German culture and Germany’s historic mission felt uneasy about the Rapallo system of friendship with the Bolsheviks.

Question 53. What was the relation between the Bolshevik Revolution and the First World War?
Answer:

The relation between the Bolshevik Revolution and the First World War

One of the first acts of the new Government was to conclude peace with Germany. The Russian army had broken down completely. The few units that retained some resemblance of discipline were gererally anti-bolshevik. The Commander in Chief, Dukhonin, was asked to treate for an armistice. When he refused to do this, he was dismissed once. When his successor, Krylenko, arrived at the front, Dukhonin was lynched by the infuriated soldiers.

An armistice was concluded in December 1917. In February 1918 peace negotiations opened at Brest-Litovsk. Trotsky, who led the Soviet delegation, embarrassed the German delegation by pressing the demand for ‘peace without annexations or indemnities’. He could not reconcile. with his revolutionary principles to sign a humiliating treaty with an imperialist power—a course which Lenin came to regard as inevitable.

Trotsky demanded self-determination for the conquered Russian territory in vain. In the end, he broke off the discussions with a vague formula ‘no war and no peace’. When Germany renewed the offensive in February 1918, Lenin used the argument that to renew resistance would militate against the revolutionary war. By a narrow margin Lenin had his way and the treaty was signed on March 3, 1918.”

The terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk were severe. Russia was forced to accept the loss of Poland, the Baltic States, Finland, large parts of Byelo russia, Ukraine and part of Transcaucasia. Lenin found it hard to accept the humiliating conditions. But he was thinking not of Russian territory but of world revolution. He found a breathing space indispensable. According to Lenin, the reason for accepting the disgraceful peace was that Russia needed ’a delay in order to put social reforms into effect; we need to consolidate, and for that we need time’.

Question 54. What was the war-guilt clause of the Treaty of Versailles? What was the reaction of the Germans to it ? What was the reaction of the imposition of the Treaty of Versailles upon Germany?
Answer:

War-guilt Clause: War-guilt clause that was imposed upon Germany stated hat Germany accepts the responsibility for causing all the loss and damage due to the War.

Reaction of Germany: The reaction of the Germans was immediate. They cried that they had been “stabbed in the back”. The Germans considered that they had been cheated by the Allies who had ignored the ideals of Wilson’s Fourteen Prin- ciples.

Reaction of the Germans to the Versailles Treaty The Treaty of Versailles was signed between the defeated Germany and the victorious Allied Powers. It is better to say that the provisions of the treaty were imposed upon. Germany. That is why the Treaty of Versailles was called a ‘dictated peace’. Naturally, the reaction of such an imposed treaty was bound to be adverse. Hitler took full advantage of the German people’s discontent and grabbed the state-power.

Hitler’s primary objective now was to repudiate the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France, realising the wrongs one to Germany by the Treaty of Versailles, tried to appease Hitler. This had a disastrous effect as Germany started annexing countries one after another. This eventually led to the World War II.

Question 55. When was the Munich Pact signed and by whom? Why was it generally condemned as an act of betrayal?
Answer:

The Munich Pact 1938 AD Germany was making a plan to attack Czecho- slovakia. Adolf -Hitler claimed a part of Czechoslovakia, called Sudetenland because it has substantial German population. At this juncture the Prime Minister of Britain and France met Adolf Hitler and Mussolini in September, 1935 AD. and agreed to Hitler’s terms without consulting Czechoslovakia.

Soon Sudetenland was occupied by Germany. Within a few months, Germany occupied the whole of Czechoslovakia. On ist September, 1939 AD. the German forces attacked Poland. It was the last straw to break the camel’s back. On 3rd September, England and France declared war against Germany.

But the German forces conquered the whole of Poland withinthree weeks But by then the Second World War had already started. Munich Pact was signed between Hitler and the Heads of the States of England and France on 29 and 30 September, 1938 in generally condemned as on act of betrayal because western countries were having democratic set up like Czechoslovakia and that country was having friendly relations with them.

Moreover, it led Germany to make more demands. The only way the Fascist aggression could have been checked and another world war prevented was an alliance’ of the western powers with the Soviet Union.

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Give an account of the events of World War I?
Answer:

The events of World War I

Introduction The First World War was precipitated by the assassination of the  Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, with his wife, by a young Bosnian fanatic in the streets of Sarajevo, the capital of Bosina. A storm of indignation swept throught Austria- Hungary. Austria believed that the crime was inspired by the Serbran Armaments. Europe became an armed camp with each nation possessing a military machine ready for use.

Naval rivalry strained the relations between England and Germany while the competition of land armies and armanents increased fear and hostility among all countries of Europe. It is rightly observed that the national industry of Prussia was war.

Social: The evil secial effects that provoked further cause for war, resulted from the application of ‘Darwinism’ in a military sense. War was looked upon as a healthy pail of the struggle for existence as it would lead to the survival of the fittest and the superior. The Germans believed in the superiority of their ‘Kultur’ (culture). Alongside with this, the decline in Christian faith helped to create a mood in which war was less shocking. Materialisrn justified the use of material force to gain masterful ends.

Imperialistic: The imperialism of the 19th century was a product of the Industrial Revolution. Increased production created the need for raw materials and increased markets, which led to the ‘Scramble for Africa’ and colonial rivalries in Asia. These, in turn, gave rise to a series of international crises.

France and Germany clashed in Morocco, and the British into vention on behalf of France brought about a breach between England and Germany. Kaiser William II raised imperial slogans like ‘Berlin to Bagdad’ and the Germans claimed a “place in the sun”. The Kaiser’s project of the Berlin Bagdad Railway threatened Russian interests in the East. The Central Powers were thus surrounded on land by a ring of enemies  Belgium, France, Italy and Russia.

Naval warfare: The encircle of the Central Powers was completed by the British navy which was mainly concentrated in the North Sea. The French and Italian navies with some British support dominated the Mediterranean. A blockade of the German coast was maintained from the beginning to the end of the war.

The German cruiser, the Emden inflicted heavy losses on the British mercantile marine. But the German menace grew less after the Daggar Bank in which the German battle cruiser, the Beucher was destroyed by a British squadron.

The Germans desperately tried to end the blockade in the battle of Jutland in 1916, where the British was destroyed. Both sides sustained severe losses. The Battle of Jutland was a British victory as the German fleet returned to a port at Kiel and emerged only to surrender at the end of the war.

Collapse of Russia: The first signs of exhaustation and collapse came from Russia. The enormous losses sustained by Russia discredited the ancient regime in Russia. Revolution broke out in-1917 and made the peace of Brest- Litovsk with the Central Powers. The withdrawal of Russia enabled the Central Powers to transfer their troops from the East and to press the West.

Entry of the United states The German Government organised a counter-blockade to England by means of submarines. The United States which was neutral and favourable to Germany was irritated by the activity of the German submarines. In 1915, a British passenger vessel, the Lousitania, on board of which were American passengers, was sunk by the Germans.

Further, the German Government sanctioned ‘Unrestricted’ submarine warfare. This led the United States to enter the War in 1917 on the side of the Allies. America entered late and afresh and its entry decided the war against the Central Powers.

Collapse of the Central Powers or Axis : In the spring of 1918, Germany and Austria made the last desperate efforts to secure victory. All Allied armies were placed under the command of Marshal Foch and the trench warfare was given up and the line began to advance.

The Germans were strained to the breaking point. The economic blockade had resulted in a shortage in central Europe, of all necessaries of life and sapped the morale of the people. Turkey and Bulgaria collapsed and Austria followed them sueing for peace. In November 1918, the German Emperor Kaiser William II fled to Holland. The German Empire was overthrown and was replaced by the Republic which concluded an armistice. The First World War was over.

Question 2. What were the causes for the success of the Allies in World War I?
Answer:

The causes for the success of the Allies in World War I

In the early stages of the war, Central Powers overwhelmed the Allies inflicting enormous losses in men and material. The tactics and strategies of the German commanders, added to the German soldiers, rendered the military mest formidable.

German U-boats and submarines compensated for the superiority of the British navy. But the tide of fortune turned in 1917 when German offensive began to collapse. The Allies gradually gained the upper hand till they were able to force Germany to surrender in 1918. The following factors contributed to the

Ultimate victory of the Allies and the defeat of the Central Powers :

British supremacy on the seas: The British navy with the co-operation of the navies of France and Italy imposed an economic blockade on the Central Powers. They were starved and it weakened the morale of their people.

Shifting of Alliances: Italy and Romania, who originally belonged to the group of the Central Powers, deserted them and went over to the side of the Allies. All though Italy was of little help as she suffered severe defeats against Austria, yet she rendered a signal service to the Allies in diverting the Austrian armies and by keeping a large pail of it engaged.

Internal weakness of the Central Powers: The fact that the Central Powers like Turkey consisted of heterogeneous elements contributed to the weakness of the Central Powers. The subject nationalities of these states sympathised with the Allies against their Imperial overlords. The Bosnians supported the Serbs against Austria and the Arabs threw in their lot with the British against Turkey.

Communist Revolution of Russia: Although the collapse of Russia and its withdrawal from the war was a great shock, in a way it also added to the strength of the Allies and undermined the strength of the Central powers. The Russian prisoners of war, being released, returned to the countries in Central Europe, infused with the revolutionay dogma of socialism. They spread revolutionary ideas in the ranks of the armies of the Central Powers, which impaired their discipline and destroyed their morals.

Entry of the U.S.A.: The United States entered the war on the side of the Allies. She entered late when the European Powers were exhausted and brought with them fresh energy, thus tilting the balance in favour of the Allies. American men and money poured into Europe which pulled up the morale of the Allies, as it made a psychological depression in the Central Powers and destroyed their morals.

Freedom Struggle: Above all, the war was a great conflict between freedom-loving democracies on the one hand and the enslaving imperial powers on the other. As it was meant to be, the forces of freedom proved stronger.

Question 3. How far was Germany responsible for the beginning of the  World War?
Answer:

Introduction: Otto Von Bismark, shortly before his death, predicated that the Great war would come from the Near East. He was right, but the Balkans were not only the storm centre. Among the immediate antecedents of the war, Morocco was hardly less important.

The incident of Morocco: After the death of Muley Hassan, the Sultan of Morocco, the country rapidly lapsed into a condition of anarchy. Anarchy in Morocco alarmed France. The condition of Morocco furthered the subject of serious controversies between England and German diplomatists from 1899-1901, and from 1901 onwards it became plain that France had serious designs on it.

In 1902, France proposed to Spain a scheme for the partition of Morocco and in 1903 France informed the British Government that she could not be indifferent to the prevalence of anarchy in Morocco. That claim was frankly admitted in the Anglo-French agreement of 1904. But in March 1905, Kaiser visited Tangier and announced that his visit was paid to an “independent sovereign”. It was followed by a demand for the summoning or a conference and for the repudiation by France of the minister “who had made the trouble”.

France Conscious of her unpreparedness for war yielded for the moment to this arrogant demand and on June 12, 1905, Declasse resigned. The French-German Agreement was vague and the French were compelled to land troops in Fez, the Moroccan capital. But the French retired from Fez in June and July, 1, Germany informed France that a German gunboat, the Panther had been sent to Agadir, to protect German interest in Morocco.

The Agadir incident is still wrapped in some mystery, but Germany’s action was evidently intended to inflict humiliation upon France and demand for the partition of Morocco. Great Britain supported France and war seemed imminent.

But at the eleventh hour Germany gave way and in November Germany concluded a treaty with France by which Germany virtually acknowledged a French protectorate over Morocco and France to Germany half of the French Congo. The wrath of Germany, diverted from France, was now turned full upon England. A conflict with her was now declared by Germany to be “more than ever inevitable”. But it was postponed by events in the Near East.

Near Eastern problem: Nevertheless from 1911 to 1918 wars were almost continuous in Europe. Italy set the ball rolling. The advance of France in North Africa alarmed her though her rights on Tripoli were recognised in the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 and again in Algeciars.

But after the young Turk revolution, 908, her rights were threatened from another quarter. Strengthened by the diplomatic consents of Russia, France and Great Britain, Italians occupied the coast towns of Tripoli. The Turks were in great difficulties and concluded peace with Italy at Lausane on October 8, 1912.

The great significance of the war lay in the fact that it began again the process of the violent dismemberment of the Turkish Empire and what is most important, that it contributed directly to a far more serious attack upon Turkey by the Balkan states, which led to the European war.

The tinder box was lighted and in general European conflagration resulted ‘In 1914 events moved more rapidly; on June 28, Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Hapsburg Empire paid a visit with his consort to’Serajavo, the Bosnian capital ‘and the husband and wife were there assassinated. The murderers, though Bosnian subjects, were by birth serbs. Austria naturally held Serbia responsible for a crime committed by serbs and planned at Belgrade.

On July 23, 1914, she addressed an ultimatum to Serbia and gave her only 48 hours for a reply. Serbia accepted promptly 8 out of 10 demands. But Austria was not satisfied and on July 28, declared war on Serbia. Serbia applied to Russia for help.

England had made earnest endeavours to avert a war, but it proved fruitless. Russia meanwhile had began to mobilize. Germany declared war upon her on August 1, on France on 3, and on August 4 sent an army in Belgium. At midnight of that day Great Britain and Germany were at war.

Responsibility of Germany: In the hour of victory, the Allied held Germany solely responsible for the outbreak of the World War I, and the consequent losses in men and money, by the ‘war-guilt’ clause. It is true that German diplomacy by isolating France drove her in desperation to build up a counter-alliance in self-defence. But the immadiate criminal was Austria.

The uncompromising attitude of Austria and Russia dragged Germany into the war. Germany was as much committed to support Austria as was Russia to support Serbia. If France had persuaded Russia as much as Germany had tried to check Austria, war would have been postponed, if not avoided. Thus it is wrong to blame Germany entirely. Reputed scholars now universally hold the opinion that all the five powers imrnediately involved—Aus.ria, Russia, Germany, France and Great Britain assume some measure of responsibility.

The background of the Peace treaties: Much was expected of the Peace Conference but no equitable peace could be achieved due to certain facts which could not be ignored and due to the differences in the temper and purposes of the “deciding personages.

Moreover, the diplomats assembled in Versailles could not ignore the secret treaties concluded among different powers during the war-period. Or lando had a legal mind but lacked force, Lloyd George was an opportunist prepared for compromise, Wilson was a visionary and was blind to facts.

Besides, he was almost ignorant. of the complicated politics of the Europe’on continent. Of the four, Clemenceau was the most skilful in maneouvres and best informed on European questions.

