Haritha

Chapter 11 Oceania

The smallest continent of the world Oceania is a continent of oceanic islands. It consists of ten thousand islands floating in the Pacific Ocean. The word ‘Oceania’ is derived from the word ‘ocean’. It is a collective name for the islands scattered mainly in the Pacific Ocean.

Of the numerous islands, Australia is the largest (7-68 million sq km) as it accounts for 87% of the landmass of Oceania, it was considered as a continent. Though a part of Oceania, Australia is the sixth largest country in the world, is itself regarded as an Island Continent.

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Location of Oceania: The continent of Oceania is located to southeast Asia. It extends from 114° east longitude in the west to 135° west longitude in the east and from 28° north latitude in the north to 47° south latitude in the south.

Boundaries Of Oceania: Oceania is bounded on the north by the Pacific Ocean (The northern boundary of Hawaiian Island) and on the south 47°S (Stewart Island) by the Antarctic Ocean. On the east by (135° W) the Pacific Ocean and on the west by (114° E) the Indian Ocean.

Area: Oceania comprises about 8-8 million square kilometers area. It is the smallest continent of the world.

Population: The total population of Oceania is about 3,5162670 (2011).

Regional Divisions: Oceania is the continent of a group of islands. The Islands of Oceania can be grouped into four major divisions-

1. Australasia,
2. Melanesia,
3. Micronesia and
4. Polynesia.

Australasia: A group of the islands of Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania is called ‘Australasia’. (‘Austral’ means ‘southern’). Australasia means ‘land of the south’. This region is situated in the Southern hemisphere. So, it is called Australasia.

Melanesia: ‘Melanesia’ means ‘Black Lands’. Islands, namely Papua-New Guinea, Soloman, and Fiji located to the northeast of Australia between the Equator and Tropic of Capricorn are groups as Melanesia. Due to the black skin colour of the inhabitants of that region, the name of that region is Melanesia.

Micronesia: Micronesia, meaning ‘very small islands’, (Micro means small) lies to the northeast of Melanesia and is dominated by the island groups of the Marshalls, Gilberts, Carolines, and Marinas. These islands are located between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer.

Polynesia: The meaning of Polynesia is ‘many islands’ (‘Poly’ means ‘many’). These islands located to the east of the International Date Line are grouped as Polynesia. It includes Hawai, Samon, Tonga etc.

Geographical Importance of Oceania: In spite of many obstacles to development like vast desert tracts and barren uplands, absence of natural harbors, and difficulties in constructing roads and railways. Oceania developed mainly due to its geographical importance.

1. The location of Oceania is of international importance as Asia is located to the east and America to the west of it.
2. The uniqueness of the continent lies in its geographical isolation from the rest of the world. The natural isolation of Australia has resulted in the evolution of peculiar flora and fauna that are not found anywhere else in the world. Eucalyptus, Emu, Kiwi, Kangaroo, Koala bear, Platypus etc. belong to this continent only.
3. Seaports and airports help as halting centres for long-distance journeys.
4. The military base of many countries is also located here.
5. Australia, though many dry and locking in river water, has vast reserves of underground water in the form of Artesian basins. This has made farming possible even in areas of scanty rainfall.
6. Australia is the chief sheep-producing country in the world and also has large cattle farms. Good quality sheep like Merino and cattle like Jersy built up a prosperous economy. It is now the world’s leading exporter of wool, frozen mutton, and beef.
7. The continent is well endowed with minerals like gold, silver, iron ore, bauxite, lead, zinc, petroleum, and coal.
8. All the developed countries have to depend on the dairy and animal products of this continent.
9. The development of railways, Commonwealth roads, and domestic aviation (air transport) have had a great effect on the high development of this continent.
10. Islands of the Pacific Ocean attract many tourists from other continents.
11. Oceania is a sparsely populated continent. Due to less population pressure farmlands are now plenty and vast resources of minerals are yet to be tapped. So, rich in natural wealth, certainly, this continent will become the focus of international importance.
12. Due to prosperity and uniqueness the future of this continent, especially Australasia, looks bright.

Chapter 11 Oceania: Physical Features of Oceania

There are innumerable islands in Oceania, as such, the physiography of different island groups is discussed below.

Physiography of Australasia: Physiography of Australia: Physiographically Australia can be divided into four divisions:

1. Eastern Mountains,
2. Western Plateaus,
3. Central Plains and
4. Coastal Plains.

1. The Eastern Mountains: The Eastern Mountains/Highlands or the Great Dividing Range, forming the highest part of Australia and occupying the eastern part of Australia. It is 3250 km long with a height varying between 1000-1500 m.It extends from Cape York Peninsula in the north to Tasmania across the Bass Strait. It has different names, such as Darling Range in Queensland, New England Range, Liverpool Range, Blue Range in New South Wales, and Australian Alps in Victoria.Mt. Kosciusko (2231 m), the peak of the Great Dividing Range is the highest peak of Australia. Townsend, the second highest peak (2211 m) in the country is located at Victoria.
2. The Western Plateau: An extensive undulating plateau occupies the western part of Australia. This is the oldest part of Australia. It is made up of old crystalline rocks known as the ‘Australian Shield’.The ancient land has been eroded to form a vast low plateau between 450 and 500 meters in height. Only the most resistant rocks still rise above the flat surface as low residual ranges (900 to 1500 m) such as Hamersley Range, and Albert Edwin Range in the West.The eastern section of this plateau is called ‘Barkley Table land’. There are a few hills, such as Macdonell Range, Musgrave Range, etc. There are a few deserts in this plateau region, such as the Great Sandy Desert, Gibson Desert, and Victoria Desert.
3. The Central Plains/Lowlands: There is a lowland between the Great Dividing Range in the east and the plateau in the west. In the southern part of this plan, there are Flinders Range, and Grey Range mountain. The southern part of this plain is called

1. Murray-Darling River Basin, the Central part of this plain is called
2. Lake Eyre Basin and the northern part is called
3. Carpentaria plain.
4. The Coastal Plains: Coastal Plains of Australia are usually narrow except in the north, the Carpentaria coastal plain, and in the South, the Great Australian Bight coastal plain is wide.
   
   The Great Barrier Reef: The Great Barrier Reef (2000 km long), the world’s biggest and longest coral reef is located to the northeast of Australia. It stretches along the eastern coast from Cape York to Rockhampton. It is formed of dead coral polyps and other lime-secreting organisms.

Physiography of New Zealand: New Zealand comprises

1. North Island,
2. South Island,
3. Stewart,
4. Chatham and many other small islands and is located to the southeast of Australia.

A series of fold mountains form the backbone of New Zealand. It is a part of the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’ where earthquakes and volcanic activities are common.

In the central part of North Island, there are small active volcanoes like Ruapehu and Tongariro. Hot springs and geysers are also common in parts of the island. Mt. Egmont (2400 m), an extinct volcano is the highest peak of North Island. Ruahine Range and Kuimanawa Range is also important.

The principal range of the South Island is called the Southern Alps. They contain glaciers and twenty peaks above 3000 metres. The highest peak of this range is Mt. Cook (3764 m). This is the highest peak of New Zealand also. To the east of this island is Canterbury plain.

Physiography of Papua-New Guinea: The Melanesian islands like New Guinea which was once joined to Australia and is called a continental island. New Guinea is mountainous in nature and folds mountain ranges called the Central Cordillera to extend across the island from west to east.

Between the parallel mountain ranges lie broad upland valleys. The average height of the mountain chain is 3000 metres. The highest peak of Oceania is Mt. Wilhelm (4509 m/4700 m) of Papua New Guinea.

Physiography of Micronesia and Polynesia: The island groups of Micronesia and Polynesia are oceanic islands and consist of low coral islands and high volcanic islands. Some volcanic islands still have active volcanoes. Mouna Kea (4205 m) and Mouna Loa (4169 m) are two active volcanoes of Hawaii, Kilauea is also an important volcano Coral islands are Gilbert, Marshall etc.

Chapter 11 Oceania: Rivers of Oceania

Oceania, the ‘continent of islands’ consists of about ten thousand islands. Of the numerous islands, Australia is the largest followed by Papua New Guinea and New Zealand. So, the major rivers of Oceania are mainly found there.

Characteristics of the rivers of Oceania are as follows:

1. Though Australia is the largest landmass of Oceania, but there is a vast arid desert tract. Due to high temperatures, uncertain and less rainfall only a few number of rivers are found there.
2. Great Dividing Range is the principal watershed of Australia.
3. Most of the rivers of Australia as well as Oceania are short in length.
4. These rivers do not contain much water during the dry season. They exist only during the rainy season.
5. There are a few inland rivers.
6. The rivers partially dry up in summer and their courses are marked by pools of water in places.
7. The rivers of New Zealand are good for the generation of hydel power.
8. In the small islands of Oceania, rivers are short and not mentionable.

Major Rivers of Oceania:

The rivers of Oceania may be described as follows:

Rivers of Australia: The rivers of Australia can be grouped into the following four categories.

1. The rivers drained into the Southern Ocean.
2. The rivers drained into the Pacific Ocean.
3. The rivers drained into the Indian Ocean.
4. Inland rivers.

1. The rivers drained into the Southern Ocean: The major rivers of this region are the Murray, the Murrumbidgee, the Darling, the Lachlan etc.The Murray (2589 km): The river Murray is the principal river of Australia. It rises in the Australian Alps in Victoria and flows westward. It forms the major part of the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria. Then it enters South Australia.Before entering Encounter Bay on the Great Australian Bight, the Murray passes through Alexandria-a shallow lake. Being Snow fed the river is navigable throughout the year. Mildura and Wentworth are two important towns on the Murray.The Murray with its tributaries-the Darling, Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and the Goulburn-forms the largest river system of Australia. The combined flow of Murray-Darling is the longest river (3718 km) of Oceania.The Darling (2739 km): The Darling is the chief tributary of the Murray. It rises in the New England Range and flowing southwestward, meets the Murray at Wentworth. The Darling is fed by the Warrego and a few rivers flowing from the Eastern Highlands.On account of the very gradual slope, the Darling flows sluggishly across the hot and dry plain where evaporation is very rapid. So the river partially dries up in summer and its course is marked by pools of water in places.The Murrumbidgee (1579 km): The Murrumbidgee is another tributary to Murray. It rises in the Snowy Mountains and joins the Murray. The Lachlan is its main tributary.The Lachlan (1550 km): The Lachlan is the main tributary of the river Murrumbidgee. It is a snow-fed river but the volume is small in dry seasons.
2. The rivers drained into the Pacific Ocean: Some other rivers of the continent of Oceania are the east flowing. Hawkesbury and Burdekin rivers rise from the Eastern Highlands and flow to meet the Pacific Ocean. Mitchel and Flinders flow towards N.W. and fall into the Gulf of Carpentaria.
3. The rivers drained into the Indian Ocean: The Murchison, Gascoyne, Fortescue, De Grey etc. are the rivers of Australia which are rise in the Northern part of the Western plateau flow westward and enter into the Indian Ocean. The Fitzroy, Victoria and Ashburton are also three important rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean.
4. Inland Rivers: There are a few inland rivers such as the Cooper, and Eyrein Australia.

The Cooper or Barcoo (1420 km): It is also called Cooper’s Creek is an intermittent stream. It rises from Warrego Range in Queensland and flows into Lake Eyre only during the rainy season.

The rivers of New Zealand: The longest river of Newzealand is Waikato (425 km). It rises from the Benmore Lake flows towards north and west and enters into the Pacific Ocean.

1. The river Wang a nui (290 km) rises in Tongariro Nation Park flows west and southward falls into the northern part of the Cook strait.
2. The river Clutha (320 km) rises in Wanka lake flows towards the southeast and enters into the Pacific Ocean.

Other important rivers of New Zealand are the Wainsakariri, Rangitata, and Rakaia which form the Canterbury Plains of the South Island and the Waikato and Rangitaiki of the North Island.

The rivers of Papua-New Guinea: The Fly (1045 km) is the largest and most important river of New Guinea. It rises in the mountains of Papua in the Victor Emanuel range and flows over the southwestern plain to enter the Gulf of Papua.