England wanted the destruction of the German navy. America wanted the League of Nations. France wanted the Rhine Buffer State. Italy wanted Mountain barriers. The Poles, the Czechs and the Serbs aspired for national independence.

The Allied powers were in angry mood and strongly held Germany responsible for the destruction and suffering caused by the war. All wanted peace, but a peace that suited each. In such an atmosphere of diversities equitable peace became impossible.

The settlement :

The Covenant of the Leagure of Nations: The first aspect of settlement was the Covenant of the League of Nations. Every treaty was prefaced with it and every nation which signed the treaties bound itself to observe the Covenant. Thus, the League of Nations was established. At first the defeated nations not given membership.

Question 4. Discuss briefly the background ofthe Bolshevik Revolution, 1917.
Answer:

The background ofthe Bolshevik Revolution, 1917

(1) Introduction: The Great War (1914- 1918) had been the faithful mother of revolutions. The Russian Revolution was the direct consequence of the war of 1914-1918. It is the most important of all the many important results of the war. The Bolshevik Revolution shook Russian society to its very foundations. It caused not only the structure of the state but the social order itself to collapse in ruins. There were two revolutions – the political and the social. The March Revolution put an end to the autocracy of the Czars by setting aside the last of the Romanoffs. The Revolution in November gave the land to the peasants.

(2) Cause: The Czar’s Government in Russia was at last shaken to its foundations by disaster abroad and universal hatred at home.

(1) Western influence: Since the time of Peter the Great western ideas profoundly influenced the Russians. The watchwords of the French Revolution inspired the
intelligentsia of Russia. After the Great War the Be a impulses of a few became a mass MEVSTGAC

(2) Political causes:

Autocracy : The Russian government was sharoushiy autocratic and tyrannical. The political structure was highly centralised. The church and the army were subservient to the Czar. Political and civil liberties had no place in Russia The Czar was the sole law-giver and the sole judge. He could arrest imprison and put to death any of his subjects. The tyranny became tragic during-the reign of Nicholas I.

(3) Social conditions Russia like France of old Regime had’a privileged nobility. The vast majority of the population were seffs who lived on the verge of starvation. They were in bondage to the landed nobility. They could not marry, without leave and they were subject to floggings.

(4) Emancipation of serfs No Emancipation : Czar Alexander II liberated all serfs throughout Russia compelling the nobles to surrender land to the serfs in return for money payments. The nobles demanded sums far in excess of the value of the land to be given up. The liberated serfs could only pay by running into heavy debts.

(5) The Terrorists The other schemes of reform of Alexander II were dashed to the ground by his assassination at the hands of the ‘Terrorists’. They were a group of Russians, known as the Nihilists, who vowed to fight the Government by terror. For a time, Russian history was filled with assassinations of the most hated officials and agents of the Government. Alexander III, who succeeded Alexander II, fell back on the old methods of repression and so darkness closed down on Russia once more.

(6) Economic causes The Industrial Revolution Russia had been an agrarian country and the peasants were subjected to all sorts of hardships by the ‘Kulaks’ or peasant capitalists in the villages. Agriculture was primitive and famine was a permanent feature of Russian life. In the reign of Nicholas II Russia suddenly changed under the spreading influence of the Industrial Revolution. Railways, machines and factories were introduced and with them rose a class of industrial wage-earners or the proletariat. The grand was ready for the advent of socialism. At the same time, a new class of rich manufacturers and employers of labour was created. They were shut out from any share in the Government equally with the working class. They were deprived like everyone in Russia of the most elementary rights and liberties.

(7) Intellectual causes From this new middle class, came the leaders of Russian Liberal Movement, they were influenced by the ‘Interligentsia’ or a group of writers like Tolstoy, Gorki, Turgenov, Chekov and others. Their writings encouraged anarchism and Nihilism which undermined the old order.

(8) Foreign Policy of the Czars The Czars followed on aggressive foreign policy.in the Balkans and in Siberia which added to the misery of the people. Russian defeats in the Crimean War and more in particular in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 exposed the incompetence and inefficiency of the Russian Government

(9) The Political Parties In the years following the Russo-Japanese War, the Czarist Regime became a veritable Reign of Terror. The workers organised strikes and processions and they were shot down by the Cossacks. But strikes increased rather than by the Cossacks. But strikes increased rather than diminished, for they were inspired by a new party, the Social Democratic Party that was formed at Minsk in 1898 by Lenin.

It was influenced by the teachings of Karl Marx. A Marxist paper ‘Iskra’ (Spark) was struggled into Russia from a broad. The Social Democratic Party split into two groups the Mensheviks, who wanted to bring about changes by gradual peaceful means, and the Bolsheviks who advocated a violent revolution of the working class.

(10) The immediate cause The people demanded that ‘Dumma’ or Parliament should be given civil and political rights. The Government turned a deaf ear to these demands. In 1905, a procession of workers to the Imperial palace at St. Petersburg was shot down.

This is the fearful tragedy of ‘Bloody Sunday’. The same year Lenin organised the biggest strike the ‘General Rehearsal’. The Czar yielded and called for a Duma. But under the evil influence of Rasputin, a monk, the Czar acted much in the same way as did Louis XVI of France or Charles I of England. He began to dismiss one Duma after another.

Question 5. Form an estimate of the achievements of Lenin.
Answer:

The achievements of Lenin

(1) Introduction In November 1917 the Bolsheviks had seized power in Russia, not from the Czardom, but from the Provisional Liberal Government of Kerensky, which six months earlier had overthrown the Czardom.

Lenin who had created the Bolshevik Party as the agency of revolution, was the architect of the new state. In the pamphlet ‘State and Revolution’ which Lenin wrote during the late summer of 1917, he defined his purpose to set up forthwith the dictatorship of Proletariat. Lenin was the prophet and the Communist Party the chuch of Russian Communism.

The Bolshevik Revolutions of 1917 is greater than any movement of its kind which Europe had experienced. It shook Russian society to its very foundations and caused not only the structure of the state but also the social order itself to collapse in ruins.

Out of this chaos, it built up a new social and political order based on the teachings of Karl Marx. In the face of innumerable handicaps, the Soviet Government had continuously pursued the gigantic task of socialisation and industrialisation. The Revolution brought a new force into political and international politics – ‘Socialism’, and opened up a new chapter in the history of the world.

(2) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918 The first act of the new Bolshevik Government established under the leadership of Lenin, was to wipe out the traces of war. For this purpose, peace was necessary and it was concluded with Germany in 1918, at Brest-Litovsk. Lenin did not mind giving up Poland, the Baltic Regions, Kars, Batourn and other places, for he wanted peace at any cost for the economic construction of Russia.

(3) Civil War and Foreign Intervention The newly-born Soviet Republic was threatened for first three years by Civil War and foreign intervention. The dispossessed classes the capitalists, the nobility and the clergy with the support of the Allied Powers organised armed resistance Russia became a prey to the ‘Red Terror’ of the Revolution and the ‘white Terror of the counter Revolutions’.

(4) Cheka and the Red Army Under the leadership of Trotsky the formidable Red Army was organised. Lenin also organised a secret police called the Cheka. These were the two instruments with which the Bosheviks routed out internal as well as external dager.

(5) The Agrarian Revolution The most momentous changed produced by the Bolsheviks was in the sphere of agriculture. Land was confiscated from the landlords without compensation and was nationalised.

(6) The New Economic Policy (NEP) At first the state took over all industries and private capital was abolished. Industries were nationalised and private retail trade was prohibited. Money wages were replaced by commodity cards for necessities. This resulted in an alarming decline in production and peasant outbreaks.

Hence in 1927, Lenin adopted a New Economic Policy which was a return to capitalism in some measure. Peasants were allowed to sell their produce in the open market and retail trade

was permitted. Banking and credit system was restored and the use of money was revived. State industries were given a large measure of autonomy.

In April 1921 a newly created State General Planning Commission (Gosplan) began its work, which was to bear fruit later in the great Five Year Plans; when Lenin died in 1924 the new regime had survived. It had weathered famine as well as civil and foreign war, and had tightened its control over the whole country. Even in international politics Soviet Russia has been able to acquire an honourable position.

Question 6. Critically discuss the political and other settlements effected by the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer:

(1) Introduction The victorious allies held their chief Peace Conference in Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. The terms of peace were embodied in five main Treaties of Versailles with Germany, of St. Germain with Austria, of the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary and of Sevres with Turkey.

Of these the first and the most important was the peace treaty with Germany signed at Versailles in 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors, where Bismarck had crowned the German Emperor. The proceedings of the peace conference were dominated by President Wilson of the U. S. A., Lloyd George, Prime Minister of France and Orlando, Prime Minister of Italy.

(2) The settlement :

(1) The Covenant of the League of Nations :

The first aspect of settlement was the Covenant of the League of:
Nations. Every treaty was prefaced with it and every nation which signed the treaties bound itself to observe the Covenant. Thus the League of Nations was established. At first the defeated nations were not given rnembership.

(2) Reparation :

The treaty of Versailles showed heavy reparations on Germany. She was held completely responsible for the great losses of the war by the ‘war guilt’ clause. Germany had to pay the cost of restoring the devasted areas and the cost of the damage done to the civilian property. In addition, she had to pay war pensions to Allied countries and take over the Belgian debt. She had to surrender her merchant marine and pay an annual tribute of coal to Belgium, France and Italy. The Saar coal fields were to be occupied by France for 15 years. Indemnity schemes were also imposed on Austria and Bulgaria. A reparation commission was to be appointed by the Allies to determine the total amount of reparation and to draw up a schedule of payments.

(3) Disarmament :

Germany was to be disarmed as a guarantee against the outbreak of war in future. Her fleet was to be handed over to Britain and her army was reduced to an insignificant number. She was forbidden to maintain tanks, big guns, submarines and military aeroplanes. The army was limited to 100,000 men, including a maximum of 4000 officers. The German general staff was abolished. Conscription was prohibited, only voluntary enlistments for limited periods were allowed. The manufacture of armaments, munitions and war materials was limited. No war materials were to be imported or exported. Poison gases, armoured cars and tanks were neither to be manufactured nor to be purchased.

The naval provisions permitted Germany to’ retain only 6 battleships without submarines. The naval personnel was limited to 15000 men jncluding a maximum of 1500 officers. Germany was forbidden to have any military or naval air forces. The disarmament was to be supervised by inter-allied commissions of control. The net result was that the German army remained not much larger than Belgium’s and her navy formerly second only to Britain’s.was virtually wiped out

(4) Territorial Cessions :

By the treaty of Versailles Germany in the west ceded to Belgium the small districts of Eupen and Malmedy subject to conditions concerning popular consultation and returned to France Alsace and Lorraine which had been taken away in 1870. The old frontier with the Austro-Hungarian Empire was retained with the men or exception of a wedge in upper Silesia ceded to the new Czechoslovakia. In the east Germany concided to the new Poland a roughly ethnic frontier giving her Posen and west Prussia with a corridor to the Baltic.

The German Port of Danzig was constituted on outline for Poland as a free city under the auspices of the League of Nations. Thus was fulfilled the 13th item in Wilson’s Fourteen points, viz. Poland “should be assured a free and secure access to the sea”. Moreover, Germany lost Memal which eventually passed to Lithuania.

After a plebiscite, Denmark received the northern part of Schleswig which had been taken from her, Prussia and Austria in 1864. In the plebiscite in Upper Silesia, held in 1921, Germans secured 60% of the votes against 40% for Poland. The League of Nations partitioned the province having Germany more than half of the people and land area, but giving Poland more of the economic resources. The award satisfied neither party, there was especial resentment in Germany against a frontier which afforded so much to the Pole.

Germany was forbidden to maintain. or construct any fortifications either on the left bank of the Rhine or on the east of the Rhine in a specified zone. Armed forces could not be assembled nor manoeuvres, held in this area. All existing fortifications were to be dismantled. Apart from the provisions in regard to the Saar and the Rhineland, Germany lost131/2% her territory, a roughly similar proportion of her economic productivity, and much of her population.

She also lost all her colonies, these being later apportioned among the victorious Allies and mandates of the League. All her special rights and privileges in China, Siam, Liberia, Morocco and Egrpt had to be given up. All her property and concessions in the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, were forfeited. She had to recognise the severence of Luxemburg from the German Customs Union.

(5) War crimes and war guilt :

The former German Emperor, William II was assigned for a supreme offence against international morality and the sanctity of treaties. A special Allied Tribunal was to be appointed to try him, but the Government of the Netherlands-where he had taken asylum refused to surrender him. The treaty also bound the German Government to hand over for trial before Allied Military Tribunals all persons accused of complicity in atrocities during the war. Eventually only 2 were accused and were tried by the German Supreme Court at Leipzig, where they were either acquited or given inadequate sentences.

(6)The article in the treaty:

which aroused the fiercest German rescruitment was the so called “war-guilt clause” through which Germany was compelled to accept responsibility for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies. Above all, the war-guilt clause and the treatment accorded to Germany were such that the Germans entertained ideas of revenge. Germany was deprived of her colonies, coal field and industrial resources and saddled with indemnities. She was deprived of her means to pay and fined heavily.

Question 7. Write a note on the Assembly and the Council of the League of Nations.
Answer:

The Assembly :

The Headquarters of League of Nations were in Geneva, Switzerland. The Assembly was a deliberative body consisting of representatives of all member States. Every member State could send not more than three representatives, but no member State had more than one vote. The Assembly met at least once a year or as after as it might require. The representatives did not vote according to their own judgement, they carried out instruction of their respective Governments.

The Assembly elected its own President and framed its own rule of business. Business was conducted through several committees. All decisions except those on procedural matters the required a unanimous vote, but in some cases, e.g. admission of new members, a two-third vote was required Article 3 of the Covenant conferred upon the Assembly very wide jurisdiction. It could deal with any matter within the sphere of the League of affecting the peace of the world. It could consider political, economic and technical questions of international importance, including scrutiny of treaties.

It prepared the annual budget of the League. It elected new members of the League. By a majority of votes it elected annually three of the nine non-permanent members of the Council. It approved the nomination of the Secretary-General by the Council. Along with the council it elected every nine years fifteen judges of the Permanent Court of International Justice.

Despite this imposing list of powers and functions, the Assembly was a deliberative and recommendatory body, not a decision-making body so far as international problems were concerned. It had no binding authority on the Member States. It influenced the formation of the basic policies of the League. Its voice representated that of ‘World Conscience’ even though some Big Powers did not join the League.

(2) Council :

The Council was originally composed of the representatives of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers—the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan and of four smaller powers. As the United States did not join the League, the Council had eight members at the initial stage. Gradually its membership rose to fifteen. Germany and the Soviet Union joined the League as permanent members of the Council in 1926 and 1934 respectively.

But Japan, Germany and Italy left the League in 1934, 1935 and 1937 respectively. By 1938 only Great Britain, France and Soviet Union were left as permanent members of the Council and there were eleven non-permanent members. The expulsion of the Soviet Union in 1939 reduced the total membership of the Council to 13 but by that time the

League was virtually dead. By granting permanent seats to some of the Big Powers the Covenant violated the principle of equality of States. The Chairmanship of the Council rotated among its members in the alphabetical order of their names.

As it was a small body it did not work like the Assembly through committees. All discusions except those of procedural matters—required a unanimous vote; but in certain cases, e.g. election of judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice, decisions could be taken by a majority vote, for no one can be a judge in his own case.

The Council was the dominant organ of the League. It had executive, deliberative and supervisory powers. It could deal with any matter within the sphere of the League. The peaceful settlement of international disputes was its special concern.

It could make enquiry, offer advice and decide upon application of sanctions. It directed and supervised the work of the Secretariat. It supervised the administration of the Mandates, the working of the Minorities Treaties and the implementation of the League provisions relating to the Saar and Danzig. It carried out the recommendations of the Assembly. It nominated the Secretary-General and elected along with the.

Assembly Judges of the Permanent Court of International Justice. It could expel anymember of the League for the violation of the ovenant. As in the Assembly, so in the Council, the representatives of the member States did not vote according to their own judgement, they carried out the instructions of their respective governments. If the League failed to solve the international problems of peace and war the responsibility fell largely on the Council.

Question 8. Write a note on the League Secretariat, Court of International Justice and International Labour Organisation.
Answer:
Secretariat :

League Secretariat

The League Secretariat was a permanent international civil service establishment with its office at Geneva. Its head was the League Council with the approval of the Assembly. It was composed of about 750 persons representing different nationalities.

It was international in composition as also in outlook. Its members were in no way subject to the control or influence of their own national Governments; they were only subordinate to the Secreatary-General who performed the duties under the direction and control of the League Council. They were paid from the League fund in terms of the budget passed by the Assembly. The first Secretary General, Sir Eric Drummond was a very competent administrator with wide and liberal views.

The League Secretariat performed functions similar to those usually performed by national civil services, although its work related to international issues. It collected and analysed information on matters to be dealt with by the Assembly, the Council and various committees. It arranged publicity for the activities of the League. In emergencies it had to assume responsibility for important decisions because it was the only organ of the League always at work. It maintained offices at the capitals of the Big Powers and a Bureau of Liaison in South America.

Permanent Court of International Justice :

The Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice was adopted by the League Assembly in 1920 under the provisions of the Covenant. The Court began to function in 1922. Originally there were eleven Judges and four Deputy Judges. Later on the number of Judges was raised to fifteen but the posts of Deputy Judges were abolished. They were elected by the Assembly and the Council.

Their terms were nine years but they were eligible for re-election. They elected their own President for three years and laid down their own rules of procedure. Their office was whole time and carried a high salary and allowances. There were international functionaries and not the representative of their Governments. The court sat at the Hague, Netherland.

The Permanent Court was judicial tribunal and not an agency for conciliation. It gave decision based on law and was not guided by political considerations. Its judgements, orders and opinions were given in open. In 17 years (1922-1939) it dealt with 65 cases and delivered 32 judgements, in addition to issuing 200 orders and 27 advisory opinions. In doing so it built up a valuable body of precedents covering many aspects of international law. It built up a reputation for impartiality by placing law and logic alone without national interest and prejudices.

United Nations accepted with practically no change the Statute of the International Court of Justice.In respect of cases submitted to it by parties the court issued judgements and orders. When a dispute or question was referred to it by the Assembly or the Council, it could give an advisory opinion. Although the advisory opinion had technically speaking, no binding force, they carried weight in view of the prestige of the Court

International Labour Organisation Technically the International Labour Organisation (ILO) was not an organ of the League, it was an autonomous body associated with the League, it was created by the Treaty of Versailles. It reflected the idea that world peace was based on social justice which required satisfactory solution of the labour problem. It was an advisory body and its duty was to recommend conventions on labour legislation for adoption by the member States.

Question 9. Write a critical note on the Peace Settlement of 1919. Was it a dictated peace ?
Answer:

Peace Settlement of 1919

(1) Introduction :

At the Peace Conference of Paris two ideas were struggling for mastery. On the one side were the idealistic principles of reconstruction sponsored by President Wilson of America, on the other hand were the selfish motives that the Allies sought for territorial and economic profit as well as security against recurrence of danger from the defeated enemy. President Wilson drew up 14 proposals, known as the 14 points, which in his opinion, would make a just and lasting peace founded upon an impartial respect for the wishes of the people and a universal dominion of right.

So long as Germany remained undefeated, these noble principles were echoed by the statesmen of Allied countries. But with the collapse of Germany the undercurrent of selfish ambition which ran in the minds of the Allied powers, became a mighty torrent and swept aside all considerations of impartial distribution of justice.

(2) Terms of the treaty The drastic and the severe terms imposed by the Peace treaties upon the defeated parties clearly show what was uppermost in the minds of the victors. Those were the horrors of the recent past, fear of the near future and vindictiveness.

The empire of Germany in Europe was shrunken, her colonies were all taken away and she was impoverished and disarmed. Austria was reduced to a size smaller than that of Portugal. Turkey was brought to the point of extinction.

The peace treaties which emanated from Paris have their defenders and their apologists as well as their critics. But it must be admitted that peace was concluded in an atmosphere in which passions were high and the feeling against Germany was very bitter.

The conflicting difficulties and numberless complicated problems of the peace makers must not be forgotten, nor their anxiety to preserve at least an outward appearance. of harmony among themselves, nor the bitterness of spirit in those lands occupied by Germany. Hence, it was natural for them to be harsh and vindictive.

Oreover, Europe had also seen in the treaties of Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest something of the lines on which Germany herself would have made peace if had she been victorious. Lastly, the Allies were handicapped by previous secret treaties by which they had sought to strengthen and enlarge their coalition against the enemy. By these treaties many States were brought irito the war by liberal promises of territorial gains and so these could not entirely be ignored.

A careful consideration of the details of the Treaty of Versailles will make it ‘clear that the statesmen who framed it failed to rise to the height of the occasion. They made a peace which was no peace. Events subsequently proved that the treaty held the germs of another great war.

She was stripped of her armaments and left naked before her enemy. She was deprived of her enemies as well as all interests of trading privileges outside her boundary. Add to these a crushing war indemnity and loss of territory which deprived her of about six million of her people and some of her richest mineral districts, and the picture of her humiliation will be complete.

The whole scheme seemed designed to keep her in perpetual subjugation. The terms of the treaty were not only harsh and inequitable but betrayed a lack of sincerity and good faith on the part of the Allies. The basis of the territorial rearrangements as made by the treaty was. the principle of self-determination. But in Austria and Germany this principle was ignored.

(3) Defects of the treaty But the moral defects of treaty are no more glaring than the practical. It is idle to expect that a great nation like Germany would submit for an indefinite period to discrimination in the matter of armaments.

That a small State like Belgium should be superior to Germany in armaments and soldiers seemed absurd. Lastly, while a huge indemnity was imposed on Germany, her natural resources were materially reduced. Thus the treaty left many sore places. Europe had not been made safe for democracy.

Question 10. “The years 1924-1930 were the period of the League’s greatest prestige and authority” – Do you agree? 
Answer:

“The years 1924-1930 were the period of the League’s greatest prestige and authority”

(1) Introduction According to E.H. Carr, the years 1924 to 1930 were the period of the League’s greatest prestige and authority. Prior to 1924, members of the League had been normally representated at Geneva by delegates who, however distinguished, had not been the ministers responsible for the foreign policy of their countries.

When Mac Donald and Herriot came in person to Geneva for Assembly of 1924, they set a precedent of far-reaching importance thereafter, and nearly every session of the Council. This example was soon followed by the foreign ministers of most other European powers so that Geneva in September came to be recognised meeting place for the statesmen of Europe.

In one year (1929) the Assembly was attended by every European foreign minister. The non-European countries were by force represented on most occasions by their diplomats resident in European capitals or by professional delegates stationed at Geneva.

(2) Success of the League The admission of Germany in 1926 brought the League up to its maximum strength. In North and South America, the largest countries, the U.S.A, Argentina and Brazil were all absent, and the bevy of smaller Central and South American States contributed little materially and nothing morally, to its support. In the Far East Japan, China and Siam as well as India were members, and in the Middle East Persia, but Turkey held aloof.

In Africa, the union of South Africa usually sent delegates to the Assembly, but Liberia and Abyssinia were members with some what dubions qualifications. Australia and New Zealand represented the fifth continent. But Europe was the Kernel of the League and when Spain returned to the fold in 1928, its membership was complete except for the Soviet Union the only great power which was still outside. Yet from 1927, the Soviet Government began to

Follow the example of the U.S.A. by regularly co-operating in the economic, humanitarian and disarmament activities of the League. The principal business of the League was, and was bound to remain, the prevention of war by the peaceful settlement of disputes. The dispute over the boundary between Turkey and Iraq was peacefully settled by the Council of the League. The report of the International Boundary Commission was at last accepted by U.K.,

Turkey and Iraq in June 1926. The next dispute came from the Balkans. The frontier between Greece and Bulgaria had been the scene of minor raids and disturbances for sometime. Bulgaria appealed to the League. According to the verdict of the League, the Greek forces retired frorn Buigarian soil, and Greece was compelled to pay compensation to Bulgaria for the violation of her territory.

By which Poland had been left in possession of Vilna. Lithuania’s severed relation with Poland and declared a State of war between the two countries. In this dispute, the League was also successful to reconcile both the party. The most noteworthy fact about all these successes of the League was that during the period of its greatest power and prestige the League relied solely on its moral authority, for Article 11 of the Covenant conferred on it the method of conciliation.

Before 1932 no attempt was ever made to resort to the procedure of judgement and penalty provided in Articles 15 and 16. The League also solved a number of minor disputes, of which the sovereignty of Memel and Sardish-Finnish quarrel over the Aaland Islands may be mentioned as examples.

But though the preservation of peace was the League’s most important and conspicuous function, the League also provided new and elaborate machinery for international co-operation in the economic and political sphere. A general financial onference was held at Brussels in 1920 and an economic conference at Geneva in 1927 which were mainly concerned with the financial reconstruction of the post war era.

The social and humanitarian works of the League were also satisfactory. A slavery convention was concluded at Geneva in 1925 and in 1932 the League decided to set up a permanent slavery in dangerous drugs, the traffic in women, the protection of children, the relief and settlement of refugees and health and disease in their international disputes.

Finally, there were two international organisations which, though borne on the League’s budget, were administratively independent of the League, the International Labour Organisation and the International Court of Justice.

The International Labour Organisation was created by the Peace Treaties to provide for the improvement of labour conditions by international agreement. The Permanent Court of International Justice was established by the League under Article 14 of the Covenant for the purpose of deciding any dispute of an international character which the parties thereto submit to it, and of giving advisory opinions on questions referred to it by the Council of Assembly. By 1927 the International Court of Justice had handled 26 cases, delivered 11 judgements and recorded 13 advisory opinions.

Question 11. Account for the failure of the Weimer Republic.
Answer:
(1) Weimer Rupublic :

After the cessation of hostilities elections for the National Assembly took place in January 1919. The Social Democrats capturing 163 out of the available 421 seats, became the largest single group in the Assembly. The Centrists received 88 seats, the Democrats 75, Nationalists 42, the Independent Socialist 22 and the Peoples Party 71. In order to protect itself against violence the Assembly met on February 1919 in the peaceful city of Weimer.

A provisional government was formed a coalition of Social Democrats, Centrists and Democrats with Friedrich Elbert as President of the Republic. A Constitution was adopted in July 1919, it defined the Reich as a Federation of Republican States, its President to be elected by a popular vote for seven years.

The suffrage was given to all men and women over twenty years on a basis of proportional representation. There was a bill of rights. The National Government was given the usual powers of a central authority as well as the paramount right to legislate upon railways.

There was to be a Chancellor who would select the Cabinet and formulate policy, The ministers were made responsible to the Reichstag. No action of the President would be valid unless countersigned by the Chancellor or appropriate minister. THe Reichstag was the chief legislative body, with members elected for four years. The upper house, representing the States, was called Reichstag.

(2) Working of the Weimer Constitution The National Assembly prolonged its existence even after the making of the Constitution and continued to function till 1927. Elbert continued to function till 1925. He was succeeded by Hindenburg.

His election was widely regarded as a blow at the Republic, but he took the oath to support the Republican Constitution. without reservation, and his moderation soon won confidence at home and abroad. By adapting a German rather than a partisan policy, he was able to reconcile many factions in Germany and bring together a host of former opponents.

Between 1920 and 1924 four Chancellors tried to give stablity to the Republic. The Luther Ministry, which came into office in 1924, survived till 1926, after a crisis in 1925 during which there was a threat of Presidential Dictatorship. The succeeding Mark Ministry remained in office till 1928 when Hermann Muller became the first Socialist Chancellor since 1920. The latter resigned in 1930, and Heinrich Bruning became Chancellor.

In 1932 Hindenburg was re-elected President defeating Hitler and Bruning resigned. Papen was selected as Chancellor by the President, but he had to resign a few months later. After a brief term for Schleicher in 1932, Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933.

This brief summary of political development of the country shows that in course of 13 years (1920-33) as many as 11 persons held the office of the Chancellor. This is a clear indication of the political instability of the Weimar regime.

The cabinets were usually coalitions of different parties shifting alliances rather than consolidated political machineries for the pursuit of consistent policies. On several occassions inter-party tension became very serious. For instance, Hindenburg dissolved the Reichstag in 1930 because party bickering did not cease. Again, in the election of 1932, no party or group or group of parties gained control of the Reichstag; obviously, the parliamentary system devised Weimar did not take root in Germany.

(3) Economic Crisis The early years of Weimer Republic saw an unprecedented inflationary crisis. Towards the end of 1922 a dollar normally worth 4.2 marks, would purchase 7000 marks. The crisis was heightened during the foreign occupation of the Ruhr. In 1923 milk sold for 250 billion marks a quart and was scarce at that price.