Lakes of Oceania: There are a number of big lakes in Oceania, such as

1. Eyre (10000 sq. km)
2. Gairdner,
3. Torrens and
4. More, in Australia,
5. The Anau and
6. Taupo (616 sq. km) in New Zealand.

Lake Eyre is the largest lake in Oceania. Lake Taupo is the largest volcanic lake on the North Island of New Zealand.

Artesian well: The presence of Artesian wells is the most important natural feature in Australia. Rainwater collected in the impermeable syncline rock comes up by normal water pressure. These are called Artesian wells which are scattered over extensive areas in Australia.

Chapter 11 Oceania: Climate Of Oceania

The climate of Oceania is very much diversified. Different parts of the continent have a great variety in the character of climates. The important characteristics of the climate of Oceania are as follows:

1. Generally, there is less rainfall occurs in the continent of Oceania, but there are some small islands where much rainfall occurs throughout the year.
2. The seasonal climatic characteristics are different in the northern and southern parts of this continent due to their location in the Southern and Northern hemispheres. When summer occurs in the Northern hemisphere, then winter occurs in the Southern hemisphere.
3. A vast tract of Australia is covered by deserts but most of the small islands of the Pacific Ocean have moderate and comfortable climate is found due to their size and nearness location to the ocean.
4. Different controls or factors of climate have played an important role to diversify the climate of Oceania.

The factors of climatic variations in Oceania are as follows:

Latitudinal extent: The continent of Oceania extends from 28°N latitude (the northern boundary of Hawaiian islands) in the north to 47°S latitude (Stewart island) in the south. Due to many differences of latitudes, different types of climate are seen in different parts of Oceania.

The equator passes through the northern parts of Oceania and the Tropic of Capricorn (23° 30°) passes through the middle of Australia, as such climate of the northern part of Oceania is equatorial (hot and humid) and the climate of Australia is warm in the north and is temperate in the south.

All of New Zealand lie in the temperate zone, its climate is also temperate. In the northern part warm temperate and in the southern part cool temperate.

Distance from sea/continental location: By virtue of its vast size and extent, the interior part of Australia belongs continental location as such middle and northern parts of Australia, extreme climatic conditions prevail. Due to the extremity of climate less rainfall and high temperature arid and semi-arid desert-type climate is found there.

Altitude: The effect of altitude on the climate of Oceania is experienced in lofty mountainous areas. Due to the increase of altitude temperature decrease and as such the peak regions of the mountains become snow-covered.

Ocean Currents: Some ocean currents, such as the cold Antarctic current, cold West- Australian current, warm Australian current etc. influenced the climate of the coastal areas of Oceania. However, droughts associated with the El Nino phenomenon have been frequent in recent decades in northern Australia and Papua New Guinea.

Oceanic or Maritime Influence: Most of the island countries of the Pacific and small islands of Oceania are dominated by maritime influence. Due to this effect moderate climate and more rainfall humid climate is found in the small islands and the coastal areas of Oceania. New Zealand, being surrounded by the sea has a mild maritime climate.

Wind Persistent trade winds dominate much of Oceania, and Tropical. Cyclones often cause considerable damage.

Seasonal conditions of the important elements of climate in different parts of Oceania:

Temperature: There is differences in the temperature of the northern and southern part of Oceania. In the regions which are located in the southern hemisphere, seasons are reversed then the regions which are located in the northern hemisphere.

So in the southern hemisphere, January is a summer month while July is a winter month. In summer (December, January, February) nearly the whole of Australia has a temperature of over 27°C and in the interior, the temperature shoots up to well over 35°C.

January and February are the hottest months is Australia. The annual average temperature of New Zealand varies between 11°C and 19°C, snowfall occurs in winter (June, July, and August) in North Island. The temperature of Papua New Guinea is high as it is located near the Equator.

Air pressure and Wind: Moist north-west monsoon wind blows in summer over northern parts of Australia. But, in general, the south-east Trade wind blows in most parts of the continent.

Rainfall: In summer, the southeast Trade winds blow onshore nearly all along the whole east coast of the continent causing heavy rainfall, especially in northeast Australia. In winter, the south-east Trade winds in northern Australia blow towards south-east Asia., Being off-shore winds, they cause no rainfall.

East and North-west coast of Australia, the western part of Tasmania, the western part of New Zealand, and the entire Papua-New Guinea receive an average rainfall of 100 cm Interior and western parts of Australia receive only 25-50 cm. rainfall, as such, a number of deserts have formed there.

Climatic Regions of Oceania: Based on variations in temperature rainfall, air pressure, and wind, the continent of Oceania can be divided into the following climatic regions.

1. Tropical Monsoon Climatic region
2. Tropical Maritime Climatic region
3. Tropical Continental Climatic region
4. Equatorial Climatic region
5. Warm-Temperate Maritime Climatic region
6. Warm-Temperate Continental Climatic region
7. Mediterranean Climate Region
8. Hot Desert type of Climatic region
9. Cool Temperate or British type of Climatic region.

Climatic Region Of Oceania:

Chapter 11 Oceania Natural Vegetation of Oceania

Natural vegetation is characterized mainly by the influence of climate. As the continent of Oceania has a variety of climates, so due to climatic variation different parts of Oceania have different types of vegetation. The natural vegetation of Oceania can be divided into the following types.

1. Tropical Evergreen Forest: Tropical Evergreen Forests are found along the northeastern coasts with hot and humid summer and mild winters where the annual rainfall is 150 cm. Due to high temperature and humidity, the dense evergreen forest grows. Mahogany, Palm, Ebony etc. trees grow here. In different islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia this type of vegetation grows.
2. Tropical Grassland: In the north-central part of Australia tropical grasses grow as there the temperature is high and rainfall is scanty. In Australia, this grassland is known as ‘Parkland Savana’. Eucalyptus and jarrah trees are scattered is this grassland.
3. Temperate Evergreen Forest: In the southern part of east coast of Australia, Tasmania, and in New Zealand temperature is low but rainfall is high as such trees are evergreen like ash and eucalyptus. Varieties (about 400 species) of Eucalyptus grow here. The common trees are oak, poplar, and elm.
4. Temperate Grassland (Downs): To the west of the Great Dividing ranges, an extensive grassland of small grasses is found. This grassland is known as ‘Downs’. Small grasses grow in the temperate weather and scanty rainfall areas of the Murray-Darling river valleys of Australia.
5. Desert Vegetation: In the true desert of western and central Australia, the vegetation consists of very hard thorny grass called ‘porcupine’ grass and ‘spiny’ grass or ‘spinifex’. Surrounding this, there is a broad ring of scrublands consisting of saltbush, mulga, and mallee.
   
   
6. Mediterranean Vegetation: This type of vegetation covers the southwestern corner of Australia (New South Wales and Victoria) and Tasmania. Evergreen trees like Jarrah, Karri, grow in the Mediterranean Climatic region of southwestern Australia.
7. Tropical Deciduous Forest: In the western and northwestern part of Australia dominance of monsoon winds give rise to deciduous forest. Cedar, Birch, Palm and bamboo grow here.
8. Mountainous Vegetation: Due to the altitudinal effects the climate of the eastern mountains of Australia and the lofty mountains of New Zealand is changed as well as the vegetation of this region is also changed. In the lower mountain region mulga and mallee, in the middle Eucalyptus and above more different types of Pine is available.

Characteristics of Natural vegetation of Oceania:

1. Australia’s as well as Oceania’s long isolation of around 50 million years from the other parts of the world and its increasing aridity, caused its natural vegetation to change, adapt and evolve unique characteristics in order to survive. So vegetation of this region is predominantly different from that found in other parts of the world.
2. Because of hot and dry conditions, most of the vegetation is xerophytic and plants can live for long periods without water.
3. Eucalyptus usually called ‘gum trees’, and acacias such as the Golden Wattle are the two characteristic forms of vegetation.
4. The most typical tree is the eucalyptus of which there are more than 450 varieties adapting to an amazing variety of environments.
5. Some soft varieties of eucalyptus yield paper pulp some. yield oil and some wet eucalyptus like Jarra and Karri of the southwest provide hard timber.
6. Following the rainfall pattern, the vegetation belts occur in concentric circles with the desert scrub in the interior and forests and woodlands on the interior and forests and woodlands on the outer margins. In between these two lie the grassland.
7. The trees vary from very tall (100 metres) types to dwarf branching trees called ‘melee’ which grow taller than 2-3 meters.
8. Coniferous trees grow over the mountainous region and cocoanut and mangrove vegetation grow in the coastal areas.

Chapter 11 Oceania: Murray Darling Basin

Murray-Darling basin is the most economically prosperous area of Australia as well as the continent of Oceania. The almost flat land of the south-eastern part of Australia which is drained by the rivers of Murray-Darling and their tributaries is known as the ‘Murray-Darling Basin’.

This is the richest, most densely populated, and most developed area of Australia. This region is also famous for cattle rearing and agriculture.

Location: The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of this region are as follows. Latitudinally it extends from 25° south latitude on the north to 39°S latitude on the south. Longitudinally this region extends from 138°E longitude on the west to 150°E longitude on the east.

Boundary: This region is bordered on the north-east and south-east by the Great Dividing Range, on the west by Gray Range and Barrier Range; on the south-west by the Gulf of St. Vincent, Gulf of Encounter, and the Great Australian Bight. The bain covers a sizeable portion of New South Wales and small sections of Sn. Queensland, Victoria, and South Australia.

Area: Covering about 20% of the total area of Australia, the Murray-Darling Basin occupies about 1-14 million square kilometers of area.

Physiography: The Murray-Darling basin is almost a low depositional plain land. For a long period, Murray-Darling deposited sediments forming this plain land. The average elevation of the basin varies from 100-200 meters.

Being bounded by highlands on all sides of 35°S excepting the southwest the central plain rises gradually towards the west-east and northeast. However, the slope, in general, is from northeast to southwest.

River/Drainage: Murray-Darling is the principal river of this basin. The Murray (2589 km) originates from the Australian Alps and its main tributary Darling (1163 km) originates from the New England Range. These are snow-fed rivers, as such they are perennial.

The Confluence of the two rivers is near Wentworth city. Thereafter their joint channel flows southwest and drains out at Encounter Bay. Murrumbidgee is another important tributary to Murray. Lachlan is a tributary to Murrumbidgee. Pars, Warrego, Barron, etc. are tributary to Darling.

Climate: The climate of the Murray-Darling basin is generally temperate. The climate of the southern part (coastal areas) of the basin is Mediterranean type i.e. wet winter and dry summer. But it is an extreme type in the central and northern parts of the basin.

Rainfall is scanty in the central part of the basin. The average temperature during summer is 25°C and that in the winter months is 20°C. To the west of the Great Dividing Range, rainfall is less (50 to 75 cm).

Soil: Soil of this region is mixed alluvial and chernozem type. This type of soil is suitable for agriculture because it is fertile.

Natural Vegetation: Due to scanty rainfall, the central part of the basin is occupied by grasslands called ‘Downs’. Evergreen trees like Eucalyptus, Jarrah, Karri, and blue-gum grow in the southern part of the basin when rainfall is. high.

In the semi-arid west grow the Mulga/Serub while the Mallee scrub consisting chiefly of dwarf eucalyptus grows in the Mediterranean. regions. In a few places, oak, poplar, birch, etc. deciduous trees are seen.

Irrigation: The Murray-Darling basin is the most agriculturally prosperous area in Australia and needs only irrigation to yield rich crops. Dams such as the Hume on the Murray and the Burrinjuck on the upper Murrumbidgee are important for irrigation and hydel power.

The Snowy river has been dammed and its water is delivered by a tunnel through the mountains to increase the water supply in the basin. Artesian wells are also used to a great extent to tap underground water for irrigation purposes in the basin.

Agriculture: Murray-Darling Basin is agriculturally rich. This is a region of Intensive Farming. It is a type of farming where cultivable land is limited. Due to extensive plainland, fertile soil, temperate climate sufficient supply of water, capital, and use of modern technology Murray-Darling Basin is agriculturally developed.

This region is one of the important wheat-producing areas of the world. The wheat farms extend across the basin from Adelaide to New South Wales. Important crops are wheat, barley, oat, tobacco, etc. Large quantities of wheat are exported to other countries.