The whole middle class of rentier and pensioner, small businessmen and minor officials, was ruined. The incalculable result of the suffering was the mood of black fear and hysteria fostered among the dispossessed middle classes, who alone might have given the new regime stability and permanence. Hitler’s failure in 1923 would turn into success ten years later.

(4) Treaty of Versailles Reparations played a decisive role in the psychological crisis which accompanied the economic crisis. In the German mind reparations became the sole cause of German poverty. Links were established between reparations and the rest of the Treaty of Versailles.

(5) Rise of Hitler During the early stage of the Hitlerite movement one of its pillars was the white-collar section of the middle class. Among other groups of the Nazi enthuniasts were those who resented Jewish competition in professions and trade, the peasants of South Germany and university students.

In the fortnight preceding the election of 1930 the Nazis held more than 30,000 meetings, they reminded the people of Germany’s ‘enslavement’ and of the Government’s “subserviency” to the Allies. The ‘war-guilt clause’ was furiously attacked, and the reparations were denounced. Yet Chancellor Bruning was able to muster sufficient support to remain in office until 1932.

The elections of July, 1932, gave the Hitlerite 230 seats, an increase of 123 since 1930. In another election held in November 1932, the votes of the Nazis fell off, but they emerged as the largest party in the Reichstag holding 196 out of 584 seats.

Hindenburg, invited Hitler to form a Government, but when the Nazi leader demanded dictatorial powers, the President appointed Schleicher as Chancellor. Eight weeks later (January, 1933) Schleicher resigned and Hitler became Chancellor.

The Reichstag was dissolved, and in the election held in March 1933, the Nazis captured 288 out of 647 seats. After a few days of the voting the Reichstag building in Berlin was destroyed by fire, and the Nazis leld the Communists responsible. Restriction were put on the electionneering rights of the anti-government parties.

Immediately after the election the new Reichstag passed a law which in effect suspended the Weimar Constitution and endowed the Hitler Government with dictatorial power (March 1933). In 1934 the Reichstag abolished the “popular representation of the States” and authorised the Reich Government to “determine new Constitutional law”. The supreme and final authority in all matters lay in the hands of Hitler later to be known officially as De Fuhrer.

(6) Conclusion In the post-war years, the Germans could not forget the humiliation of defeat and the ‘dictate of Versailles’ which injured their national self-respect and caused grave material injury. They resented the Weimer regime’s acceptance of disabilities and its inability to assert itself strongly in international affairs.

Many especially the younger generation believed themselves deprived of a glamorous and secure future by the “cowardice” and “treachery” of the complacent Republican politician. Many Germans were weary of the manner in which the democratic parliamentary system was working. Instead of energetic action the republican legislature spent its time in bickering and quarrelling.

Moreover, the republic did not show much respect for Germany’s glorious past, it tolerated attempts to drag down the ideals and heroes of imperial Germany. The Nazi leaders understood these grievances, and with their remarkable propaganda methods capitalized them. Their oratory, theory of race superiority, the dynamic personality of Hitler, these things attracted millions of Germans at a time when democracy appeared to offer worse depression and continued foreign impasse.

Question 12. Explain the causes of the failure of the League of Nations.
Answer:

The causes of the failure of the League of Nations are as follows :

(1) Partial success It would be wrong to say that the League of Nations was an unqualified failure. In twenty years it was called upon to deal with about forty political disputes mostly connected with issues arising out of the First World War, and it was able to solve some of them.

Generally speaking, its authority was effective if small states were involved. But as it had little more than moral authority and practically no coercive power, it failed to restrain the Big Powers. The decline of the League began with its failure to check the Japanese aggréssion in Manchuria.

It was weakened by the withdrawal of Germany, Japan and Italy. It failure to deal effectively with the Italian aggression in Abyssinia with a death below. It existence was virtually ignored during the crisis in Austria and Czechoslovakia. In 1939 Russia was expelled from the League for her invasion of Poland. By 1940 Britain and France were the only Great Powers left in the League.

(2) Defects in the Coventant There were some defects in the Covenant which crippled the League as an instrument of peace from the beginning. War was not outlawed or absolutely forbidden, it was forbidden only in certain circumstances.

Under the Articles relating to the Pacific settlement of international disputes, war was lawful:

(1) if the League Council fail to submit a unanimous report on the dispute brought before it
(2) if the Council found that the dispute was covered by domestic jurisdiction, and
(3) after three months of arbitral award judicial decision or Council report.

Moreover, the Covenant did not cover forcible measures short of war. In the thirties Undeclared War’ came into prominence. Military operations which did not fall within the legal definition of war did not come within the League’s jurisdiction. For instance, the Japanese agression in Manchuria was not war in the technical sense and Japan was not named as an agressor by the League. Thirdly, the Covenant provided for a very weak system of sanctions.

The procedure of judgement and penalty under Articies 15 and 16 was applied only in the case of the Japanese aggression in Manchuria and Italian aggression in Abyssinia. In both cases the League failed to achieve its purpose, instead of being deterred or punished, the aggressor withdrew from the League and satisfied their territorial appetite.

The League never applied military sanctions, indeed it was virtually impossible to apply them in view of the League’s lack of military resources and the jealousies among the Big Powers. The League as a body had no military power of the member states.

(3) Absence of United States It was President Wilson of the United States who insisted upon the insertion of the Covenant in the treaty of Versailles. But the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the treaty as a result the United states did not join the League as a member, although the Covenant had given it a permanent seat in the Council.

It has ceased to be the centre of the world. It was necessary to establish a new balance of power on a worldwide scale. This could not be done by Europe without American co-operation. Thus, in organising a new world based on the ideal of peace, the League was handicapped from the start.

(4) Role of Britain and France When the League started functioning the United States kept aloof. Russia was engulfed in Revolution and Italy was in disorder. Naturally the task of defending the Versailles system and upholding the authority of the League fell upon Britain and France. They became the guarantors of the stability and equilibrium of the new order, the agents of the League and the keepers of the peace. They had the responsiblity and hegemony of Europe thrust upon them. The arrangement led to two difficulties.

First, Britain and France did not see eye to eye on many issues, including those relating to Germany. Thus the League could not get united leadership. Secondly, there was resentment against Anglo-French leadership and the League controlled by these two powers was regarded as a partisan body. Thus the League’s moral authority was weakened.

(5) Covenant as a part of Versailles Treaty To include the Covenant in the treaty was a grave political mistake, it should have been kept separate like the U.N. Charter as an independent document. It seemed as if the various Powers wanted to build up a world organisation on the basis of the humiliation and the weakness of the defeated powers. The League appeared to be an instrument safe guarding a political system organised by the victors for their own advantage.

Naturally it could not command the confidence and respect of the defeated Powers. Germany under Hitler regarded the League as a drag on her recovery and progress. Even victorious powers like Japan and Italy could not tolerate the status quo protected by
the League.

(6) Democratic ideology Although the League was conceived as a world organisation, its working was based on democratic practices and Parliamentary traditions which were familiar to Britian and Frace and unfamiliar to the majority of its members. The latter found it difficult to adjust themselves to majority rule, compromise, etc. which were the main features of the Parliamentary system. The rise of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany underlined this difficulty. It is significant that the dictators of these two contries delivered mortal blows at the League.

(7) Conclusion The League died, “unwept, unhonoured and unsung” amidst the chaos the Second World War, but it had not completely failed as an experiment in international cooperation.

Question 13. What are the achievements of the Bolsheviks?
Answer:

The achievements of the Bolsheviks

(1) Introduction The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 is greater than any movement of its kind which Europe had experienced. It shook Russian society to its very foundations and caused not only the structure of society but also the social order itself to collapse in ruins. Out of this chaos, it built up a new social and political order based on the teaching of Karl Marx. In the face of imumerable handicaps the Soviet Government had continuously pursued the giagantic task of socialisation and industrialisation.

(2) Vladimir Lenin Vladimir Lenin was the prophet of the Communist Party, the church of Russian communism.

(3) The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk The first act of New Bolshevik Government established under the ledership of Lenin, was to wipe out the traces of war. For this purpose, peace was necessary and the treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded with Germany in 1918. Lenin did not mind giving up Poland, the Baltic Regions, Kars, Batoum and other places, for she wanted peace at any cost for the economic reconstruction of Russia.

(4) Civil war and Foreign intervention The newly born Soviet Republic was threatened for the first three years by civil war and foreign intervention. The dispossessed classes the nobility, the capitalists and the clergy with the support of the Allied Powers organised armed resistance. Russia became a prey to the ‘Red Terror’ of the Revolution and the ‘White Terror’ of the Counter-Revolution.

(5) Cheka and the Red Army :

Under the leadership of Trotsky, the Russian Carnot, the formidable Red Army was created. Lenin also organised a secret police called the Cheka. These were the two instruments with which the Bolsheviks routed out internal and external danger.

(6) The Agrarian Policy :

The most momentous change produced by the Bolsheviks was in the sphere of agriculture. Land was consfiscated from the landlords without
compensation and nationalised.

(7) The New Economic Policy (NEP) :

At first the State took over all industries and private capital was abolished. Industries were nationalised and private retail trade was prohibited. Money wages were replaced by commodity cards for necessities. This resulted in an alarming decline in production and peaseant out breaks. Hence in 1921, Lenin adopted a ‘New Economic Policy’ which was a return to capitalism in some measures. Peasants were allowed to sell their produce in open market and retail trade was permitted. Banking and credit system were restored and the use of money was revived. State industries were given a large measure of autonomy.

(8) The Soviet Constitution :

The new Constitution adopted in 1936, defined the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (U.S.S.R.), as a Socialist State of workers and peasants. Its political foundation is the ‘Soviets of Toilers’ and its economic foundation is the ‘Socialist System of Economy’. The U.S.S.R. is a federal State. The highest organ and the exclusive legislature is the Supreme Soviet. When it is not in session, the controlling organ is the Presidium. The highest executive is the Council of People’s Commissionars. The basic freedoms are granted by the Constitution and elections are based on universal, equal and direct suffrage.

Western critics point out that on paper the New Soviet Constitution is democratic but in reality it is controlled by the Communist Party. According to them, the Soviet Union is a totalitarian State which tolerates only one political party. Thus the Communist Party controls the machinery of Government, the economic system and the apparatus of culture.

(9) Joseph Stalin :

The death of Lenin in 1924 was followed by a keen contest between two of his disciples—Joseph Stalin, ‘man of steel’ and Leo Trotsky, chief of the Red Army. It ended in the victory of Stalin. Trotsky fled and was ultimately murdered in Mexico in 1940. Stalin, according to Gunther, was a man who looked ahead. He subordinated the slogan of world revolution to intense nationalism.

(10) The Five Year Plan :

Stalin was a staunch believer in the Marxian System and he gave up the New Economic Policy of Lenin. Instead he sponsored the First Five Year Plan by which socialisation of industry and agriculture were achieved alongside with the introduction of modern machinery and model methods. The Second Five Year Plan doubled the output of coal, iron and oil. Engineers were coaxed to turn out quick results. The vocabulary of war was frequently employed in this great offensive against poverty. All Russians had to live like Spartans until the Five Year Plans were completed. Giant enterprises such as Magnitogorsk, Steel Works and Dniperostory Power Plant rank among the world’s greatest industrial achievements.

Question 14. What do you know of the economic depression in the United States of America?
Answer:
(1) The economic crash in 1929 :

The first sector of the world’s economy to feel the effects of the coming blizzard was, significantly, American and Canadian agricuiture. Throughout the North American continent. agricultural prices began to fall sharply after 1926. The recovery of agriculture in Europe, and in places with a positive increase in agricultural production, made the vast output of North America largely superfluous to Europe’s needs. Grain was a commodity in which Europe as a continent could almost been self-sufficing, and for which its demand was idealistic.

The American farmer, faring badly, cut down his own expenditures, and American industry also began to feel the pinch. But it was the bubble of speculation which brought the real crash, and it burst on Wall Street in October 1929. Later on 23 and 24 October Black Thursday there was a panic rush of stockholders to unload. On the twenty-fourth alone nearly thirteen million shares were sold and on Tuesday the twenty-ninth and sixteen and a half million changed hands. By the end of the month American investors had lost 40,000 million dollars. This collapse of the New York market brought with it the final collapse of agricultural prices in America and sent a shudder of apprehension round the world.

After a temporary rise in early November prices began to fall again, and continued to fall thereafter, undettered’ by the belated efforts of bankers and the Government to check them. The repercussions of the collapse on Governmental finances and on industry ran parallel to the devastating given to producers of food and raw materials. The previous decade had been a time of chronic depression in agriculture all over the world, but especially in those large areas of the world which specialized in primary products for export. North American farmers, Australian fruit and meat growers, Brazilian coffee growers, sugar planters in Java, found world prices for their produce depressingly low.

Scientific methods enabled them to grow an abundance of goods which the consumers of the world could not at that time afford to buy. The demand for their products in the more industrialised countries was inelastic, and the underfed masses of Asia and Africa who needed them most could not afford to pay even very low prices. Any further contraction of trade had, therefore, disastrous effects.

After the crash of 1929 failing prices spelled ruin of so large a part of so many communities meant a drop in the demand for all the goods which these people could now no longer afford to buy. So general prices dropped further, and the crises spread from one sector of the world’s economy to another. Trade between nations shrank rapidly and steadily from the end of 1929 until 1934, in an ever contracting spiral. The efforts of most countries to shelter their farmers or manufacturers from this process by protective tarrifs on price fixing only tended to check still further the flow of international trade.

As bankruptices occurred, and factories slowed down production or went out of business, millions of workers thrown out of work. The decline in their purchasing power lowered still more the eflective demand for goods. Thus arose throughout the world, the hunting paradox of ‘poverty amidst plenty’ the strange grievance of ‘over production’ when million went on hungry and homeless the destruction of stocks of food because too many were too poor to eat it.

(2) The remedical steps :

In the United States of Arnerica the situation was transformed by the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt as President in the autumn of 1932 and by even America’s abandonment of the gold standard in March 1933. The new President brought to American politics a new spirit of courage, vigour and determination. Not for nothing had he discovered, a cripple thrown on his back for eight years by paralysis, how to overcome the cruellest physical disabilities by force of will and spirit. Believing that American and even world paralysis, too, might be defeated if men were resolved to beat it, he inspired the nation with fresh heart and hope just as the collapse had begun in the United States, so to recovery began there.

Question 15. Write a note on the “New Deal”.
Answer:

New Deal :

The Great economic depression of 1929 :

Almost all the countries of the world and the Government of the different countries reacted to the new world economic situation in three different ways. Firstly, they tended to assume more drastic powers to control currency and exchange rates they raised tarrifs; they impored stiffer quotas on imports; they took, in short, sterner separate measures to shield their countries against the depression. Secondly, they sought regional or sectional arrangements as did the scandinavian countries of the ‘Oslo Group’, or the agricultural lands of Eastern Europe, or the British commonwealth in the Ottawa.

Agreements of 1932. Thirdly, they attempted more comprehensive collective action, as in the Lausanne Convention of July 1932 and as in the World Economic Conference, which representatives of sixty-six states attended in London in June 1933. In the United States the situation was transformed by the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt as President in the autumn of 1932. Once international efforts to arrest the crisis had failed, Governments reverted to separate internal national action. Each nation adopted ways most suited to it. Gradually by 1934, the conditions of crisis receded and the wheel began to turn again. In the United States, President.

Roosevelt launched his ‘New Deal’, based at first on stringent federal control of credit one of his earlier and less sensational measures was the Glass-Steagall Act.of June 1933, designed to restore confidence in American banking combined with the Presidential power to control the fortunes of the dollar, the Act began a great extension of the directing and regulating power of the Treasury Department. The rest of the New Deal involved extension of the federal authority and especially of the presidential power to counter the effects of the crisis on industry and mass unemployment.

Question 16. Describe the rise of Fascist Dictatorship in Italy.
Answer:

The rise of Fascist Dictatorship in Italy

(1) Introduction :

In the period following the close of the World War I, liberalism was in its death-bed. It witnessed the close of the 19th-century liberal democracy and the rise of dictatorships in almost all the countries of Europe, Italy, Germany, Poland, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria and Turkey. In Russia Czardom was replaced by the totalitarian States of the Communists. In the years after the war, the world was faced with the strange phenomenon of dire poverty existing in the midst of unexampled plenty. Laissez faire had to give place to planned economy.

(2) Favourable conditons in Italy for the rise of the Fascists :

Facists depict that in the years which immediately followed the war of 1914-1918, Italy was in the grip of the post-war slump. It was in the state of economic dislocation which the feeble Government under Nitti and Goiliti was unable to deal with. Distress and

Disorder was the order of the day. Agriculture was stagnant and hunger led to disturbances, strikes and riots. Italy was in the danger of turning communist. The real discontent in Italy as in Germany, was embitterment of the army politicians. They were disappointed with Italian gains in the war. The Fascist Party exploited their discontent and recruited supporters from the war veterans. AII this would have subsided, but for the emergence of dynamic personality in the person of Mussolini whose ambition was to become the dictator of Italy.

(3) Benito Mussolini :

Benito Mussolini was the son of a socialist blacksmith at Forli. In his early life, he was an elementary school teacher and before the war, a left-wing socialist. He served jail, lived in exile and at length, became the editor of the ‘Avanti’ or the official organ of the Italian socialists. During the war he became an ultra patriot and broke away with the socialist party on the issue of Italy’s attitude to the war. He gained the support of the restless demobilized soldiers, dissatisfied workers, youthful intellectuals and groups of frightened businessmen.

(4) Growth of Fascism :

The word Fascism was derived from ‘Fasco’ or club which Mussolini organised at Milan in 1919. In the next two years he gave time and energy to organise a network of similar clubs all over Italy. In 1921, they were consolidated into a political party with Mussolini at its head. Fascism adopted the symbolism and ceremonial of Rome in the days of Caesar. It promised to revive the glories of Imperial Rome. They expected to make the Mediterranean Sea an Italian lake. Fascists wore black shirts in immitation of Garibaldi’s red shirts.

The Black Shirts of Mussolini corresponded to Hitler’s ‘Storm Troopers’. With perfect organisation and violence Fascism gathered momentum during 1921-1922 while its opponents Liberals, Socialists and Catholics were divided and weak. In October 1922, Mussolini ordered mobilization of the Black Shirts and they marched on Rome. King Victor Emmanuel III, convinced of the Fascist strength, asked Mussolini to form a ministry.

(5) Mussolini becomes a Dictator :

Fascism is a totalitarian concept which glorifies the State and subordinates the individual to it. The Duce or the leader of the Fascist Party controls the politcal, military and economic institutions of the kingdom. He is the commander of the Fascist militia and presides over the Grand Council of Fascism. Mussolini emerged as a dominant figure in a totalitarian. regime. He forced the terrified Parliament to grant her dictatorial powers.

Fascists were speedily put into key positions throughout the country and were given a monopoly on propaganda. Socialists were suppressed and their strikes stopped. Strict censorship was forceful and police measures set up a veritable reign of terror. Opponents were imprisoned or exiled. Critics were silenced. Between the years 1925 and 1929, Mussolini consolidated his dictatorship. Political parties other than the Fascists were banned. Mussolini was authorised to initiate legislation and appoint local officials. The electoral law was changed to a mere ‘yes’ or ‘no’ vote on a list of Fascist candidates.

(6) Internal Policies of Mussolini :

(1) Mussolini and the Working class :

Fascism opposed the Marxian theory of class struggle. It believed in the harmony of capital and labour. To gain the support of workingmen, it undertook social changes and established a ‘corporate State’. In 1926, non-Fascist trade unions and all strikes were banned. ‘Syndicates’ were organised of thirteen members six of employers, six of employees and one of professional men. Under these were tribunals to settle labour disputes. The working hours in the day were fixed at eight. The employers were to contribute to the insurance of the workers against illness, accidents and old age.

(2) Mussolini and the Catholics :

Mussolini won the support of the Italian Catholics by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 with Pope Pius XI. It was like the Concordat of Napoleon. It recognised the independence of the Pope in the Papal States. However, soon difference arose on questions of schools and youth organisations.

(3) Education :

The system of education was based upon regimentation. The youths were indoctrinated with Fascist ideologies, nationalism and militarism. The army was increased by conscription and its equipment improved.

(4) Public Works :

For patriotic reasons as well as the solution of the unemployment problems, the Government fostered a great variety of public works. Mussolini aimed at economic self-sufficiency for Italy. Ancient monuments were repaired and modern improvements were made. Marshes were drained. Railways and huge steamships were built. Electric power plants were constructed.

(5) International Relations :

Fascism as a disruptive force in international relations, for it glorified war. In ranting speeches, Mussolini praised war and the war like virtues of the Italians. He followed a policy of agressive imperialism. In 1935 Mussolini defied the League and occupied Abyssinia. In 1936, the ‘Berlin- Rome Axis’ came into being directed against Russia. In the same year Japan, Germany and Italy together made the Anti-Commintern Pact to fight communism.. In 1939 when the Second World War began Mussolini joined the Axis and uiennesSNy brough disaster to Italy and to himself.

Question 17. What are the achievements of Mussolini ?
Answer:

(1)Mussolini’s achievements :

Fascism as organised by Mussolini set before itself three definite aims :

Exaltation of the state, protection of private property, and a strong foreign policy which would rehabilitate Italy’s position as a great power. The movement began as an impulse towards law and order and sought to safeguard existing institutions against the destructive influences of Bolshevism. But as it progressed, it developed a philosophy. It claimed to be a spiritual movement aiming at revivifying Italian soul in terms of duty to the Italian state. It thus became the essence of nationalism and stood for the grandeur that was ancient Rome.

Fascism achieved much for Italy. It restored the nation’s confidence in itself and made the administration of Government efficient in every respect. Mussolini balanced the budget, stabilised: the currency, and adjusted the difference between labour and capital so that the two should act as partners under the supervision of the state. Fascism encouraged economic self-sufficiency and efforts were made to reduce the country’s dependence upon foreign imports of wheat, cotton and tobacco.

Energetic measures were taken to develop Italy’s share of grid shipping and the tourist traffic. Education was encouraged by increasing the number of schools and by enforcing laws for compulsory school attendance. One of Mussolini’s outstanding achievements was the settlement of the long-standing dispute with the Papacy. By the Lateran Treaty of 1929, the Pope recognised the Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy, with Rome as its capital. The Italian state, on the other hand, recognised the Pope as a sovereign power in the Vatican and indemnified him for the loss of his temporal possessions. Along with this treaty a Concordat was concluded by which the future relations between the State and the Papacy were defined.

The Pope was to appoint all bishops in Italy but was to communicate the name of each candidate to the Italian Government “in order to be sure that the latter has objection from a political standpoint against the nomination.” The state also agreed to pay the salaries of bishops and priests. The result of this pact was to secure for the State the unstinted support of the Church and thereby to remove one of the causes which had largely contributed to the weakness of the Italian Government.

The Italians would no longer have to choose between their loyalty to the State and obedience to their religious head. They could be good citizens as well as good Catholics. Liké Bonapartism, Fascism made a political use of religion and saw in it a valuable aid to authority and a stabilising force against social upheaval. Thus, under the Fascist regime Italy was saved from disorder and anarchy and she came to occupy a commanding position in Europe. But these advantages were secured at a price, namely, political liberty. Fascist rule is frankly, autocratic, in which there is no room for popular sovereignty.

Parliament was not abolished, but the electoral system was so altered as to ensure Fascist predominance with the result that Parliament was reduced to the humble position of an advisory council. The press was rigidly censored and freedom of meeting and speech was severely restricted. Opposition to Fascism was severely punished and anybody not believing in its creed was open to suspicion and subject to surveillance. The murder of a socialist member of Parliament in 1924 showed the new regime at its worst. Fascism tolerates no difference of opinion. Mussolini was, in theory, premier of a constitutional sovereign, but in fact he was a dictator.

(2) Fascist Foreign Policy :

Foreign Policy :

One of the fundamental articles of the Fascist faith was the raising of Italian prestige in the eyes of foreign nations. The Fascists glorified war as a symbol of national virility. Hence Mussolini aimed at reviving the prestige of ancient Rome and securing for Italy the position of a world power. At the peace conference the Allies had neglected Italy in the distribution of mandates and so Mussolini sought to rectify this wrong by adopting a vigorous policy of colonial expansion. He turned his eyes to Tunisia and Corsica which were French possessions, and maintained that Italy had a better right to them. Besides, the two countries were competing for the control of the Western Mediterranean and for superiority in naval armaments.

Mussolini’s bellicose utterances put a severe strain on Franco-lItalian relations for a time and portended a crisis. This was, however, averted and Mussolini turned to Eastern Europe for expansion. He secured for Italy the Dodecanese islands and definitely acquired Fiume in 1924. Italy’s relations with Yugoslavia also became more and more strained as the latter prompted by irrendist movements, wanted to acquire a large portion of Dalmatia from Italy. The Italo- Yugoslav quarrel was in essence a struggle for the control of the Adriatic. This struggle was further intensified when Mussolini conquered Albania from King Zogin in 1939.

But the most spectacular of Mussolini’s achievements was the conquest of Ethiopia. He wanted to wipe off the humiliation of Italian defeat at Adgwa at the hands of the Abyssinians in 1896. But the real cause was that Italy needed colonies to enhance her prestige and to find more room and more food for her growing population. Hence, Mussolini. took advantage of some border “incidents” at Walwal to attack Abyssinia in 1935. Its king Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations for

arbitration, which promptly declared Italy to be the aggressor. Mussolini, however, defied the League, conquered Abyssinia and proclaimed King Victor Emmanuel as the Emperor of Ethiopia (1936). After this war Italy drew closer to Germany and became estranged from France and Britain. Mussolini came to an understanding with Hitler and thus arose what was called the Rome-Berlin Axis. When the Second World War broke out and the power of France collapsed, Mussolini joined Germany and declared war on Britain and France (1940).

Question 18. Describe the causes of the rise of Nazi Dictatorship in Germany.
Answer:

The causes of the rise of Nazi Dictatorship in Germany.

(1) Introduction :

In the period following the close of World War I liberalism was on its death-bed. It witnessed the total collapse of the 19th century liberal democracy and the rise of dictatorships in almost all the countries of Europe—titaly, Germany, Poland, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria and Turkey. In Russia Czardom was replaced by the totalatarian State of the communists. In the years after the war, the world was faced with strange phenomenon of dire poverty existing in the midst of unexampled plenty. Laissez-faire had to give place to planned economy.

(2) Circumstances leading to the risé of the Nazis :

The Great War overthrew the Hohenzollern Empire in Germany which Bismarck had created in 1871. The Weimer Republic was established in 1919. It is the failure of the Republic that gave rise to the Nazis. The Weimer Republic was thoroughly democratic, but democracy never took deep roots in Germany. Moreover, the success of democracy in Germany largely depended on the peace terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Unfortunately, the Allies greatly paralysed Germany. Yet the Republic could restore the currency, liberate the Fatherland from the foreign troops imposed by the League and obtain a reduction in reparation debt to a nominal figure. But certain factors discredited the Republic and prepared the situation which Hitler was to turn to his ends.

In the Rhine Valley which was under the occupation of the French or attempted to foster movement to break up the Germans. Further German pride was insulted by their being asked to work along with Negroes in the coal mines. The German Government by its financial policy increased inflation and created feelings of insecurity among the middle class. They began to denounce capitalism. The economic depression of 1929, resulting from the stopping of American loans, gave the opportunity to the Nazis. Distress, unemployment, and heavy taxation made the Germans to the National Socialist Party (Nazis) under Hitler as a remedy for all these grievances.

(3) Disillusionment and Pessimism :

In the years immediately following the war a wave of pessimism swept over the German people Oswald Spengler’s ‘Decline of the West’ was widely regarded as a well-founded prophecy of the downfall of the Western Supremacy.

(4) Rise of Hitler :

Adolf Hitler was born in a middleclass German family in Austria in 1889. He passed his early days as a house painter. He was a careful reader of literature on racial, moral, social, economic and political problems confronting the German-speaking people in Austria and Germany. Gradually the spirit of German nationality grew stronger in him and his hatred of international socialism increased. He associated immorality and radicalism with Judaism and regarded socialism as a ruse of international Jewry to control the workers. Thus he became a fanatic and anti-semitic.

In the First World War he fought in the Bavarian army. The events of 1918 filled him with bitterness. In 1923 he joined Ludendorft in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the republican Government of Germany. Sentenced to five years imprisonment, he was released after having served a few months. For technical reasons he was not a citizen, of Austria or Germany till 1932. It thus happened that the leader of one of the most nationalistic groups in the world was for few years a man without a country.