Fruits, particularly grapes, oranges, lemons, apples, pears, apricots, and peaches are grown mainly for export. Grapes are mainly dried to make raisins and currants.

Sheep and Cattle Rearing: The Murray-Darling Basin is the biggest sheep-rearing area of Australia which is the world’s largest producer of wool. Extensive Downs grassland, temperate climate, less population, and modern technology help to develop Live-stock farming.

Merino sheep, once imported from Spain, yield the best wool. Lincoln, marsh, etc. are also reared in the Downs of Murray Darling Basin. Sheep stations of this area are large and a sheep farm or Squatter is helped by laborers called Jackaroos’.

Cattle are reared in the eastern grasslands for beef and as well as dairy products. This region is also famous for dairy products.

Mineral Resources: Minerals are produced from the marginal regions of the Murray- Darling Basin, such as silver, lead, zinc, copper, gold, and tin. Broken Hill is famous for its silver deposits. So ‘Broken Hill’ is popularly called ‘Silver City’.

Copper is the most important mineral of the basin and is mined at Cobber in New South Wales, Broken Hill also has deposits of lead and zinc. Bendigo of Victoria is famous for its gold mine.

Industries: Murray-Darling Basin is not developed in industries. Industrial development is limited only to

1. Food processing,
2. Engineering,
3. Chemical,
4. Dairy and
5. Meat processing etc.

Due to the lack of mineral deposits metallurgical industries have not flourished here. Depending on animal and agricultural resources wool, textile, flour, and bakery industries are also developed.

Important industrial centres are-Adelaide, Broken Hill, Mildura, Port Pirie, Morgan, Renmark and Albury.

Population and cities: The region is one of the most prosperous regions of Australia. So, settlement is uniform and the population by Australian standards, is fairly dense-about 4-6 persons/ sq. km. The population is concentrated in the coastal area.

Adelaide, the capital of South Australia and an important port and industrial center located near the Gulf of St. Vincent is the largest city and only a million cities in this basin. Other important cities of this basin are Broken Hill, Mildura Wentworth, etc.

Chapter 9 North America

Introduction: North America is the third largest continent of the world, after Asia and Africa. A few centuries ago, this continent was almost unknown. But now it has made great materialistic progress and it is the principal centre of modern civilization and has achieved world supremacy in almost every sphere, such as economy, education, science and technology, politics, and industrial development.

Discovery/Expedition of North America: About 5 centuries ago the Europeans had the hobby to discover the unknown or new lands of the world and they started expeditions in different parts of the world. The great Italian Navigator, Christopher Columbus discovered the Eastern Islands of North America (Islands of West Indies) in the year 1492 A.D.

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He sailed westward from Spain, believing that the earth being round, he would reach India by sailing towards the west. Nobody knew that there was a big continent of North America in the mid-ocean.

Columbus, in fact, landed on the islands now named as ‘West Indies’ It was he who termed the red-skinned people of these islands as ‘Indians’ thinking that he had reached India. In 1497 A.D., another Italian, Amerigo VespuccActually touched the mainland of North America. The continent derives its name from him.

North America became separated from South America by constructing the Panama canal and navigation become easy between the Eastern coast of North America and Europe and the Western coast of South America Panama Isthmus narrow strip of landmass (a width of just eighty km) lying between North America and South America and joins two continents is called Panama Isthmus or Isthmus of Panama.

Since 1914 A canal has been dug through the Isthmus of Panama, connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans is called the ‘Panama Canal’. Why North America is called the ‘New world’ The continent was unknown to the Europeans and others for a long period.

Therefore, when the continent of North America was discovered by the Europeans, they called it as ‘New World’.

Location of North America: North America lies entirely within the Northern and Western hemispheres. It stretches from 7°12′ North (south of Panama) to 83°07′ North latitudes (North of Greenland) and from 52°37’W to 172°27′ West longitudes. It extends for 8480 km from North to South and for 6400 km from West to East. 100°W meridian bisecting the continent longitudinally.

Boundaries of North America: North America Is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the south by the Panama Canal and the Pacific Ocean, and where it is linked with South America by a narrow land bridge—the Isthmus of Panama. On the east it is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific ocean.

To the northwest, the continent is separated from Asia by the Beiring strait which is only 58 km wide and to the south, the continent is separated from South America by the Panama canal. North America includes a few islands, such as-

1. Greenland (the largest island of the world) in the north,
2. New Foundland in the east,
3. Cuba and Jamaica in the east and
4. Hawaiian islands in the west.

Area: North America covers an area of 2,44,00000 square kilometers and ranks third in size (next to Asia and Africa) amongst the continents of the world.

Population: The population of this continent is about 465,000,000.

Geographical Importance of North America: North America is the most dynamic and powerful continent in the world. This significant importance of the continent has been achieved mainly due to several geographical factors.

These are as follows:

1. Favorable Location: Though this continent is not centrally located like, Europe, North America is placed favourably for trade with Europe across the Atlantic and with Japan and South-East Asia across the Pacific. The Panama canal across the isthmus of Panama has greatly reduced ocean routes between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.
2. Isolation: Surrounded almost on all sides by the oceans, the continent has been able to retain its identity as well as also remained free from involvement in world wars.
3. European Influence: Discovery of the continent as well as its achievements and rapid socio-economic progress are mainly contributed by the Europeans.
4. Developed Agriculture: North America has excellent farmlands. The Central Lowlands farm is the richest agricultural tract of North America. The Canadian Prairies are one of the greatest wheat-producing regions of the world. Corn, cotton, and tobacco are grown more to the south in the U.S.A. In central California, fruit growing is very important.
5. Forest Resource: The coniferous forests cover nearly half of Canada. Canada is the world’s greatest producer and exporter of newsprint and is second to the U.S.A. in wood pulp production. These forests are also the home of fur-bearing animals.
6. Resourceful fishing: Fishing is important in the continental shelf of the Atlantic and the Pacific costs, Canada is the third greatest fish exporting country in the world.
7. Mineral resources: North America is extremely rich in minerals and it leads the world in the production of iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, vanadium (U.S.A), silver (Mexico), and nickel (Canada and Cuba). It is also the fourth-largest producer of gold. It is also rich in coal, petroleum, and many other minerals.
8. Power Resources: The continent has abundant power resources such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, and falling water. The U.S.A. has almost one-third of the world’s coal reserves, 25% of the world’s Petroleum, and more than 25% of the world’s water power reserves while Canada has 14%. North America has also, rich of uranium which is the basis of nuclear fuels.
9. Developed Manufacturing Industry: The U.S.A. leads all other North American countries in manufacturing, Iron and steel, oil refining, aluminium, and copper has been made. Automobiles and machinery, meat packing, and food processing.
10. Developed transport and communication system: Roads, rail, and air routes crisscross the continent. The U. S. A. has about 25% of the world’s railroad mileage and about 38,400 km. of navigable waterways.
11. Skillful and enterprising immigrant population: These rich natural resources and a skilful and enterprising immigrant population have made North America the richest continent inhabited by some of the richest nations.
12. Tremendous Success: Success in education, science, technology, space, exploration, and even in world politics is responsible for its unlimited economic growth. In fact, the continent has become the focus of world political and economic power.

Chapter 9 North America: Physical Features of North America

Relief of North America: Landform of the continent of North America is very much diversified. Physiographically, the continent can be divided into five divisions—

1. Western Mountains or Cordilleras,
2. The Eastern Highlands,
3. The Canadian Shield in the North,
4. The Central Plains and
5. The Coastal Plains.

The Western Mountains or Cordilleras (Spanish ‘cordillera’ means rope or chain): Western part of North America is covered by the fold mountains that stretches from Alaska in the northwest to the Isthmus of Panama in the south about 6900 Km. It extends along the Pacific Ocean coast, as such, it is also Pacific Mountains. It is the widest (about 1700 km) at the central part- where its altitude is not very high. But it is narrow in the north and in the south where the height of the mountain is relatively higher.

North-South extended three parallel mountain ranges have formed a cordillera:

1. To the extreme east, lies the longest, highest, and almost continuous range of the Rockies. They begin as the Brooks Range in Alaska and continue as the Mackenzie Mountains Selkirle Range, Rocky Mountains, and the Eastern Serra Modre. The northern part of Rocky mountain is. called ‘Endicott’ while the southern part is called ‘The Sierra Madre’.
2. To the west of Rocky, there is another range which is known as the ‘Alaska Range’ in the extreme north in Alaska, the coast mountains and the Cascade Range in Canada, Sierra Nevada Range in California, and the Western and Sn Sierra Madre in the extreme stuff in Mexico. Mt Mckinley (6194 m), an active volcano on the Alaska Range is the highest peak of the continent while Mt. Logan (5951 m.) in Canada is the Second highest. Mt. Whitney is the highest peak (4420 m) of the Sierra Nevada
3.  In the extreme west of the continent along the Pacific coast lies the third mountain range which is called St. Elias in the north in Alaska and as Coast Range in Canada —U.S.A.

Plateaus of Western Mountains: In between the parallel ranges are located intermontane plateaus, such as

1. Yukon plateau between Endicott and Alaska range,
2. Columbian plateau located to the south-west of the Yukon plateau,
3. Idaho or snake plateau in the western part of the U.S.A.,
4. Great Basin to the south of it.
5. Colorado Plateau between Rocky mountain in the east and Sierra Nevada in the west and
6. Mexican Plateau further South in Mexico,
7. In the extreme south lies the plateau of Central America.

Valleys of Western Mountains: The Western Mountain Range consists of many broad river valleys. These are as follows:

1. Colorado Valley: The Colorado river flows through the world famous ‘Grand Canyon’ which is 446 km long, with 1600 m. depth in some places, and is the largest canyon of the world.
2. The Valley of California: The valley is located in between the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range.
3. Death Valley: The famous Death Valley’ is located to the southeastern part of Sierra Nevada. It is the lowest part of the continent (83 m deep below sea level). This region is the lowest-lying area, of the Western hemisphere and the hottest region (56°C) of North America. Due to the high temperature and salinity of stored water, no animal can live here. So this valley h is known as “Death Valley”.

Important Passes: The important passes through the Rockies are the Yellow Head, Kicking Horse, and Crow’s Nest passes in Canada and the Yellowstone Pass in the U.S.A.

Volcanoes Western Mountains: There are many volcanoes, such as—Orizaba or Citlaltepetl (5610 m.) Popocatepetl (5465 m.) and Colima (3883 m). They are highly active volcanoes.

The Eastern Highlands: In the east of North America, the Eastern Highlands extend from Labrador in the north to Alabama in the south. It includes Greenland also.

These are much older, lower, and less rugged than the mountains of the Western Cordilleras. Their average elevation is not more than 1400 metres. These are made up of ancient crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks, such as granite, gneiss, schist, slate, and quartzite.

These highlands run southwards from Newfoundland roughly parallel to the east coast. Their continuity is broken by the St. Lawrence Valley and the Hudson-Mohawk Gap. So, it consists of three isolated units—

1. Labrador Plateau in the north,
2. New England High Lands in the middle and
3. Appalachian Mountain along the Atlantic coast.

North-south extended Appalachian Mountain, also known as Atlantic Mountain’ it is an old fold mountain. Due to age-long denudation, it has been lowered than the Rocky mountain. Its western escarpment is called ‘Allegheny’.

Further west, lies the Cumberland Plateau. Eastern Section is called ‘Blue Ridge’. Mt. Michel (2038 m) of Blue Ridge is the highest peak of the Appalachian mountain.

The easternmost part of the Appalachians is called the ‘piedmont Plateau’. This plateau descends to the plain quite steeply and the east-flowing rivers form rapids and waterfalls as they tumble over the edge of the plateau, called the ‘fall line’.

These falls are used for generating hydel power. Blue Ridge and Piedmont plateau were formed in the Caledonian system about 50—40 crores years ago. Allegheny was formed in the Carboniferous period about 32 to 22 crores years ago.

The Canadian Shield in the North: The Canadian Shield is the oldest part of North America. Surrounding Hudson Bay in the north lies the Canadian Shield which is also known as the ‘Laurentian shield’. It is made up of extremely ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks mostly granite and gneiss.

Slow sinking and erosion have lowered this area to nearly a plain or a peneplain (200—500 m) which is interrupted by the presence of occasional low hills (35—65m) such as Mesabi. During the Ice Age, the Canadian shield was severely scoured by ice. As a result the land was smoothened and numerous lakes were formed.

The Central Plains: The Central plains lie between the Rocky Mountains in the west and the Appalachian Mountain in the east from where the plains stop towards the centre of the continent. These plains made up 60% of the total area of the continent.

They form a great belt of horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks. The plan is also made up of eroded ancient rock in the north where lies the Great Lake Region comprising five lakes. In the south, it is made up of young alluvial soil.

1. To the northeast lies.
2. St. Lawrence River valley.
3. To the west is the Great Lake region,
4. Further west lies the Prairies and
5. To the south is the Mississippi river valley.

These plains are by no means low everywhere. They rise westwards until they are over 500 metres in the High Plains that lie among the foothills of the Rockies.

The Coastal Plains: There are also some coastal plains along the long coastline of the continent. The Arctic coastal plain in the north is much wide but remains ice-capped. Pacific coast. The Atlantic coastal plain extends up to the ‘fall line’.It is wider than the Pacific Plain. The wide coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico extends northwards and merges with the Central plains.

Chapter 9 North America: Rivers Of North America

Many rivers are flowing through this continent making a network of rivers. These rivers are characterised by the following important features.

1. The Rocky Mountain in the west and the Appalachian Mountain in the east of the continent act as a ‘water divide’ from which many rivers have originated.
2. There are many long rivers, such as Mississippi-Missouri and there are also some short rivers, such as west-flowing rivers.
3. The rivers flowing to the east of the Eastern Highlands towards the Atlantic Ocean are short but the rivers flowing west of the Eastern Highlands are long. Again, the rivers flowing east of the Western Mountains are long but the rivers flowing west of the Western Mountains are short.
4. The rivers which are drained into the oceans are short but turbulent.
5. The rivers which flow towards the interior are long but their velocities are less.
6. There are some rivers which flow along a few lakes, i.e. St. Lawrence.
7. Most of the rivers of this continent are perennial.
8. There are a few inland rivers in this continent.
9. There are some rivers that form waterfalls and are suitable to generate hydel power.
10. Some navigable rivers are flowing in different parts of this continent which help to develop irrigation systems, transportation, and industrial and commercial progress.

Important Rivers of North America:

Based on variations in source, the direction of flow, the volume of water, and their mouth, rivers of North America can be grouped into the following five categories:

East flowing rivers or the rivers draining into the Atlantic Ocean:

1. St. Lawrence: St. Lawrence is the longest (4000 km) and principal river of this region. It rises in the highland west of lake Superior as the St. Louis river in Minnesota and flows through Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario to drain into the Atlantic Ocean. It has formed the famous ‘Niagara Falls, 51 m high, between Erie and Ontario Lakes. The river is of great economic importance as it has connected the Great Lake Region with the Atlantic Ocean.
2. The Hudson: The Hudson (507 km) rises from the Adirondack mountains and flows south through a low narrow gap in the Appalachians. It meets the sea through the city of Newyork.
   
3. Delaware: The Delaware river (454 km) is originating from the Appalachian mountain flows southeastward and drains into the Atlantic ocean. The famous Philadelphia city is situated on the mouth of this river.
4. Mohawk(240 km): Mohawk is the largest tributary of the Hudson river It is formed by the junction of east and west branches in Oneida, and flows south and east into the Hudson river at Cohoes, above Troy.
5. The Potomac (465 km): This river is about 465 km long and originates from the Appalachian Mountain flows along the boundary between West Virginia and Maryland and empties into the Chesapeake Bay of the Atlantic Ocean. The capital of the U.S.A., Washington D, C. is situated on this river bank.

South flowing rivers or the rivers drained into the Gulf of Mexico:

1. Mississippi-Missouri: The Mississippi (3770 km) entirely a river of the U.S.A., is the longest as well as the largest river of North America. It rises in the highland, west of lake Superior, flows southward and drains into the Gulf of Mexico. Its principal tributary, Missouri meets the Mississippi about 16 km north of St. Louis. The combined flow of Mississippi and Missouri is the third longest (6210 km) river of the world. Other important tributaries of Mississippi areÿea0 Ohio, Arkansas and Tennessee.
2. Missouri: Missouri (3726 km), the greatest tributary of the Mississippi, originating from the Rocky Mountain in the West flows south-eastward and joins the Mississippi river. The famous ‘Great Falls’ has formed by the Missouri river. Missouri is a turbulent and muddy river. The river not only supplies huge quantities of water but also a large load of silt to the Mississippi. Yellowstone river, a tributary to Missouri, has formed many springs and geysers at Yellowstone, national park. There is the famous ‘Old Faithful Geyser’ from which hot water is ejected to a height of 60 metres at an interval of 90 minutes.
3. The Rio-Grande or Rio-Bravo: The Rio-Grande (3060 km), one of the longest rivers of North America, is a snow-fed stream. It rises from the Southern Rocky Mountains in southwestern Colorado and flows to the Gulf of Mexico marking the entire border between the U.S.A. and Mexico.
4. Alabama: This navigable river is about 510 km. It flows south-west ward and drained into the Gulf of Mexico.

West flowing rivers or the rivers drained into the Pacific Ocean: These rivers rise in the Western Mountain and flow westward to drain into the. Pacific Ocean. They are short in length but turbulent and have formed deep gorges.

1. The Columbia (1967 km): The Columbia rises from the Selkirk Range- in British Columbia and flows through Canada for about 800 km and the U.S.A. for about 1200 km, it enters the Pacific Ocean at Astoria. There are many dams on this river of which the grand Coulee’ is the largest.
   
   
2. The Snake (1682 Km): The Snake is the largest tributary of the Columbia. In its lower course, the river passes through a gorge called the hells Canyon’. A maximum depth of 2400 metres makes it the deepest gorge of North America.
3. The Yukon(3190 km): The Yukon, the longest river of Alaska, rises from the Coast Range and flows first northwards and then westwards to enter the Bering Sea through Alaska. A major part of this river freezes in winter.
   
   
4. The Sacramento (615 km): The Sacramento is a south-flowing river which occupies the longitudinal valley of California. The river Sacramento and San Joaquin flowing from opposite directions join each other before entering the Bay of San Fransisco.
   
   
5. The San Joaquin (567 km): The San Joaquin river also occupies the longitudinal valley of California. It flows west and north-westward and before entering the Bay of SanFransisco it joins with the Sacramento river.
6. The Colorado (2349 Km): The Colorado river rises in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado in the U.S.A. and for 27 km marks the international border between the U.S.A. and Mexico. It drains a largely arid and semi-arid region of the West U.S.A. and Mexico. Finally, it enters the Gulf of California in Mexico. The river along with its tributaries has formed a labyrinth of narrow Canyons which are more than 1500 metres deep. The longest of these Canyons through which the main river flows is the spectacular ‘Grand Canyon’.|t is 446 km long and in places, more than 1600 metres deep. It ranges in width from 200 metres to 29 km.
7. The Fraser (1377 km): The Fraser is the chief river of British Columbia. It flows between the Rocky and Caribou ranges and meets the sea south of Vancouver. It is famous for salmon fisheries and is an important shipping route.

North flowing rivers or the rivers drained into the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay:

1. The Mackenzie (1650 km): The Mackenzie is an important river of Canada that flows out of the Great Slave Lake, and after draining northward through the western part of Canada, falls into the Beaufort Sea of the Arctic Ocean. A major part of the lower course of the river remains snowbound from October to June. If the Peace river which enters the Great Slave is considered a part of the Mackenzie, the total length of the river will be 4241 km.
2. The Nelson (648 km): The Nelson river flows out of the North Lake of Winnipeg through several lakes of North-East and falls into the Hudson Bay at Port Nelson.
3. The Churchill: This river is about 1600 km long and rises in Lake la Loche in northwest Saskatchewan, flows eastward across Saskatchewan and northern Manitoba and turns northeast into Hudson Bay at Churchill.
4. The Chesterfield: This is an inlet, of Hudson Bay. It rises from the north of the central plain of North America flows towards the north and falls into Hudson Bay.
   
   
5. The Great Whale: This is a river of central and western Canada. It is about 373 km long. It flows westward and enters the southeast of Hudson Bay.
   
   
6. The Albany: This is a river of north-central Ontario of Canada. It is 988 km long and rises in the chain of lakes (largest St. Joseph) in West Ontario and flows east and northeastward into West James Bay at Fort Albany. In winter the water of this river is frozen.

Inland Rivers of North America: There are a few inland rivers, the course of which are restricted within the continent. River Saskatchewan an inland river.

The Saskatchewan(1939 km): The Saskatchewan river is an inland river that rises in the eastern slope of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. The meaning of the word ‘Saskatchewan’ is the ‘rapid river’. It flows eastward for 550 km to enter Lake Winnipeg. The river is widely used for the generation of hydel power and irrigation.

Lakes of North America: There are many lakes in different places of North America. Though most of the lakes are located in the northern part of the central plains, a few lakes are found in the mountain land also. So, the lakes of North America are of two types according to their location.

These are as follows:

1. Lakes of the Plainland: In the northern part of the central plains are located five famous lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. These are freshwater lakes. Lake Superior is the largest lake in North America and the second largest lake of the world (The Caspian sea is the largest), as well as the largest freshwater lake of the world. These five lakes are interconnected through the St. Lawrence river and have formed the ‘Great Lakes’ Many freshwater lakes are also found in Canada, such as Winnipeg, Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Reindeer etc.
2. Lakes of Mountainland: In the western mountains there are saltwater lakes. Such as the Great Salt Lake and the Lake Nicaragua. Among the saltwater lakes of North America the ‘Great Salt Lake’ is the largest.

Chapter 9 North America: Climate of North America

North America has a great variety of climates. The climate of North America is very much, diversified and controlled largely by the following factors:

1. Latitudinal Extent: North America mainly extends from the tropical latitudes (in the South) to the frigid zone (Arctic region in the north) and thus, in general, temperature decreases from south to north.
2. Alignment of the mountains: The north-south trend of the Western Cordilleras and the Appalachians cannot obstruct the winds blowing from the north and south. So the very cold polar winds enter the continent in winter and this results in frozen water surfaces even as far south as New Orleans.Similarly, the absence of any barrier permits warm winds to enter the land from the south throughout the year. In winter these winds make the temperature moderate by rising it, and in summer create ‘hot waves in the interior parts of the southern U.S.A.On the other hand, the Western Cordilleras act as an effective barrier to the warm westerlies. These rain-bearing winds blowing in from the Pacific drop much of their moisture on the Western slopes of the mountains. So the eastern slope remains nearly dry and in places have deserted.
3. Distance from the Sea: By virtue of its vast size and extent, the interior part of the continent is far from the sea, as such extreme condition prevails in the interior of the continent. Nearly the whole of the northern part of the continent freezes in winter but becomes quite hot in summer.
4. Ocean current: Ocean currents also have a great influence on the climate of North America. The California current in the southwest and the Labrador current in the northeast are cold currents. They produce a cooling effect on the adjoining coastal areas. In the southeast, the Gulf stream and in the northwest, the Alaskan current are warm currents. As a result, the climate of the coastal areas becomes warmer.
5. Altitude: The effect of altitude on climate is experienced in the Western Cordilleras that remain snow-covered in winter.
6. Wind: The westerlies bring heavy rain to the west coast throughout the year while the Trade winds bring heavy rains to the southwest coast.

Due to the above factors the climate of North America is full of diversity.

Seasonal conditions of the important elements of climate in different parts of North America:

Temperature: In summer, (May to October) temperature decreases from the southeast (maximum 32°C) to the north,(below freezing point). In Winter, (November to April) due to the presence of cold polar wind, the temperature even in the southern part of the continent remains low (16°—20°C)

Air Pressure and Wind: In summer, low pressure develops in the southern part of the continent due to high temperatures. Therefore, moist monsoon wind blows over this region. In winter, high pressure develops over the northern parts of the continent due to severe cold. Therefore, the cold Polar wind blows here.

Rainfall: Heavy rainfall (100-200 cm annually) occurs in the northwest coast; the south-eastern and central part of the continent. Moderate rainfall (50 to 100 cm, annually) in the southern part of the west coast and in the central plains of the continent. The least rainfall (less than 25 cm annually) occurs in the southwestern part of the continent where a number of hot deserts have formed.

Climatic Regions of North America: Based on variations in temperature, rainfall,air pressure, and wind, the continent of North America can be divided into ten c ima c r These are as follows:

1. Arctic (very cold) or Tundra Climatic region.
2. Cold Temperate Interior or Taiga Climatic region.
3. Cold Temperate Eastern Margin or Laurention climatic region.
4. Cold Temperate Western Margin climatic region.
5. Cool Temperate continental type of climatic region.
6. Temperate Desert climatic region.
7. Hot Desert climatic region.
8. Warm temperate East Margin or China type of climatic region.
9. The Mediterranean climatic region, and
10. Tropical Hot and Humid climatic region.

Chapter 9 North America: Natural Vegetation Of North America

Natural vegetation belts are always closely related to the different types of climate. As North America has a variety of climates, so it has a great variety of natural vegetation. The natural vegetation of North America can be divided into the following types.

1. The Tundra Vegetation: The extreme north of the continent is known as the Tundra or the cola desert region. This region lies along the northern coast of Canada from Alaska to Labrador. It is very cold and remains frozen throughout the year.That is why this region is known as “permafrost” or permanently frozen subsoil. Here the winters are long and cold and summers are short. The snow melts during the short summer. Its vegetation includes mosses, lichens, grasses, dwarf bushes, and arctic flowers. Reindeer, polar bears, musk-ox and caribou, etc. are the chief animals of this region.
2. The Taiga or the Coniferous Forest Belt: To the South of the Tundra lies a wide belt of coniferous forests known as the ‘Taiga’. This wide belt runs from the Atlantic to the Pacific across Canada. Here the winters are severe and the summers are warm, coniferous forests are widespread and provide softwood as such the forest is also called ‘softwood forest’.Pine, Far, Spruce, and Larch are important trees and these are well adapted to the climate of this region. The trees have tough, narrow needle-shaped leaves, dark green in color. Fur-bearing animals such as boar, silver fox, beaver, mink, lynx, etc. are the common animals of this forest.
3. Temperate Mixed Forest Belt: The temperate mixed coniferous and broad-leaved Deciduous Forest region lies to the southeast of the Taiga (coniferous forest). The region extending from Lake Region in the north to the Eastern High land is occupied by deciduous trees like oak, maple, elm, ash, beach, and Douglas fir.The trees are mainly of the hardwood type and broad-leaved varieties. In autumn the .leaves become reel, yellow or orange color and the trees shed their leaves, as such Autumn is called here as ‘Fall’. Among the coniferous trees are include pine, fir, and cedar trees. They yield softwood. Much of the original forests have been cleared for the growth of the dense settlement. Crops are grown in those areas.
4. The Tropical Rain Forest: The main areas of Tropical Rain Forest are along the Gulf coast of the U.S.A and Florida. West Indies and the southern coast of Mexico are hot(26C) and get more than 150 cm of rain. So dense evergreen forests of hardwood trees cover these regions. The natural vegetation includes pa|mS/mahogany, logwood, the famous yellow pine, and cypress. Lowlands and slopes of this region have been cultivated intensively and various crops such as graphs, sugar cane, and rice are produced. Large tracts of land near the coast have been opened up for banana plantations.
5. Temperate or Midland Grassland: Temperate grassland is the vegetation of the great centra I plains. These regions have very light rainfall, too low for proper growth of trees; so only tall grass grows. The natural vegetation of this region consists of almost treeless grasslands, called ‘Prairies’. Central part of the continent between the Rocky mountain in the west and the Great Lake Region in the east is occupied by this vast grassland of temperate latitudes in the interior of North America. This region is now cultivated and forms a vast wheatland. In other parts. Barley is grown. Cattle farming is the main occupation of the people of this region.
6. The Mediterranean Vegetation: This type of vegetation is found on the West Coast of California. Here summers are hot (25°C) and dry, while winters are wet and cool (10°C). This type of vegetation is drought-resistant evergreen trees and shrubs. These are specially adapted to face the hot and dry summer. The trees have small, glassy, waxy leaves which prevent transpiration and long tap-roots which reach deep underground. They have also bulky trunks and thick bark to store moisture and to withstand the dry summers. Some of the main trees which grow in this region are olive, cork-oak, laurel, and Mediterranean pine. Other trees include figs, citrus, and vine. Fruits like grapes, oranges peaches, apricots, and lemons are also cultivated in this region.
7. Warm Temperate Vegetation (The Sub-Tropical Hardwood Forests): These types of forests are found in the southeastern U.S.A. Here summers are hot (above 27 C), winters are cool (7°C to 13°C) and rainfall varies from 100 to 150 cm. The important trees include the long-leafed yellow pine and palms. The ‘Everglades’ or the swampy areas of Florida have mangrove trees. Here the trees have stilted roots to keep them above the level of the saline seawater.
8. The Mountain Vegetation: This type of vegetation is found mainly in the western and eastern mountainous regions of the continent of North America. The effect of altitude on climate is experienced in the Western Cordillera and Eastern Highlands that remain snow-covered in winter. Due to the decrease of temperature, the characteristics of vegetation is changed As such in the high altitudinal region there is coniferous trees are available.
   
   
9. The Vegetation of Hot Deserts: The Desert region lies on the plateaus enclosed between the main eastern and western ranges of the cordilleras in North Mexico and Arizona in the U.S.A. Because of the poor rainfall (below 25 cm) hardly any vegetation grows in these deserts. Cactus is the main vegetation, Prickly pear Joshua trees survive with the aid of dew in places where there is slight rainfall. Scanty grass, sage bush, and thorny scrubs also grow in hot deserts.

Chapter 9 North America: Prairie Grassland

An extensive treeless level grassland of North America is called ‘prairie’. French ‘prairie’ meaning a tract of meadows, occupies a great triangle in the heart of the continent. The prairies are the mid-latitude temperate grasslands of the central United States and Canada and extend from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba in Canada, southwards through the Dakotas, to Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The Prairie grasslands have the following distinguishing features.

1. These lie in the interior of the continent.
2. These are environmentally very important and represent a distinct kind of biome.
3. These are remote from maritime influence.
4. The heartlands of these grasslands are practically treeless.
5. The grasslands have distinctive wet and dry seasons. Droughts are common and frequent.

The climate of this region is ideal for grass to grow. Here the temperature ranges between 15°C and 25°C. In winter temperatures may go much below freezing points as in Winnipeg in Canada. There is summer rainfall.

The rainfall varies between 20 cm to about 70 cm and the average rainfall is about 50 cm/per year the winters are fairly dry, with just a little snow in the north. Large areas of the Prairies have been plowed for cereal production, and the wetter eastern parts are very productive. The drier western prairies, where the grass is shorter, are less productive.

These grasslands lie in the zone of Westerlies. Since then lie in the interior, the westerlies lose the moisture content by the time they reach this region. Therefore the amount of rainfall is low. The wind velocity is high in the grasslands because there are no trees to obstruct them.
Local winds are also important.

The climatic conditions ensure fairly regular growth of grass with variations due to the change of seasons. The rainy season makes the dormant grasses sprout with tender shoots. These are nutritious and realized by animals.

When the dry season approaches, the grasses start bearing a brownish look and by the autumn season, they are completely dried. Grasses now become dormant and are better able to face the drought on the one hand and the frost and snow on the other.

The higher western part called the high Plains’ has less than 50 cm of annual rainfall. This supports short grasses and is noted for livestock farming. The High Plains form the short grass prairies while the eastern part receives above 50 cm of rain forms the long grass prairies. These have now been converted into wheat lands. Hay, clover, and Alfalfa grasses are grown here.

So this grassland is famous for grazing grounds. For reason, dairy farming is developed here. For the conservation of dairy products modern refrigeration systems have been built here. It is one of the world’s very fertile plains. Therefore, besides the rearing of animals, the raising of crops like wheat, barley, oats, etc. have become highly important in these areas.

The hot local winds of chinook ascend from the Pacific coasts and then ascend to the Prairies; it melts snow and raises winter temperature. This condition makes even agriculture possible in the winter months of this region.

This is suitable, for wheat production. So this region as spring wheat belt’. The leading wheat-growing states in the U.S.A. are North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Montana, Iowa, and Wisconsin. In the southern part of the spring wheat belt wheat cultivation is practiced in winter. As in different seasons wheat is cultivated sufficiently in this region it is called the “Breadbasket of the World”.

Chapter 9 North America: The Lake Region Of North America

Introduction: The Lake region is one of the most important and prosperous regions of the e US.A. well as North America. A little to the north-east of the continent of North America, near the borders between the U.S.A. and Canada, there are a wonderful series of great five lakes—

1. Superior,
2. Michigan,
3. Huron,
4. Eric and
5. Ontario.

‘Great Lakes’ and along the southern shores of the ‘Great Lakes’ lies the country s greatest industrial district—the Lake Regions of the U.S.A.

Location: The Lake Region of the U.S.A. is located in the Eastern part of North erica. This region extends between 41°N and 50° N latitude, and between 75°W and 93°W longitude.

The Lake Region of the U.S.A. comprises of the greater parts of the eight states of the U.S.A. t at one adjacent to the lakes. The eight states of U.S.A. that extend around the lakes are—

1. Minnesota,
2. Wisconsin,
3. Illinois,
4. Indiana,
5. Michigan,
6. Ohio,
7. Pennsylvania and
8. Newyork

Area: Lake Region of the U.S.A. covers an area of nearly 7 lahks 64 thousand square Kilometres. The area of the total water bodies of these lakes is 2 lakh 50 thousand Square kilometers. West to east extension – 1370 km and North to South extension – 1125 km.

Physiographic Characteristics: The Lake region of the U.S.A. is extensively flat land. It belongs to the central plains of North America. At some places it is an undulating plain (average height less than 180 meters), because of glacial depositions of stones and pebbles. There is a steep escarpment (75 m) between Erie and Ontario lakes. World famous Niagara Falls (51 m) has been originated in between the Erie and Ontario lakes.

Rivers: Principal river of this region is the St. Lawrence. It flows eastwards through the lakes and finally drains into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The river is known as St. Marie between Lake Superior and Huron, St. Claire between Huron and Eric, the Niagara between Erie and Ontario Lakes, and St. Lawrence Seaway between Lake Ontario and Montreal.

Origin of the Lakes: The region is the most valuable gift of the ice Age to North America. In Ice Age North-eastern part of the USA is actually a lowland that was covered by Ice sheets. When this ice melted, waters of all these lakes were drained either to the Hudson Bay through Mohawk or to the Gulf of Mexico through Mississippi rivers, because then St. Lawrence was still frozen.

After the melting of the ice of St. Lawrence, the waters of these five lakes started to drain through the St. Lawrence river into the Atlantic ocean. Due to prolonged erosion, these vast snow-covered regions have been transformed into basins.

Gradually this basin has been fulfilled with melting water and transformed into the great lakes. There are five lakes on the course of the St. Lawrence river. These are—superior (largest, 82500 Sq. km) Huron, Michigan, Eric, Ontario and they are popularly called ‘Five Great Lake’.

Climate: The climate of the Lake Region is a cool temperate type. Pleasant summer temperature varies between 17°C and 23°C severe cold. Winter temperature varies between – 3°C and – 13°C, as cold winds from the north blow in. As a result, rivers and lakes become ice-bound. Extensive snowfall covers the whole region in winter. Rainfall occurs mostly in summer and it varies annually between 75 cm and 80 cm.

Natural Vegetation: The natural vegetation consists of hardwood deciduous trees like maple, oak, ash, and hickory mainly found in the south. Coniferous trees like pine, spruce, and birch are also found in the north of this region. Most of the forests have been cleared to make way for mixed farming, industrial development, and dense settlement.

Soils: The region is mostly covered by fertile glacial soil. Grey-brown-podsolic soil which is moderately fertile also covers some parts. Fertile black soil or chernozem occupies most of the Lake Region of the USA. In this region infertile soils are also found which are mixed with stones, rocks, etc.