(5) Nazi Movement :

In 1919 Hitler had joined a political organisation called the National Socialists German Workers Party. Upon his release from prison he put new life into it There was a party programme of “Twenty-five Points” which was later expanded by Hitler in his memoir Mein Kampf Among the pillars of the Nazi movement was the white collar section of the middle class. This class did not look to the Socialists for economic relief; it was ready to try Nazi remedies. Similar in political approach were thousands of former army officers, soldiers, widows and retired tradesmen.

The Anti-Semitism of the appealed to the professionals who resented Jewish competition in law, medicine, banking and trade. Support came from retail shopkeepers and from the peasantry. University students and graduates also contributed to Nazi strength. To the unemployed any programme of political overturn seemed promising. There were industrialists whose fear of communism led them to support Hitlerism. Stout support also came from labour.

(6) Seizure of Power: Of the election of 1930 in which as many as 27 parties took part, the outstanding feature was the gain made by the Communist Party and the Nazis. The former increased the membership in the Reichstag from 54 to 77 while the latter raised it from 12 to 107.

Hitler’s followers now formed the second largest group in the Reichstag. In 1932 Hitler contested the Presidency against the sitting President, Hindenburg and other candidates. Hindenburg was elected. Hitler defeated his other two rivals. In the general election held September, 1932, the Nazis secured 230 seats, an increase of 123 since 1930.

But the Reichstag was dissolved and another general election was held in November 1932. On this occasion the voters of the Nazis fell off but they emerged as the largest party, not, however, enjoying a majority in Reichstag. Hindenburg invited Hitler to form a Government, but when the Nazi leader demanded dictatorial powers, the President selected Schleicher. In January 1933. Schleicher resigned and Hitler became Chancellor.

Hitler arranged new elections in March 1933 with a view to gaining control of Reichstag in which he then held only 190 out of 584 seats. A few days before the voting the Reichstag building in Berlin was nearly destroyed by fire and the Nazis threw the blame on the Communisists. In the election, Nazis captured 288 out 647 seats. The new Reichstag passed a law which suspended the Weimer Constitution and invested Hitler Government with dictatorial powers. Henceforth, the Hitler’s Cabinet alone was to have the right to enact laws for the Reich.

In the following months Hitler ‘co-ordinated’ under the Nazi aegis the political, economic and cultural life of the people. The supreme and final authority in all matters was Hitler himself, and later became to be known officially as Der Fuhrer. On the death of President Hindenburg in August 1934, the office of the President and Chancellor were united, both being vested in Hitler. Now he began to rule alone.

Question 19. Give an account of Hitler’s foreign policy during the period 1933 and 1939. Or, Analyse the foreign policy of the Nazi Germany.
Answer:

(1) Hitler’s programme: There was bitter resentment in the German minds against the Treaty of Versailles which had crippled Germany politically, militarily and economically and humiliated her by the forced confession of war guilt and the obligation of surrendering her nationals accused of war crimes. It was by exploiting this resentment that the Nazi Party under Hitler rose to power. As early as 1920 the official programme of the.

Nazi Party laid down three objectives of German foreign policy :

(1) All people of German race should be united in a single State-one Great Germany.

(2) The restriction imposed on Germany and Austria by the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain should be removed.

(3) Germany should be allowed to acquire new territories for the support of her people and the settlement of her population. Such territorial expansion was to be sought in Hitler’s view in the east at the cost of the Soviet Union and the border States dependent upon it.

These specific points were given very wide. background in Hitler’s autobiography Mein Kampf in which he defined his final political objective to be “world power or nothing”. He was not prepared to tolerate the existence of “two Continental Powers in Europe”. His programme was “directly opposed, not only to the post-war system of the League of Nations, but to the pre-war system of multiple balance of powers.”

(2) End of Versailles and Locarno: In 1933 Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany. The Disarmament Conference sponsored by the League of Nations had already reached a deadlock primarily because the French demand for security and the German demand for disarmament could not be reconciled. Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament Conference and then from the League as well (1933). The Disarmament Conference ceased to meet, the League became weaker as a result of Germany’s withdrawal. The Versailles system received a rude shock.

Immediately afterwards Hitler began his search for allies. Ip. 1934 Germany and Poland concluded a pact by which the parties gave up for a period of ten years the use of force for the settlement of their disputes. Poland came out of the French sphere of influence and sought security aganist Russian aggression in the new understanding with Germany.

In the Balkans Hitler supported the revisionist claims of Hungary and Yugoslavia and tried to weaken to ‘Little Entente’ States (Czechoslovakia and Rumania) which were allies of France. Enormous economic and military resources were acquired by Germany through her contact with Hungary and Yugoslavia.

A German-ltalian entente developed stage by stage. Hitler adopted a policy of neutrality towards Mussolini’s Abyssinian adventure. The two dictators pursued a common policy in the time of the Spanish Civil War (1936), both of them gave military aid to Spain.

A German-Italian Condominium was established over Austria in 1936. Two years later Hitler occupied Austria through direct military action and Italy did not oppose. In 1937 Mussolini joined the German-Japanese pact against communism (Anti-Comintern Pact). In 1939 he concluded formal military alliance with Hitler. In 1940 he joined Hitler in the Second World War.

In 1935 the fate of Saar was determined by a plebiscite held under the supervision of an international force. About 90% voters were cast in favour of merger with Germany. Thus Hitler got the Saar in a peacful manner. Immediately afterwards he repudiated the treaty of Versailles on the ground that it was a ‘dictated peace’. In 1938, he occupied Austria through direct military action in violation of the revisionist claims of Rumania and Yogaslavia was a protest against the post-war settlements in the Balkans.

The Franco-Soviet Pact of 1935 was regarded by Hitler as a military alliance directed exclusively against Germany. He argued that it was incompatible with the Locarno treaties, for France had undertaken obligations towards the Soviet Union which were inconsistent with her obligations under the Locarno treaties.

Hitler claimed that the Locarno treaties had lost their ‘inner meaning’. So he repudiated them and occupied the Rhineland with his troops. Germany showed that she was bold and strong enough to tear solemn international agreements into pieces. France and Britain took no action against her.

(3) Appeasement Thus the Versailles-Locarno system was broken up by Hitler within a few years of his accession to power. The political system built upon the post-war treaties was demolished by an entirely new technique, viz. the unshamed use of force or threat of force.

France and Britain, the principal upholders of the post-war system, failed to make an accurate appraisal of Hitler’s motives and methods. They sought to maintain peace by a policy of appeasement and found themselves confronted with the greatest war in history.

For Hitler the occupation of the Rhineland (1936) was the test case. France and Britain were then too deeply involved in the Abyssinian crisis to take action against Germany’s open violation of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain with impunity. After swallowing Austria Hitler turned towards Czechoslovakia.

He found an excellent plea for the dismemberment of that weak State in the desire of its German population (Sudeten Germans) for merger with the Fatherland, i.e., the League of Nations was too weak to save the Czechs. The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, accepted the Munich Agreement containing Hitler’s terms for the partition of Czechoslovakia.

It was hoped that Hitler would be satisfied and international peace would be maintained. But Hitler’s ambition was to seize world power. After annexing Bohemia and Moravia (parts of Czechoslovakia), he swallowed the Baltic Port of Memel (in Lithuania) and demanded from Poland the surrender of Danzig in violation of the treaty of Versailles, and also of the German Polish Pact of 1934. The Policy of appeasement was found to be futile. The decision of Poland to resist, and of France and Britain to support the Poles, marked the beginning of the Second World War.

(4) Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939: Shortly before the outbreak of the war the world heard in amusement of a strange alliance between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Hitler was proclaimed enemy of Communism, his Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan and Italy (1936-1937) was a declaration of crusade against Comrnunism.

This paved the way far Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. Hitler and Mussolini on 22 May 1939, converted the Axis in a formal military alliance, the so called ‘Pact of Steel’.

But Stalin had realised the significance of Hitier’s rise to power even before the conclusion of their pact, the Franco-Soviet Pact of 1935 reflected his anxiety for protection against the Nazis. Yet Hitler and Stalin came to terms in 1939 and promised mutual non-aggression. The curious arrangement was the product of two factors. Hitler wanted neutralisation of the Soviet Union in respect of his invasion of Poland.

He did not want to fight on two fronts, in the west against France and Britain, in the east against Russia. Stalin was afraid that the western powers wanted to get Russia involved in hostilities with Germany. His fear was confirmed by the failure of Anglo-French talks with Russia in 1939.

Moreover, an understanding with Hitler provided for him an opportunity for extension of Russian influence in eastern Europe. The Hitler-Stalin Pact was, however, an unnatural alliance, and it was broken by the German invasion of Russia in 1941.

Question 20. Write a note on the Spanish Civil War.
Answer:

Spanish Civil War

(1) Introduction: Spain was neutral in the First World War, but she could not escape political and economic instability which gripped Europe after the war. Though the country was a monarchy; it was ruled dictatorials, by General Primo de Rivera during the period 1923 to 1930.

The difficulty of establishing order in the country and the World Economic Depression led to his resignation in 1930. King Alfonso XIII restored the Constitution which the Generai had suppressed, but republican sentiments were so strong that he abdicated in 1931. A republic was proclaimed and Azana, the leader of the radicals, became its President.

A democratic Constitution was framed and introduced but the situation was not favourable for the smooth functioning of democracy. There was continuous political struggle between the Right and the Left and local insurrections sponsored by the Socialists and the Communists created an atmosphere of violence.

In 1936 the Popular Front organised by the Left won the general election and a progressive Government was formed under the leadership of Azana. The army chiefs complained that the new Government was unable to maintain order. A military rebellion followed.

It leadership was assumed by General Franco who made himself master of Morocco and then invaded Spain with an army composed largely of Moorish troops. To resist them Azana set up a dictatorship under the premiership of Cabellaro, a left wing socialist, who sought and found alliance in the Communist Camp. As the Civil War progressed it became a struggle between Communist-dominated republicans and Fascists representing vested interests. The latter won in 1939 and General Franco became the dictator of Spain.

(2) International background A civil war in Spain leading to change of Government in that country would have been a local episode without significant repercussions. But the Spanish Civil War assumed an international complexion because other European Powers took a direct interest in it.

That interest arose out of ideological consideration and selfish political motives. The triumph of Fascism was fast changing the political situation in Europe during the period of the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Mussolini had seized Abyssinia in defiance of the League. The system of collective security was practically dead.

The League was paralysed. Hitler had repudiated the Locarno treaties and swallowed Austria and Czecholslovakia. Britain and France had committed themselves to appeasement. Soviet Russia was threatened directly by the Anti-Commintern Pact uniting Germany, Japan and Italy in an international crusade against Communism.

In such a situation it was natural for both camps—Fascists and Communists to seek allies and satellites. The Civil war made Spain a covetable prize. If the Republicans under Cabellaro won, the Soviet Union would have Spain as a satellite.

If Italy won Spain would enter the Fascist orbit. How could Stalin, Hitler and Mussolini remain indifferent towards the vicissitudes of the Spanish Civil War They extended their patronage to their potential partisans and converted a civil war into an international war. Spain virtually became the battleground of Soviet Russia on one side and Germany and Italy on the other.

The Spanish republicans received some assistance from Soviet Russia, but due primarily to geographical reasons, Moscow could not do much for them. Communist volunteers trained in Soviet Russia took an active part in the war, one of them being, Tito of Yugoslavia. Moreover, ‘international brigades’ of communists were formed in many countries, even in.the U.S.A. to ‘defend the Republic’.

Much more substantial aid was given to Franco by Germany and Italy. Powerful units of German and Italian armies fought on his side. He also received generous supplies of technicians, planes, submarines, trucks, tanks, automobiles, ammunition, etc. His superiority in air power was one of the primary causes of his victory.The two other Great Powers of Europe,Britain and France, pursued an ineffective policy of non-intervention. They had some sympathy for the republicans, but they were afraid that any practical demonstration of that sympathy would provide excuse for greater German-Italian assistance to France.

Moreover, as the possibility of Franco’s victory could not be ruled out, neither Britain, nor France was prepared to offend him. Spain could interfere with sea routes in which both them had vital imperial interest. Complete alienation of France was, therefore, considered unsafe from a long term point of view. Perhaps the pronounced Communist leanings of the Spanish republicans created suspicions in Britain and France.

(3) Effects :

Franco’s victory did not give the Fascist powers the political dividend which they had expected. Spain observed neutrality throughout the Second World War. Franco did not consider it necessary to assist his patrons. But the immediate effect of his victory was to raise the prestige of Fascism in Europe. Another consequence also deserves notice. The non-intervention policy of Britain and France ‘drove a further wedge between Soviet Russia and the Western Powers’. This was indirectly helpful for Hitler in his diplomatic reproachment with Stalin.

Question 21. Why did the U.S.A join the First World War ? What were America’s contributions to allied victory ?
Answer:

The apparent and most obvious cause of the U.S.A.’s joining the war of 1914-18 was Germany’s unrestrained submarine attack on neutral shipping which greatly affected American ship movements, caused loss of merchandise and human lives. America claimed that international law never permitted belligerent attack on the shipping of neutral nations. This violated the doctrine of “freedom of the high seas”.

Why then Germany would violate this sacred international law and drown American merchant and passenger ships ? American protests to Germany were rudely rejected. American patience broke down when German submarine drowned a passenger liner, The Lusitania. Those who were drowned belonged to first governing families of the U.S.A. Hence, the U.S.A. declared war against Germany and her allies.

Looking deep, however, it is clear that American economic and commercial interests were badly affected by German submarine attack. American doctrine of freedom of neutral shipping on high seas was working for her economic interests. The American industrialists and armament producers hoped that they would sell ship loads of resources and weapons to European belligerent and extract huge profit. The Anglo French powers were their main buyers. On the other hand, Germany found that unless American supply of resources and weaporns to Britain and France could not be stopped, it was difficult to lend their back.

Hence, Germany resorted to unrestained submarine attack. American capitalist and merchant class became furious at the loss of their trade. Germany protested that if her submarine warfare was illegal and violated freedom of the navigation of seas, then blockade of Germany’s coast was equally illegal. Whydid the U.S.A. not protest against the blockade ? American Press replied that blockade did not affect the life of American citizens, while submarine attack led to loss of

American lives. Secondly, Germany’s reply to American protests were naughty and arrogant. Germany’s reply was that why did Americans travel in ships, they should keep at home. Thirdly, Germany gave the warning that American ships should keep out of the German ring fence of submarine attack.

Apart from the above causes, politically the U.S. senators feared that balance of power would stand as a monolithic rival of the U.S.A. British Prime Minister Lord Grey warned the U.S.A. that Britain was fighting Germany not only for her own cause but for the U.S.A/’s interest too.