Chapter 9 North America: Economic Environment Of The Lake Region

Agriculture: The Lake Region of the U.S.A. is well-developed in agriculture because of its

1. Flat land,
2. Adequate rainfall,
3. Fertile soils,
4. The modern and scientific method of cultivation.

Large quantities of wheat, corn, barley, oat, oilseed, and beet are produced. Hay, and clover, are also grown as fodder crops in this region. This region is also ideal for mixed farming.

The cultivation of this region is practiced mainly by ‘crop rotation’ (Instead of producing a particular crop again and again, different crops are cultivated by rotation).

Grape, apple, and peach are also produced in this region. Central highland is famous for the highest maize-producing region of the world. So the Lake Region leads first position in the world for maize production.

Livestock Ranching: In the northern part of this region different grasses, like Hay, Clover, Alfalfa, etc. are cultivated for cattle feeding. So this region is developed in dairy farming and known as the ‘dairy belt’ of the U.S.A.

Sheep and pigs are also raised here. Wisconsin is famous for its daring and is known as the ‘Dairy state’. Chicago is famous for its meat production and is known as the ‘largest slaughter House of the world”.

The reasons for the development of livestock farming in this region are as follows:

1. Hay, clover, and Alfalfa grasses are grown here sufficiently which supply food for cattle.
2. A sufficient supply of water from the lakes.
3. The extensive plainland of this region is favorable for grazing.
4. The cool temperate climate of this region helps to preserve the milk, meats, and different dairy products.

Mineral Resources: The Lake Region of the U.S.A. is enriched with mineral resources. Varieties of minerals in large quantities are produced here, such as

1. Iron ore (About 75% of the U.S.A.) comes from the areas south and west of lake Superior—Mesabi (the largest Iron ore mine of the USA). Vermillion, Gogebic, Marquette and
2. Menominee.
3. Copper ore—Cuyuna,
4. Coal—Illinois and Indiana,
5. Petroleum—Illinois and Michigan,
6. Rock Salt—Ohio and Michigan.Other minerals include
   
7. Limestone,
8. Gypsum,
9. Zinc,
10. Lead and
11. Manganese

Transportation System: The transport system is very developed in the Lake Region. Other than railways, roads,s and airways are also specially developed. The economic development of the Lake Region is mainly due to the cheap transport through St. Lawrence.

The Niagara falls area is not navigable but there is a separate canal constructed around this. Eg. the Weyland canal allows ships to travel freely.

It is also noted that Chicago is one of the busiest airports in the world and is also the largest railway junction in the U.S.A. The Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence river together constitute one of the greatest inland waterways of the world.

Industry: The Lake Region of the U.S.A. is not only the leading industrial belt of North America but this is the most developed industrial region of the whole world. This Lake Region has become the greatest Industrial Region of the world with the help of the following causes:

1. Local Iron-ore: Large quantities of rich iron ore obtained from the Lake Superior mines Vermillion, Mesabi, Marquet, Menominee, etc. via the Great Lakes, and from Labrador via, St. Lawrence Seaway.
2. Nearby Appalachian coal: The vast coalfields of Pennsylvania, West Virginia Eastern, and Western Interiors are all nearby and provide fuel.
3. Developed Transportation System: The Great Lakes St. Lawrence waterways, the Eric canal that connects the finance capital cum port of New York via the Hudson river, the noise canals that join the Mississippi system, and a dense network of rail and roadways provide excellent transport.
4. Raw Materials: Large quantities of iron ore, limestone, manganese, lead, zinc, and gypsum are also mined locally. Petroleum is supplied from the oil fields of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Michigan, and Illinois. Corn, meat, hides, dairy products, and timber from softwoods provide raw materials for industries based on agriculture.
5. Sufficient Hydroelectric Power: Sufficient hydroelectric power is gained from the strong current river and Niagra falls.
6. Dense population: The high density of the population provides plenty of skilled labor and a vast market for industrial products.
7. Freshwater lakes and Water of St. Lawrence: Salt-free or clean waters of the ‘Great Five Lakes’ and St Lawrence river are used in industry as well as drinking water.
8. Animal Products: Local animal products (milk, meat, hides, etc.) also help to develop different industries.
9. Coniferous Softwood: Timber from coniferous softwoods provides raw materials for the paper industry etc.
10. Sufficient Capital and High Technology: Abundance of capital and use of high technology.
11. Labour: Due to dense population sufficient skilled and general labors are available.
12. Market: The high density of the population provides plenty of a vast market. The region’s common frontier with Canada also helps it by enlarging the market.

Important Industries and Industrial Centres of the Lake Region of the U.S.A.:

Population and Cities: Economic prosperity of the Lake Region is responsible for the dense population and growth of many large cities. Important cities of the Lake Region are—

1. Chicago,
2. Duluth,
3. Toledo,
4. Detroit,
5. Milwaukee,
6. Cleaveland and
7. Buffalo

Chicago: It is located on the southern shores of blue Michigan in the state of Illinois. It is the largest city and leading industrial center in the Lake Region. This city is called a windy city because gusty winds has given this city nearly throughout the year.

As it is a large meat processing center it is called the largest slaughterhouse of the world. It is also the largest terminal railway junction and busiest airport in the world with a maximum number of flights.

Duluth: It is located on the western shores of lake superior in the state of Illinois. It is an important center of the iron and steel industry and also a large city and port.

Detroit: Situated on the banks of the St. Clair river. It is the largest center of motor vehicles in the world.

Toledo: Lying on the western shore of lake Erie, it is a center of engineering and chemical industries, etc. Milwaukee, Cleaveland, and Buffalo, etc. are the important industrial cities of this region.

Chapter 9 North America: The Canadian Shield Region

Introduction: The word ‘Shield’ refers to an ancient landmass of an undulating surface formed by hard rock. There are eleven important shield regions all over the world. Among them, the Canadian Shield is the largest. An ancient plateau or a highland of hard rock located in the northeastern part of Canada and bordering the Hudson Bay on the east, west, and south is called the “Canadian Shield”. This is also known as the “Laurentian Shield”.

Location: The Canadian shield region latitudinally extends from 42° north latitude (from the south) to 82° North latitude (in the north) and longitudinally it extends from 52° west longitude (in the east) to 120° west longitude (in the west).

Boundary: It extends from the Labrador plateau in the east to the shores of the Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, and Winnipeg lakes in the west and from the shores of the ‘Five Lakes’ in the south to the Arctic Ocean in the north.

Area: The Canadian Shield Region covers an area of about 5-2 million square kilometers.

Physiography: The Canadian Shield region is a part of the world’s most ancient landmass. The land is a rolling peneplain with an average height of 200 to 500 meters.

This shield is very old hard rocks were scraped bare of soil by glaciers during the Ice Age. The glaciers with rock debris froze into them. Innumerable lakes found on its surface are actually the results of glaciation.

It is mostly made up of hard granite and gneiss. To the east, the shield is about 900 meters high. In some places of this region due to erosion, a few depressions had been developed in the surface causing the origin of lakes in such areas as Athabasca, Great Bear, Great Slave, etc. The slope of the region is from south to north.

Rivers and Lakes: The rivers of the Canadian Shield region flow from south to north and drain out at Hudson Bay. The rivers are Albany, LaGrande Saskatchewan, Mckenzee, Nelson, and Churchill.

St. Lawrence is the most important river and marks the south boundary of the region. Many of the rivers of this region have large waterfalls or rapids which are tapped to generate hydel power. Many lakes, which are located side by side, are connected by these rivers.

Climate: The region has very long cold winters with heavy snow and summers. Rainfall averages 40 cm in the west and rises to over 80 cm in the east. temperature varies between 10°C in the North to 16°C in the South. Nort ern pa region is under the severely cold Tundra climatic region.

Soil: The soil cover of this region is very thin. In some areas, glaciers deposited unsorted materials like boulders, gravel, sand, and sticky clay in sheets to form drift plans on the lowland. These drift plains are generally fertile and are good for mixed farming.

Natural Vegetation: No large trees cannot exist except moss lichen, algae, and small shrubs in the north where the Tundra climate prevails. Coniferous trees like pine, spruce,fir, etc. grow in the south. Mixed forests of coniferous trees and deciduous trees like oak and maple are found in the southeastern part of the region.

Animals: Wild animals like reindeer, wild cat. white fox, beaver provide urs are found here.

Chapter 9 North America: Economic Environment Of The Canadian Shield

Agriculture: The Canadian Shield region is not very suitable for agriculture due to

1. Short summer,
2. Severely cold climate,
3. Infertile soil and sparse population.Farmers produce
   
4. Wheat,
5. Barley,
6. Oats,
7. Potatoes,
8. Flax and
9. Vegetables only in the fertile glacial clay belt around Hudson Bay and in the St. Lawrence river valley.

Lumbering: In summer after the melting of ice, the timber easily reaches to sawmills through the river currents. Lumbering is well developed in this region as well as Canada due to the abundant supply of timber.

Fishing: Fishing is commercially practiced in as many as 600 lakes.

Animal Rearing: Animals like sheep and cattle are also reared in the same area.

Mineral Resources and Mining: The Canadian Shield region is most important for its minerals. This region is the richest mineral field of North America. Sudbury supplies about half of the world’s nickel output. Important minerals produced in this region include.

The Canadian Shield also ranks first in asbestos, second in magnesium and third in silver production in the world. Timinis is the second largest goldmine in the world. Though this shield region excavated many minerals but mining activities are restricted greatly here due to some factors. These are as follows:

1. Adverse climatic conditions,
2. Sufficient manpower,
3. Great Expanse
4. Few ice-free navigable rivers and
5. The lack of transport facilities, partially in the northwest.

Industry: Though this region is sparsely populated and agriculture but there are some factors that have led to the growth of many industries. These are as but there are some factors which have led to the growth of many industries.

These are as follows—

1. Availability of fur, softwood, good pastures, and minerals.
2. Hydel power is generated from the local rivers.
3. Cheap water transport and good air transport.
4. A sufficient supply of labor.
5. The assistance of high-quality Canadian technology.
6. Sufficient financial patronage.

With the help of these factors, in the southern part of the Canadian shield region, different types of industries have been agglomerated forming the basis of economic prosperity in this region.

Timber and Paper Industry: The Canadian Shield region is developed in Timber and paper industries. There are some factors that have led to the growth of these industries.

These are as follows:

1. There is an extensive coniferous forest that grows over this region which is the worlds second-largest in size(after Russian Taiga)soft timber of this forest is the main raw material of paper industry.
2. The logs are collected by the river current cheaply.
3. This region is developed in hydel power by swift-flowing rivers.
4. Modern machinery helps to develop this industry.
5. Supply of efficient labor and
6. Sufficient financial patronage.

Due to the above factors, the Canadian Shield region is well-developed in Timber and paper industry.

Population: Because of the extremely cold climate Canadian Shield region is sparsely populated. Eskimos live in the northern part of the region.

Major Cities: Important cities of the Canadian Shield region.

Ottawa(1 million in 2001): Ottawa on the Ottawa river, a tributary of St. Lawrence, is the capital of Canada.

Thunder Bayon Lake Superior, Sudbury on the Huron, and Churchill on the Hudson Bay are important cities. Sault St Marie, Winnipeg, and Thompson, etc are also important cities.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions

The climate is the aggregate of atmospheric conditions over a wide area or a time (Say at least 35 years). The natural division of the earth according to e characteristic features of climate is called a ‘Climatic region’. There is a certain world each of which has its own climatic characteristics especially, identical emp rainfall conditions.

Again, temperature and rainfall play a great role in natural vegetation type and human activities. A climatic region, thus, includes an area that as a m natural vegetation and a human lifestyle.

Read and Learn all WBBSE Notes For 8 Class Middle School Geography

The characteristics of Climatic Regions: The characteristics of climatic regions are as follows:

1. A climatic region, generally, spreads over the different parts of the earth’s surface and is almost similar in respect of the climatic condition
2. The boundary or the limit of a climatic region is not definite. It gradually changes to another climatic type.
3. For the difference of the geographical location, landform, and soil character, some dissimilarities may be found in a particular climatic type and therefore sub-divisions may be referred to.
4. The limit or boundary of a climatic region does not depend on man’s discretion. A change in the political condition does not affect the boundary of a climatic region.
5. Soil, natural vegetation, biodiversity, and even human lifestyle vary with climatic regions.