The majority of the U.S. citizens were descendants of the Anglo-Saxon race to which English men belonged. Their forefathers came to settle in America from England. Hence racially they feel affinity with England. England and France had democratic constitutions like that of the U.S.A., while Germany had an autocratic monarchy. American public sentiment, American press supported Anglo-French powers out of emotion and sentiment. The British propaganda machine carried ceaseless propaganda against barbarism of German troops.

Meanwhile, anticipating that the U.S.A. might ultimately join the war against her, German war agents started sabotage in American factories and engineered strikes. A secret letter from Germany’s Foreign Secretary Zimmerman to German agents in the U.S.A. became out. Its publication in the press inflamed public opinion. Zimmeraman incited Mexico to attack Texas, Arizona and New Mexico provinces of the U.S.A. on the ground the formerly the area belonged to Mexico.

American bankers had given a lot of credit to Anglo-French powers. When the course of the war turned against them and Germany made massive attack in 1916, the capitalist class pressurized their own Government to give active support to the Allies. Otherwise the money would be lost. Thus economic as well as humanitarian factors drove the U.S.A. to vortex of the great war. We shall now discuss the U.S.A.’s contribution to Allied victory. Broadly speaking, the war would never end in 1918 and Allied victory might be uncertain if the U.S.A. remained neutral to the last.

(1) American resources and supplies put heavy pressure on Germany. There the American soldiers lacked experience and skill of European warfare. But they had, according to Agatha Ramm, youth and unbounded confidence.

(2) The Bolshevik Revolution and the withdrawal of Russia put the Anglo-French Allies in the Western Front in a great jeopardy. The German army was withdrawn from the Eastern Front and fell upon the Western Front as an avalanche. In this hour of crisis, when Anglo-French army was struggling in severe trench warefare, the arrival of fresh soldiers from the U.S.A. turned the tide of the war. It compensated the loss of Russia.

(3) The U.S.A. gave unlimited supplies in men and money. Supply of American ammunition was unfimited.

(4) From Lundendorf’s memoirs, we know that Germany calculated that submarine warfare would cut off American supply. Within 12 months Britain would be on her kness. Lundendorff says that the calculation was lundicrously false. Million tonnes of war materials poured in western fron from the U.S.A.

Thus the U.S.A.’s contribution to Allied victory was immense. We do not know what would have been the fate of the Allies, if the U.S.A. did not join the war on their behalf. However, the U.S.A. tried to impose her own terms at the end of the war as a price for her support, failing which she again sank into a policy of isolation. The vacuum caused by the U.S.A’s withdrawal after 1919 was dangerous. The balance of power became unstable which Nazi Germany rudely shattered in 1939.

Question 22. Narrate the causes of Germany’s defeat in the First World War.
Answer:

The causes of Germany’s defeat in the First World Wa

Germany’s collapse in 1918 surprised many people in 1918. She began the war with the best army, highest preparation. She made lightning advances both in the Eastern and on the Western Front. In the end everything ended in vain. The causes of Germany’s defeat were many

(1) Germany’s man power and resources were much poorer than the combined man power and resources of the Entente Powers. In a short period of war, Germany could achieve success. If the war was prolonged then Germany would collapse for lack of men and resources.

Ludendorff, the famous German General, said in his Memoirs, German youth fought for 4 years (1914-18). In the fifth year the youth force of Germany had perished. The Allied powers adopted the tactics of prolonging the war by trench warfare so that German strength would get exhausted.

(2) Germany’s material shortage was very great. They had no tanks, no supply of rubber, leather, chemicals. Towards the end of war, Germany had no food and fuel, famine and epidemic exhausted her strength.

Anglo-French naval blockade made devastating impact on Germany. She failed to procure essentials and ammunitions from outside. At last Germany surrendered. The British navy ruthlessly blockaded Northern coast and the French navy blockaded the Mediterranean cost of Germany. On the other hand, the Allied powers could draw inexhaustable supply of men and resources from their colonial possessions.

Germany tried to break the blockade without success. She let loose unrestricted submarine attack at American supplies in the hope of starving out Anglo-French allies. But the effectiveness of submarine warfare became blunt when the Allies discovered the convoy system and anti-submarine weapons.

As regards strategy, Germany committed several blunders:

(1) During the early years of the war when Germany’s strength was undiminished, they ought to have fought with a determination of “now or never’ But after the battles of Marne and Somme, Lundendorff withdrew behind Hindenburg line and did not launch any offensive attack. Had he done it, the tide of war might go in favour of Germany.

(2) Germany failed to take offensive in the Western Front when there was mutiny in the French army. Unfortunately the German spies could not discover the fact. French Marshall Petain suppressed the mutiny in iron hand and made the French army battle worthly.

(3) German General Lundendorff made scattered attack on this Anglo-French line, now here, now there. He did not try to break allied line by any determined attack on a point. Hence his “Buffalo strategy” failed before the “Bull strategy” of British General Haig.

(4) Lundendorff hesitated to take decision and took much time to reach in compared to Marshall Foch and General Weygand. Their brain was so sharp that they did not carry any file in the meeting of Allied commanders. They carried all information in their brain.

(5) Geographically, Germany had no depth of defence. Like Russia, she did not have vast territory to which she could draw the enemy and digest them. Hence,

offensive strategy was most suitable for Germany. She could fight in the enemy’s country. But defensive strategy was a blunder. In 1917-18 she fought on the defensive and got exhausted. Apart from these factors, the entry of the U.S.A. in the War led to collapse of Germany.

Question 23. Write on essay on the terms of the Versailles Treaty.
Answer:

Versailles Treaty

The peace makers at Paris were in a difficult position to settle the peace terms with Germany. So far Llyod George was concerned, he felt satisfied that Germany’s sea power was destined to get to the bottom of the seas and British colonies were now safe from German attack.

But French apprehended that in no time Germany would re-attack France for the fourth time. Keeping this point in view, Clemenceau wanted imposition of harsh terms on Germany. Ultimately a compromise between French security, American idealism and British practicalism led to the drafting of the Versailles Treaty with Germany.

It was agreed that :

(1) Territorially Germany must surrender the following places on her frontier to her neighbour.

(1) On the western front Alsace and Lorraine were to be returned by Germany to France for historical justice.

(2) The Saar valley, the coal districts, were to be administered by the League of Nations at present for 15 years. After the expiry of the period, the fate of Saar valley was to be decided by a plebiscite. In the meantime France would use its coal mines.

(3) On the Belgian Front, Germany surrendered Eupen, Malmedy and Moresnet to Belgium for the latter’s security.

(4) For the sake of French security, Germany’s territory on the west bank of the Rhine was to be permanently demilitarized. Neither Germany nor France would build army fortification in the area.

(5) On the Eastern bank of the Rhine 50 k.m. area were to be demilitarized by Germany. That is to say, by the above two articles, Rhineland of Germany became a demilitarized zone, a buffer between France and Germany. It was hoped that French security would be ensured by those clauses.

(2) After setting territory on the Western Front of Germany, the Versailles Treaty laid down that on the Northern Front of Germany

The following settlements would be enforced :

(1) The province of North Schleswig with predominant Danish population wouid be returned to Denmark for historical justice.

(2) The province of Holsbik with predominant German population would be kept with Germany.

(3) In the Eastern frontier of Germany, it was not easy to draw the line because in Poland, German and Polish population were intermixed.

(1) Ultimately, it was decided that according to the fourteen points, Poland would be an independent sovereign state. The great injustice done to her by partitions of Poland in the past would be now rectified by promoting Polish unity and nationalism.

(2) Poland would be connected with the Baltic Sea by a corridor running through Germany’s province.of East Prussia. The corridor would join with the German port of Danzig on the Baltic sea. Germany would handover the port of Danzig to the League of Nations and would be a free city under Polish control. West Prussia and Posen were to be united with the new Poland.

(3) Further, the province of Silesia of Germany was partitioned by a plebiscite. One part called Sudetenland, rich in coal, iron and German man power, was added to the newly created Czechoslovakia. Another part comprising good number of German population was united with Poland. The remaining part was retained by Germany. As a result Poland acquired a sufficient number of German population which caused much problem in future.

(4) By the Versailles Treaty apart from the above territorial clauses military, economic and miscellaneous clauses were also irnposed on Germany.

(1) Militarily Germany was disarmed and demilitarized. She could only keep 1,00,000 forces to keep law and order.

(2) Germany’s army, navy and air force were disbanded and dissolved.

(3) Mass conscription and compulsory military training in Germany was banned because Germany was declared guilty of war and violating international laws.

(4) Gerrnany’s general staff would be dismissed and her navy would surrender to England.

(5) Germany could not produce war materials and produce no air force or submarines.

(5) Economically, Germany was declared guilty for starting a war. She was asked to pay reparation or war indemnity to the victorious powers for the damage caused to them during the war. The Reparation Commission fixed the amount payable by Germany was € 6,600 million. Till reparation was paid, the Allied troops would occupy part of Rhineland.

(6) Germany’s colonies were liquidated and brought under the mandate of the League of Nations for better and enlightened government.

(1) Her trading privileges outside Germany in Morocco, China, Africa, were abrogated.

(2) Germany’s main artery, the Rhine was internationalised and opened to international navigation.

(3) The Kiel Canal was demilitarized and neutralized.

(7) Among miscellaneous clauses it was said that the deposed German Emperor Kaiser William II was a war criminal. If he could be arrested, he would be tried and punished in international court. German generals guilty of giving order violating international law would be punished.

(8) A League of Nations was to be immediately set up to protect the status quo of the treaty system and to settle future international disputes by peaceful means. Such were the main provisions of the Versailles treaty.

Question 24. Give on account of Mussolini as the dictator of Italy.
Answer:

Mussolini as the dictator of Italy.

On October 31, 1922 Mussolini became Prime Minister and obtained a grant of dictatorial powers for a year. Then he proceeded to consolidate the Fascist rule in. Italy. He secured control of the local administration. Order was restored and economies were introduced into government.

The imposition of dictatorship was gradual. He transformed the Fascist militia squadron into a national party militia paid by the State. The Fascist Grand Council, set up at the end of 1922, was parallel to the Govemment. At the end of 1923, he passed the so-called Acerbo electoral bill.

The bill established that the party securing at least 25 per cent of the total votes cast, should automatically secure two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. In the elections of April 1924, the Fascists secured two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber. Mussolini now moved faster. Giacomo Matteotti, the leader of the Socialists in the Chamber and a bitter critic of Mussolini, was murdered by a fascist gang in June 1924. Luigi Sturzo, who led the Popular Party, fled into exile. Political opponents were either imprisoned or terminated.

By early January 1925 he was sufficiently strong to proclaim his personal responsibility for crime and terrorism. After suppressing the Socialist Party in October 1925, Mussolini banned all political parties a year after. The rule of one-party had begun. By a series of enactments Mussolini consolidated his dictatorship. He suppressed all public criticism. By 1925 he dismissed all disloyal officials and stopped all local elections. The freedom of the press disappeared. The Law on Public Security of November 1926 provided the penalty of political exile, reintroduced death penalty and left the individual with no appeal against the state. The police became an instrument of oppression.

Mussolini, as Prime Minister, was authorised to initiate all legislation. The local prefects were to be directly responsible to him and he would appoint governors of cities and villages. By a law of 1928, parliamentary elections were replaced by the choice of candidates from a single list by the Fascist Grand Council. And the chairman of the Grand Council was Mussolini who was also the Prime Minister of the State. Though the King remained as the nominal sovereign, the whole Govemment was dominated by the party organisation of the Fascists.

Mussolini denounced popular sovereignty and professed that it could never work. His ideal was a state in which the individual must subordinate himself to the state in which the individual must subordinate himself to the state. The masses had no inherent rights. There was to be no proletarian regime, and hence any resort to a strike was strictly prohibited. A strict censorship was established. ‘Fascism’, said Mussolini, ‘tolerates no differences of opinion’. Mussolini’s slogan was ‘Believe, obey and fight’. The most vocal critic of the Fascist doctrine was Benedetto Croce, Italy’s greatest philosopher. In the actual practice of fascism there was little that could be called noble virtues.

To gain the support of working classes, Mussolini created a ‘corporate state’. In 1926, after banning strikes and lockouts and dissolving trade unions, he instituted thirteen syndicates or corporations of employers, employees, and professional men, under whose joint auspices labour courts were .established to deal wth disputes. This was supplemented by a Charter of Labour guaranteeing working conditions and providing social insurance. In 1934 a National council was created of deputies from the various corporations to advise parliament on economic and social legislations.

To secure the support of the Catholic masses, Mussolini reversed anti-clerical policies and reached accord with the Pope. By the Lateran treaty of 1929, he agreed to the sovereignty of the Pope within a small and independent Papal State (Vatican City and Castle Gandolfo). In return the Pope (Pius XI) recognized the Kingdom of Italy. Agreement was also reached in between Church and State in such matters as education, marriage laws and the appointment of bishops.

Question 25. Briefly explain Italy’s expansion on Africa.
Answer:

Italy’s expansion on Africa

Ever since the establishment of Fascist dictatorship, Mussolini had been anxious to win for Italy a commanding position in the Mediterranean and particularly to bring the East African Kingdom of Ethiopia lay between Eritrea and Italian Somaliland and was reputed to possess mineral wealth.

Italy already enjoyed certain heights there. In 1925 an agreement between Italy and Britain, while granting to the latter free water rights in northern Ethiopia, promised to Italy certain concessions.

In the rest of the country. Ethiopia vainly protested to the League of Nations against these foreign spheres of influence in the country. In 1928 Italy concluded with Ethiopia a treaty of perpetual friendship and arbitration. After the accession of Haile Selassie as Emperor, Ethiopia refused the requests of Italy for concessions and favours. In December 1934 there occurred a clash between the Abyssian forces and Italian troops near the village of Walwal. The Italian Government demanded an apology and a substantial indemnity from the Ethiopian Government.

In January 1935 Mussolini secured from France an agreement that Italy should have a free hand in Ethiopia. Britain was intent on maintaining friendship with Italy. Early in 1935 Ethiopia appealed to the League and pleaded for arbitration in accordance with the Italo-Ethiopian treaty of 1928. At League Council’s suggestion, representatives of Britain, France and Italy meat Paris (August 1935). Britain and France agreed to give Italy extensive economic rights in Ethiopia. Mussolini, however, rejected the offer. The League, therefore, took up the matter once more and appointed a neutral committee of conciliation.