The Major Climatic Regions of the World:

The Effects of Climate on Man: ”Climate Controls Lifestyle” Climate is the most determining factor of the environment. Climate, directly on indirectly affects the different human activities in his daily life. Climate determines our food, clothing, shelter, and general mode of life.

Climate and Food: Climate helps to determine our food. The food habits of the people from season to season. In cold areas, people depend on animal food to keep themselves warm. Rice is the staple food in the Monsoon climate. In hot and humid lands, people depend on vegetables and food called vegetarians.

Climate and Clothing: The type of clothing varies according to the changes in the weather and the climate in hot humid equatorial regions, man lives half-naked and wears cotton clothes. In cold areas, people use the right woolen clothes. In the Tundra region, People put on fur and tight-fitting clothes to Protect their bodies against cold.

Climate and Shelter: Man builds his house to suit the various elements of climate such as temperature, rainfall, etc. In areas of dense forests, man lives on the branches of trees. In polar regions, igloo houses are built by the Eskimos. In mountainous regions, sloping roofs are built to Protect against snow and heavy rain as in Kerala. Flat-roofed houses are built in hot regions while in cooler regions, glass panes are used for doors to allow more sunlight. In the Mayan region, south-facing slopes are preferred for houses.

Climate and Agriculture: Climate determines the growth of crops in a region. Three ice, in a year, are grown in Monsoon regions. In the Tundra region, agriculture is not possible due to the short growing season and vegetables are grown in glass houses. In arid areas, irrigation is used to grow crops. Farmers and their crops are still at the mercy of climate and weather. Sugarcane, cotton, and rice are the crops suited to Tropical regions only.

Climate and Human Efficiency: Climate affects our mental alertness, physical characteristics, and racial differences. In cold areas, people are hard-working and efficient. In hot areas, people are easy-going and lazy. Due to many fatal diseases and insects, the people in the equatorial region have poor health and the region is known as the “region of debilitation”, climate affects the growth of fungi and diseases. Agricultural Bulletins help farmers to take precautions against frost, hail, drought, etc.

Climate and Human Activities: Climate influences the location of industries Cotton textile in humid areas, fruit processing industries in the Mediterranean climate, his industry in dry areas are some of the examples.

Temperate regions are densely populated due to favorable climates. Climate (direction of winds) also affects the location of the trade routes. Modern air transport, military operation, and geographical expeditions depend on meteorological reports.

Thus, it can be concluded that climate has both direct and indirect influences on human activities, civilization, and mode of life. It is one of the fundamental components of nature and the environment. Man has learned to adjust and adapt himself to the varying climatic conditions.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Hot-Humid Equatorial Climatic Region

The Equatorial Regions are known by several names depending on the types of climate or local natural vegetation. The regions are described as ‘Hot-Humid/Wet Equatorial Region’, “Equatorial Rainforest Region’ or “Tropical Rain Forest Region’.

The region experiencing a hot, wet equatorial climate has high temperatures and much rainfall throughout the year. So dense forests grow here. The region is hence called the ‘Equatorial/Tropical Rainforest Region’.

The uniqueness of the Equatorial Region: The Equatorial Regions have several distinctions to their credit—

1. They are the lands of the overheating sun.
2. They receive very high insolation.
3. The difference between the durations of day and night is the least.
4. The periods of dawn and dusk in the region are the shortest.
5. They are the lands with the highest relative humidity all through the year.
6. They have only one season—simultaneously hot and humid.
7. With ascending air it is a region of calm or doldrums. Thus the Equatorial Regions are unique in themselves in ways more than one.

Location: The Equatorial Region extends generally between 10″ North and 10″ South latitudes on both sides of the Equator. The region includes parts of the Amazon Basin and Guianas in South America. Zaire Basinand Guinea coastjn Africa.

In Asia, the main areas are Malaysia Indonesia, Papua and New Guinea, Southern Philippines, and peninsular parts of Thailand.

The characteristics of Equatorial Climate: High temperature, heavy rainfall, and perpetual summer without any change of seasons characterize the equatorial type of climate. They can be summed up in the following:

1. The Equatorial Region receives vertical rays of the sun all year round and therefore temperature remains high.
2. Throughout the year temperature remains almost the same.
3. The average temperature all around the year ranges between 25°C to 27°C.
4. The range of temperature between day and night is minimum [2° to 5°C].
5. There is no change of season.
6. Rains fall all year round. It occurs in heavy downpours.
7. The annual rainfall averages between 200 cm to 300 cm.
8. There is no dry month. Generally, rainfall occurs every day. It comes at a particular hour.

Conditions of the important elements of climate in the Equatorial Region:

Temperature: Temperature conditions range between 25°C and 30°C during the year. The annual range of temperature is usually less than 5°C. If the maximum temperature during the day is about 30°C, the minimum temperature at night may be about 25°C.

Cloudy skies Prevent the loss of radiation in the night and cooling of the atmosphere. The difference between maximum and minimum temperature among the different months of the year is so small.

Air pressure and wind: Intense low-pressure forms over the Equatorial Region due to high temperatures throughout the year.

The location of this type of climate coincides with that of the Equatorial low-pressure belt and the ‘Inter Tropical Convergence Zone’ (ITCZ). NE and SE trade merge here. Equatorial calm/Doldrums has formed here.

Rainfall: Convection rainfall occurs throughout the year. The sky is generally clear in the morning, but rainfall occurs in the afternoon between 2 pm to 4 pm. with thunders in torrential form. So, this rainfall is known as ‘4 o’clock rain’. The sky clears up again at night.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Biodiversity

Flora/Natural Vegetation: Due to high temperature, humidity, and rainfall, the flora or natural vegetation of Equatorial Regions is very luxuriant. Tropical or Equatorial rainforests are found in this region. There are four levels of vegetation found in Equatorial forests.

1. Some of the trees manage to grow as tall as 40 to 45 meters (above 30 meters). These are Emergent trees.
2. The next in order are the trees with medium heights (about 15—30 meters). There is a continuous layer of tree crowns.
3. Palms and Palmyra trees open up their crowns at a lower height (In between 7-5 to 15 meters). There were young of trees festooned with lianas.
4. The ground floor of the layered or multi-storeyed forest consists of un regrowth of ferns and short bushes. The fern-like undergrowth is not dependent on sunshine. Creepers climb up the trees weaving a maze as it were.

Over a small area un reds of different species of trees grow side by side. The trees are so close to each other at their leaves form an overhead layer or canopy. The canopy does not allow sunlight to penetrate and reach the forest floor.

So, this region is known as the “Region of twilight”. The equatorial forests are known for hardwoods. The main trees of these forests are mahogany, rubber, guttapercha, cinchona, sandal wood, rosewood, ironwood, cocoa, palm, oil palm, sago palm, coconut palm, etc. Sal, Teak, and Ablus trees are also found here.

Summing up all the features we can conclude the following chief characteristics of these forests.

1. The thickest vegetation is found around the Equator. Great heat, abundant rainfall, and bright sunshine are basic factors responsible for thick forest growth.
2.  Mahogany, ebony rosewood, ironwood, rubber, etc. are found in abundance. These trees are hardwood trees.
3. There are great varieties of trees found scattered throughout the whole forest area.
4. In marshy lands and river mouths, such as in the Guinea coast, coconut, and palm oil trees are found in abundance.
5. There are distinct layers of arrangements in equatorial forests.

Fauna/ Animal Life: The Equatorial forests abound in wildlife. There are varieties of wild animals. They can be categorized as follows:

Giant Animals: These types of animals are found in two places. Elephants and Rhinoceroses are found near the edges of open forests where some grasses are also available. Hippopotamus is found in lakes, rivers, and swampy areas. Hippos, crocodiles, turtles, and different kinds of fish are also found in swamps and lakes.

 Birds and Anlrpfs pertaining to Trees: These types of animals include monkeys, bats, flying squirrels, tree frogs, tree lizards, tree iguanas, and reptiles. Flesh-eating animals such as snakes and jaguars are also found on trees. Most of these animals live on trees due to marshes.

 Insects: In this group of wildlife are included butterflies, termites, spiders, ticks, gnats, mosquitoes, ferocious diver ants, etc.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Socio-Economic Environment and Lifestyle

Inhabitants and their lifestyle: In hot and humid climates(Equatorial/Tropical Rain forests) the lifestyle of the indigenous peoples is largely controlled by physical environments. The Pygmies of the Congo (Zairge) basin, Red Indians of the upper Amazon basin, and Semangs of south-east Asia (Malaysia) are the main inhabitants of this region.

They are food-gathering and hunting tribes. The Andamanese and Negrito people ore still in the hunting and food gathering stage because of their oppressive and harsh climatic conditions.

The Pygmy: The Pygmies of Congo (Zaire) basin in Africa are primitive people and are one of the most backward tribes in the world; they belong to Mobutiar,d Banbuti tribes. They live in the thickest part of the equatorial forest of the Congo (Zaire) basin since time immemorial. They live in small bands and live on hunting and gathering of fruits and roots of the forest.

Their mode of life is in perfect harmony with the environment. As the Pygmies roam after games and gather fruits and roots of the forest from one place to another, they have no permanent shelter. They wear little clothes. Their clothes consist of barks or leaves of trees. They also use the skin of animals. The pygmies still lead their Primitive life.

The Red Indians of the Amazon basin: The Red Indians of the Amazon basin are some of the backward tribes of the world. They live in the selva forest of the Amazon river basin of South America.

They are widely scattered over the forest, but they have a similar ways of living. They live on hunting and gathering fruits and roots of the forest. They wear very little clothing and eat all kinds of animals. Little change is found in them.

Semang: Semangs are indigenous peoples of the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia. They are of small stature with wide noses, thick lips, and a black complexion. Like their food supply, the clothing of the Semang is supplied mainly from the forest.

They do not build permanent dwellings and live in temporary huts. The mode of living of the Semang is in the hunting stage.

In recent years, some changes have been noticed in their lifestyle. Some of them have come to contact of modern civilization. They flock to the rubber gardens to secure jobs. They are willing to work and join the general flow of living in the modern world.

Other Primitive Tribes of S.E. Asia: There are a number of primitive tribes in eastern Malaysia. Of them Iban, Dasunand Torajaare important. The Andamanese, Jarov/as, Onges, Sentineleesof the Andaman Group of Islands, live on hunting and gathering fruits and roots of the forest.

They still follow their primitive ideas and lead the life of the jungle. Nicoborees and Shompen live in the Nicobar group of Islands. They also live wildlife.

The Equatorial regions are generally the most backward areas of the world. An unhealthy climate and diseases like yellow fever make people lazy. They have poor health and lack energy. Hence, it is called a region of debilitation’.The oppressive climate makes it unsuitable for white settlers. This region is thus called the “white man’s graveyard”.

Occupations of the people:

Hunting: The native people hunt animals, birds, and reptiles with poisoned arrows.
Fishing: People living near rivers and sea, are fishermen. They use a boat named a canoe for fishing.
Limbering: Lumbering is limited. Some valuable hardwood trees are cut for cabinet wood.
Mining: ln some areas, mineral resources are exploited, such as copper in Zaire Basin, tin in Malaysia, petroleum in Indonesia, and gold, bauxite, and manganese in Ghana.
Food gathering: The native people collect many materials from the forests such as fruits, ivory, nuts, rubber, gum, drugs, etc. Quinine is obtained from the Cinchona tree in java.
Shifting cultivation: Some native tribes practiced a special type of agriculture. It is known as sffittmg cultivation, ‘Milpa'(Brazil), and ‘Ladang'(Indonesia). Forests are burnt and cleared. Crops of rice, millet, manioc, and bananas are grown. After two or three crops, the fertility of the soil is exhausted and people move on to new plots of land.

Plantation Agriculture: European traders established colonies here in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and practiced plantation farming in these regions,

1. Rubber in Malay, Java, and Sumatra of south-east Asia,
2. Sugarcane and banana in West indies,
3. Cocoa and plam on the Guinea coast,
4. Tea and coffee in Sri Lanka,
5. Spices and coconuts in Sri Lanka were the main plantation crops that provided a livelihood for local inhabitants.

Industry: The dearth of raw materials has prevented the growth of heavy industries in this region. However, some industries have emerged based on local agro-based, forest based and mineral-based raw materials.

Present Scenario: In this region, the environment is unfavorable for human settlement. In recent years uncontrolled growth of the population has led to the emergence of new settlement here.

Vast stretches of evergreen rainforest is being destroyed every day due to the great demand of land for settlements, cultivation, industry, and transport.
Civilization is at a low level in most areas.

Where white men have settled, people have a better mode of living. Lumbering has become an important industry. Sawmilling has also developed. In some parts, margarine, and soap making, sugar-producing, and palm oil extracting are notable.

Future Prospects: Even today, the equatorial region does not show much sign of advancement. With the progress of science and technology, there is a great possibility for the development of the equatorial region:

1. Today’s backward regions hold possibilities for the generation of hydroelectric power, which can bring about economic progress.
2. Application of atomic energy may help eradicate of various diseases and thereby will pave the way for human habitation.
3. Forest clearings will provide ample scope for agricultural practices. The native tribes will come to contact with the civilized people and they all together will build up a new home for a man with modern amenities of life.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Warm Climate -Monsoon Climatic Region

The word ‘Monsoon’ is derived from the Arabian word ‘Mousim’ or the Malayan word ‘Mausin’ both of which mean ‘season’. So, the wind that blows following the season is known as ‘Monsoon Wind’, and the climate controlled by that wind is called ‘Monsoon Climate’.

Location: The Tropical Monsoon type of climate occurs in the eastern margins of continents lying 10° to 30° north and south of the Equator. The climate of the south and south-east Asian countries, namely India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,- Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam are monsoon types. The Phillippines, South China, Queensland of northern Australia, east coast of Africa such as Somalia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Florida coast of U.S.A., east coast of Brazil are also affected by this type of climate.

Climatic Characteristics: The Tropical Monsoon climate is characterized by the following factors:

This type of climate is mainly controlled by the ‘Monsoon wind’.
The climate is influenced by the ‘Tropic of Cancer (23 1/2° North) and the ‘Tropic of Capricorn (23 1/2° South).
The wind blows in opposite direction in summer and winter. In monsoon lands in summer moist south-west monsoon wind blows and in winter dry north-east monsoon wind blows.

1. The region is also characterized by hot-humid summer and dry mild winter.
2. Average summer temperature varies between 30°C and 32°C and in winter, average temperature ranges between 19°C and 22°C.
3. Annual rainfall of monsoon lands varies between 125 cm and 175 cm. But rainfall decreases away from the coasts to the interior.
4. The amount of total rainfall is lesser than in the equatorial region. Rainfall occurs mainly in the summer. Winters are generally dry.
5. Seasonality is a salient feature of the monsoon climate. ,
6. In the Northern and Southern hemispheres seasonal conditions are just reversed.
7. The whimsical nature of monsoon ‘Gambling of the monsoons’ causes floods and droughts.

Seasonal Characteristics of the elements of climate in the Monsoon climatic Region: The monsoon climates are basically caused by the unequal heating or cooling of the land and sea. This results in differences of pressure. So, winds blow from high-pressure to low-pressure areas as the on-shore wet monsoons in summer and off-shore dry monsoons in winter. The principal characteristic 60 of monsoon climate is a charge of seasons.

In Northern Hemisphere:

1. From December to February, it is cold 48 and dry winter. The average temperature is generally 19°C—22°C. South-east trade wind blows over South and Southeast Asia as the North-east monsoon wind. This wind does not cause rain to fall.
2. From March to 24 May, it is a hot and dry summer. The average temperature is about 3 0° C. Sometimes temperature exceeds 38°C. Intense heat creates low pressure over the landmass. Some amount of rainfall occurs in Assam, Bangladesh, and Myanmar in the months of March and April.
3. From June to September, it is the rainy season. When the South-west monsoon comes from the Indian Ocean via the Arabian sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch enters the Indian Sub-continent then sudden and heavy rainfall occurs with thunder and lightning. It is known as the ‘Burst of Monsoons’. In this season water vapor is maximum in the air an occurs in November Then temperature is decreased due to rainfall.
4. From the middle of September, it is Autumn, which is also known as the season of ‘Retreating Monsoon, energy, and cold climate prevail. The formation of a deep depression in the Bay of Benga causes thunderstorms.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Biodiversity

Flora/Natural Vegetation: The vegetation of the monsoon region varies with rainfall, is more than 200 cm, Tropical Evergreen Rainforests are found. These forests are more open than the Equatorial Rain Forests (Selvas) and there are fewer species. Ebony Mahogany, Rosewood, Toon, Poon, and Chaplash are some trees of these forests.

Where rainfall is less and there is a marked dry period, deciduous forests of Sal, Mahua, Palash, Teak, Bamboos, Acacia (in drier areas), and varieties of Eucalyptus (in northern Australia) are found. In areas of scanty rain, semi-arid desert conditions prevail.

There the vegetation consists of Cacti and Thorny bushes. Fruit trees like Mango, Jackfruit, and Bananas are also common in India and Bangladesh. In the Sundarbans mangrove forests (Sundari, Garan, Geona, Hental, etc.) are found.

Fauna/Wild Life: Important wild animals of monsoon lands are elephants, Rhinoceros, monkeys, Deer; Jackals, Hyenas, leopards, wolves, bears, foxes, etc. The Sundarbans of India and Bangladesh is the home of the famous ‘Royal Bengal Tiger’  and Gir forest in Gujrat is the home of Lions.

Different types of reptiles like snakes’ are found in this region. At the river estuary of coastal areas crocodiles, Turtles, Crabs, and huge amounts of Fish are found.

Agriculture: Agriculture is the chief occupation and forms the backbone of the economy of this region. But in this regard, the role of monsoons is very vital. A variety of crops, such as rice, wheat, millets, oilseeds, Jute, Tea, Coffee, and different vegetables are cultivated in monsoon lands. Among these crops, rice is the most important.

Pastoral Resource: Livestock farming is practiced in this region as a subsidiary occupation on a domestic level. These animals are cattle, buffaloes, and sheep. Therefore, large quantities of milk, meat or hides or skins are produced.

Mineral Resources: Certain areas in monsoon lands are rich in mineral resources. Coal, bauxite, mica, manganese, copper, and iron ore is available abundantly in peninsular India. Petroleum and Natural gas are produced in Myanmar, Southern China, and in some parts of India.

Besides these minerals, Thailand produces tin, Myanmar produces tungsten and precious stones and Bangladesh produces natural gas.

Industry: Industries are developed in those areas where agricultural and mineral resourceslafe available. The important industries of this region are—

1. Iron and steel industry Cotton and Jute textile, sugar, and engineering industries in India,
2. Jute industry in Bangladesh,
3. Oil refining in Myanmar,
4. Electronics and engineering industries in Thailand,
5. Sugar, cotton, and jute industries in Sn China,
6. Cotton textile industry in Pakistan.

Transportation: Innumerable roadways and railways run through the plains of monsoon lands. Rivers provide cheap waterways. Most of the important and big cities and towns are connected by airways. All the modes have been well developed. But the transport system of the monsoon climatic region in Africa and South America is not developed.

Settlement: Monsoon regions of Asia is the world’s most densely populated area. Due to favorable fertile soil, enriched agriculture, and developed transport network density of the population is very high in the river valleys of the Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Irrawady, Si-kiang, Mekong, etc.

But in the mountainous regions and scanty rainfall areas of monsoon regions are sparsely populated. The density of the population is also very less in the coastal areas of Brazil, northern Australia, and in the eastern coast of Africa.

The lifestyle of the people: The Monsoon climatic region is the best-suited region for human settlements. Monsoon lands have a long history of human occupation. India and China are among the oldest civilizations in the world.

There is a rich diversity of religion, culture, r costumes, and social customs. Monsoon region has an agricultural civilization. Most of the people live in villages. People have a low standard of living. Some of the largest towns in the world are found in this region.

Cities and ports: The important and major populated cities are—

1. Mumbai,
2. Kolkata,
3. Delhi (capital),
4. Chennai,
5. Bangalore,
6. Hyderabad in India
7. Karachi in Pakistan,
8. Dhaka (capital) in Bangladesh,
9. Colombo in Sri Lanka,
10. Yangon in Myanmar,
11. Bangkok (capital) in Thailand and
12. Hanoi (capital) in Vietnam.

Important ports of the Monsoon lands are Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Yangon, Karachi, Chittagong, etc.

Future of the region: There is a bright possibility of rapid economic prosperity in this region through developed infrastructure, technology, and establishment -of modern industry with the abundance of favorable climate, agriculture, forest products, and mineral resources. Though there are different problems, this region is developing gradually. So, this region is called, the “Region of Increment”.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Temperate Climate- MediterraneanClimate Region

The Mediterranean climatic region is a special region of a warm temperate zone. The Mediterranean type of climate gets its name because extensive areas abound the Mediterranean sea enjoy this climate. In general, the western margins of the continents in the warm temperate zone have Mediterranean climate.

Location: The western portion of the continents lies between 30 to 45 North and South of the Equator. France, Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Albania, Former Yugoslavia of Europe, Turkey, Israel, Syria, Lebanon of Asia, Egypt, Morocco, Libya, and Algeria.

Tunisia of Africa—these sixteen countries are mostly influenced by the Mediterranean climate. There are some areas that are not abounded by the Mediterranean sea but there this type of climate can be observed.

These areas are as follows:

1. The coastal areas of California in North America,
2. Central Chile, 3Q west of the Andes range in South America. It is 28 the most representative form of the Mediterranean 26 type climate.
3. Cape Town in South Africa.
4. South-east and 20 South-western parts of Australia and Northern 18 Island of New Zealand.

Climatic Characteristics: The chief characteristics of the 12 Mediterranean climates are as follows:

1. Moderate temperature prevails throughout the year.
2. Rainfall occurs in winter but summer remains dry (reverse of monsoon climate).
3. This climate is D 1 influenced by the location of seas.
4. During the dry summer, the Mediterranean regions are under the influence of trade winds. During the winter season, this region comes under the influence of the westerlies.
5. The total amount of rainfall in this region is about 50 cm. to 100 cm. annually.
6. The Mediterranean climate is characterized by bright, sunny weather. Sunshine is always abundant in the Mediterranean lands because the sky is clear almost throughout the year.
7. The temperature drops sharply at night because of the clear sky.
8. The range of temperature is higher than equatorial climate but less than Tropical Monsoon or Tropical desert type of climate.

Seasonal conditions of the elements of climate in the Mediterranean Climatic Region: In winter the prevailing on-shore westerlies bring much rain from the ocean to the Mediterranean lands. Winter is the rainy season in the Mediterranean lands where annual rainfall varies between 30 cm. and 90 cm. The average winter temperature ranges between 5°C and 10°C.

In summer with the shifting of the westerlies poleward, the Mediterranean lands come under the Trade winds. The prevailing Trade winds are off-shore; as such they are dry and give no rain. The average summer temperature of this region varies between 21°C and 27°C. The range of temperature is about 6°C to 8°C.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Biodiversity

Flora/Natural vegetation: Winter rain and summer drought control the growth of natural vegetation here.
(1)In certain cooler highlands, Evergreen Coniferous trees, such as pine, fir, spruce, larch, cedar, palm, etc. are found.

(2)Evergreen broad-leaved trees are found on low-lying areas. The chief characteristics of this type are as follows:

1. The leaves of some plants are leathery. They have capacity to restore water,
2. The roots are long, thick, and wide spreading. They draw moisture from deep layers of the earth,
3. The barks of some plants are thick and have a narrow opening where they can store water. Cork oak, Olive, Chestnut, etc. are the chief trees. Olive trees are seen in maximum in this region.

(3) The shrubs and bushes are also growing: Typical Vegetation of Mediterranean Lands. ‘ on the hillsides. Rose Mary, Laurel, Mallee, Maquis, Lavender, etc. are the main varieties.

Fauna/Animal life and rearing: Due to rainless dry summer and wet winter here is found little grassland and the lack of lush Greenlands makes this region unsuitable for animal rearing. Hence donkeys, sheep, goats, and mules are more reared than horses or cattle. Hen and camel are more reared near hot deserts. Sheep rearing is important in Spain. The original home of the merino sheep is prized for wool.

Agriculture: Agriculture is the main economic activity of the