The conciliation committee drafted a plan for the international development of Abyssinia with a recognition of Italy’s special interests. Though the Emperor Haile Selassie accepted the plan in principle, but Mussolini rejected it Britain took up a stern attitude towards Italy as she feared that Italy’s Abyssinian venture might endager British pre-dominance along the Red Sea and in north- eastern Africa. The new British Foreign Secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare, emphatically declared at the Assembly on September 11, 1935 of the British Government’s intention to carry out its obligation under the Covenant.

But on October 3, 1935, without declaring war, Mussolini lanuched an attack and captured Adowa. This time the League Council acted promptly. On October 7, it declared Italy an aggressor nation and agreed to impose economic sanctions against her.

The sanctions caused some distress in Italy, but they failed in their purpose. Sanctions were not imposed on oil, Italy’s prime need while the latter obtained war materials from Germany. Britain and France avoided putting war materials from Germany. Britain and France avoided putting such pressure upon Italy as it might involve them in war.

In December 1935, Hoare and Laval agreed on a plan whereby Italy was to keep most of the extensive territory she had acquired by that date, while Abyssinia was to get in exchange a narrow corridor to the Red Sea through Eritrea. The Chamberlain Cabinet, in the face of public outcry, repudiated it. Hoare resigned and was succeeded by Eden. When Foreign Secretary Eden proposed oil sanctions in early 1936, French Foreign Minister Flandin suggested a policy of appeasement.

In May 1936 the Italians captured the capital Addis Ababa and the whole country was formally annexed to Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III assumed the title of the Emperor of Ethiopia. Italy thus defied the League though the latter declined to recognise Italy’s conquest. Haile Selassie went into exile in Britain until he recovered his Empire during the Second World War.

Question 26. How did the Anglo French policy of appeasement lead to the signing of Russo-German Non-Aggression Pact ?
Answer: On November 5, 1937, in a secret talk with his military chiefs, Hitler gave them a clear idea of his foreign policy. Germany would have to acquire living space (Lebensraum ) in Eastern Europe which would be possible only by the use of force. The first stages of the solution were to be the absorption of Austria and the destruction of Czechoslovakia. Hitler was aware that in carrying out such a policy, ‘German policy would have to reckon with the two hateful antagonists England and France’.

The new British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, who succeeded Stanley Baldwin in May 1937, pursued a policy of appeasement towards Germany. In November “1937 the new Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax visited Hitler. He admitted that certain changes in Eastern Europe, notably in Austria, Czechoslovakia and Danzig, could not probably be avoided in the long run. This green signal Hitler could hardly afford to ignore.

On March 12, 1938 Hitler invaded Austria and annexed it to the German Reich. Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement became manifest when he signed an agreement with Italy in April 1938. Italy promised to get out of Spain as soon as possible and to stop anti-British propaganda. Britain promised in return to work for general recognition of Italy’s conquest of Ethiopia. By this agreement Chamberlain expected to alienate Italy from Germany.

But no sooner was Italy appeased than Germany made further demands. Hitler demanded a further slice of Czechoslovakia-Sudetenland where more than three million Germans lived. In March 1938 France and Soviet Union pledged to assist the Czechs if they were attacked. But Chamberlain refused to give any assurance to maintain Czech independence against German aggression. For a few days the crisis was acute and war seemed imminent. Chamberlain made an appeal for peace.

On September 28, Chamberlain invoked the aid of Mussolini in proposing a four-power conference to settle the Sudeten question. On the following day, Chamberlain, Daladiar, Hitler and Mussolini met at Munich. The pact was signed on October 1, 1938. Sudeten province and the ‘Littfe Maginot Line’, the only effective defence of Czechoslovakia was handed over to Hitler. A separate agreement, signed by Hitler and Chamberlain, stipulated that any differences between their two countries in future would be settled by negotiation.

It was only six months after the Munich Pact, Hitler conquered the whole of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement was at as end. The Munich part convinced Stalin that Britain and France were now concerned to direct Germany’s expansion eastward and against Russia.

Since Russia controlled the balance of power in Europe, Stalin could afford to make terms with Germany. As Hitler had eyes on Poland, Stalin could expect large share of Polish territory in any partition of Poland. This would create a buffer between Soviet Union and Germany and encourage Hitler to direct his main attack against the West. Moreover, Hitler was deterred from any military action unless he was sure of the attitude of the Soviet Russia.

On August 23, 1939 Germany and the Soviet Union, acting through Foreign Ministers Ribbentrop and Molotov, signed a Non-Agression Pact for ten years’ duration. Each Power promised not to attack the other ‘either individually or jointly with others’. A secret protocol provided for a division of territory between the two powers. Germany was to have Finland, Estonia, Latvia, the eastern part of Poland and Rumanian province of Bessarabia. Now Hitler had nothing to fear on his eastern front.

Question 27. Briefly describe the course of the Russian Revolution.
Answer:

The course of the Russian Revolution

The Course of the Russian Revolution : During the year 1917, two revolutions took place in Russia. The February revolution of 1917 led to the defeat of Czarism and a republic was established in its place. However, the October Revolution of 1917 established the dictatorship of the proletariat (i.e., the labouring class).

The February revolution of 1917 began with the bread riots on February 23. This was followed by a general industrial strike on February 25, in Petrograd. The entire Petrograd garrison and the police joined the revolution by February 27, and by the following day, Petrograd fell into the hands of the revolutionaries.

The February revolution was the spontaneous outbreak of a large number of workers and peasants. By February 27, two organizations came into existence, namely the Provisional Committee of the Duma and the Provisional Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ Deputies. The latter, which represented factory workers, social revolutionaries, Mensheviks and Bolsheviks, was to guide the revolution.

The Czarist ministers were arrested on February 28, 1917 and Commissars were appointed in their place by the Provisional Committee of the Duma. The mutiny of the troops occurred on March 1, 1917. Though the Czar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate on March 2, 1917, all the members of the royal family remained under house arrest, until they were shot dead on July 16, 1918. This brought the Czarism in Russia to an end. ‘

A provisional coalition Government came into existence by March 3, 1917, under the. premiership of Prince George Lvov. The Allied powers soon recognized the provisional Government; it was considered the ‘legal successor’ to the Czarist Government. However, an ever-increasing number of workers and soldiers came to recognize the Soviets of Workers’ and Soldiers. Thus a Dual Power was established by the revolution, namely the Provisional Government and the Government of the Soviets of Workers” and Soldiers’ Deputies. The latter was soon established in all cities, towns and districts. The first All -Russian Congress was announced by the end of March, 1917.

The brilliant leadership and the moving spirit of Lenin was responsible for the October Revolution in Russia. Under his leadership, the Bolsheviks criticized and exposed the shortcomings of the Provisional Government. A huge armed demonstration was held against the Provisional Government in Petrograd, on July 17, 1917. Prime Minister George Lvov was forced to resign. He was succeeded by Alexander Kerensky as the new Prime Minister.

However, Kerensky’s new coalition Government soon grew unpopular. At the same time, the masses became attracted towards the Bolsheviks, whom they regarded as the true champions of the revolution. The Bolsheviks. became the majority party in most of the Soviets by October 2. They formed the Military Revolutionary Committee under Leon Trotsky. Under this committee, the Red Guards were organized and commissars were procured to take charge of the Petrograd army units. Thus the complete allegiance of the Petrograd troops was secured.

On October 25, the Winter Palace, where the Provisional Government was in session under armed protection, was attacked by the Red Guards. All the ministers were arrested and killed. Since the October revolution was a deliberately planned coup d’etat by Lenin and the Bolshevik-controlled Petrograd Soviet, Lenin is rightly considered to be the Father of the Bolshevik Revolution. According to the Constitution.

Published and adopted on July 10, 1918, Russia was named as the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic. While the Constitution of 1918 guaranteed certain basic rights to the exploited people, it also imposed some basic obligations on them. In 1922, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic.

Question 28. Explain the main principles of Hitler’s foreign policy. How did Rome- Berlin Tokyo axis power come into being?
Answer:

Hitler’s Foreign Policy The methods by which the Nazis established their domination in the domestic sphere were also applied in the sphere of foreign policy. In foreign affairs Hitler, after coming to power in 1933, sought to implement four principles.

These were as follows :

(1) Rejection of compromise and the reliance on force, and to restore and increase the armed strength of Germany.
(2) Rejection of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles as the Germans called it a ‘dictated peace’.
(3) To build up a vast German Empire (Third Reich) to include all the Germans.
(4) Hitler also aimed at conquering Eastern Europe to provide the Germans Lebensraum (living space).

It is obvious that the implementation of such foreign policy objectives would involve aggressiveness. Formation of the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis wrecked the balance of power and prepared road to the Second World War.

Formation of Rome-Berlin Axis :

(1) Germany was diplomatically isolated in Europe by Anglo-French Powers. A.G.P. Taylor has remarked “Hitler was the 3rd Bismark of Germany”. Hitler planned to form a close alliance with the Fascists in Italy in order to break the isolation.
(2) Gemany and Italy were frustrated due to the Versailles Treaty of 1919.
(3) Gemany and Italy thought that they would encircle France from East and South-East.
(4) Ideologically, Nazism and Fascism were dictatorships. Thus, Germany and Italy both concluded Anti-Comintern pact in 1936 which later on came to be known as Rome-Berlin Axis.

Joining of Japan in the Axis – After the Manchurian invasion in 1931, Japan deserted the League of Nations and remained diplomatically isolated. Japan found that she would end her isolation by joining the axis. On the other hand, the Italo- German Government thought if Japan kept British and America busy in Asia, their plan of expansion in Europe would face less obstruction. Thus, Japan joined the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1937. Hence Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was formed. This Axis was one group which began the Second World War.

Question 29. What were the ideals of Nazism ? What are the differences between Nazism and Fascism?
Answer:
The ideals of Nazism were as follows :

(1) The state is above all. All powers should be with the state and it should have hold on all political, social and economic programmes.
(2) To end the parliamentary institutions.
(3) To have control over press, education, radio and to maintain its own powers.
(4) To crush all sorts of party formations and oppositions.
(5) To root out communism and liberalism.
(6) The right to private property was recognised only upto a limit which wasn’t harmful to the national interest.
(7) The Nazi party considered Germany superior to all other nations and wanted to have her influence all over the world. It was of the view “The stronger must rule and not fuse with the weaker and so sacrife its own greatness”.
(8) To turn out the Jews from Germany as they were a great loss of the economic hardship of the people of Germany.
(9) To denounce the degrading Treaty of Versailles.

(10) To increase the German military power and the expansion of the German empire.

Differences between Fascism and Nazism :

(1) Fascism of Italy did not hate any social group or section of their country while Nazis of Germany hated Jews. In Germany Jews were made victims of an organised campaign of humiliation and violence.

(2) Nazis exploited the misery of the people of Germany which had become wors- ened due to the reparations which Germany was made to pay to the Allied powers. In 1929 there occurred the most serious economic crisis which affected all the capitalist countries of the world. On the other hand, Fascists came into power before the Great Economic Depression.

(3) The victory of Nazism in Germany unlike of Fascism in Italy was neither the outcome of a popular uprising, nor the result of Sham March on Berlin such as Mussolini’s on Rome.

Question 30. What is meant by ‘Fascism’? How did Fascism become victorious in Italy?
Answer:

Meaning of Fascism : The word ‘Fascism’ has its root in the Italian word ‘Faisio’ which means ‘a bundle of Royal sticks’. These sticks were carried by the
Roman Emperors as a symbol of dictatorial authority. Thus Fascism means autoc- racy or dictatorship where all the powers of the State are held by one person alone.

Main features of the Fascist Movement : After the First World War, a powerful man of Italy, Benito Mussolini established his dictatorship in Italy. The political ideas which he gave to the country were known as the Fascist Movement.

The main features of the Fascist Movement were the following :

(1) It believed in the dictatorship of one man or one party. Once Mussolini remarked, “All parties must end, must fall”.
(2) Fascism preferred the State or Government to one man. It believed in the dictum. “the individual exists only for the society.”
(3) Glorification of the use of force and brutality, and ridicule of internationalism and peace.
(4) Hostility to democracy and socialism and establishment of dictatorship.
(5) Fascism believed and supported imperialism and expansionism.
(6) This body did not believe much in internationalism. It rather preached nationalism.

Victory of Fascism in Italy :

The Fascist movement rose in Italy after the  World War I under Mussolini. The Fascist party which Mussolini organised consisted of armed gangs supported by landlords and the industrialists. Hence, from the very first day, the Fascists were against the workers, the socialists and the communists. The Fascists launched a systematic campaign of terrorism against the working class while the Government of the day did very little to resist the armed gang fascists.

During the elections of 1921, the Fascist party under Mussolini got just 35 seats against 138 seats obtained by the socialists and the communists. Even with so small a following in the Legislature, Mussolini talked of seizing power and promising people to get all their war-times promises fulfilled once he had the power.

Encouraged by people’s response, Mussolini arranged a march on Rome in October 1922. Fearing the loss of throne, the King invited Mussolini to join the Government. Once, Mussolini.got the power, he suppressed all working class movements, banned all political parties except the Fascist party, introduced anti-democratic measures and followed colonial, imperialistic and expansionist policy towards the other countries.

Question 31. Bring out the similarities between the upsurge of Fascism and Nazism in Italy and Germany respectively.
Answer:

Fascist Movement : After the First World War a powerful man of Italy, Benito Mussolini established his dictatorship in Italy. The political ideas which he gave to the country are known as the Fascist Movement.

The main features of the Fascist Movement were the following :

(1) Fascism was the supporter of one party and one leader in the country.
(2) Fascism was the supporter of dictatorship rather than democracy.
(3) Fascism preferred the State to the man. According to this movement, the “individual exists only for the society”.
(4) Fascism laid stress on nationalism rather than on internationalism.
(5) Fascism was hostile to socialism and communism.
(6) Fascism was the supporter of an imperialist and aggressive foreign policy. According to the fascists, “Nations which do not expand, cannot survive for long”.

Nazi Movement : Soon after the conclusion of the First World War, the Nazi movement arose in Germany under the leadership of Adolf Hitler.

Following were the main features of this movement :

(1) Nazi philoshophy says, “People exist for the State rather the State for the people”.
(2) Nazi Movement was in favour of ending all types of Parliamentary and democratic institutions and glorified the rule by a great leader.
(3) This movement was in favour of completely rooting out liberalism, socialism and communism.
(4) This movement was in favour of increasing German military power.
(5) The Nazi Movement wanted German influence all over the world.
(6) It aimed at the expansion of the German empire and wanted to acquire all the colonies which she had been occupying before the First World War.

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment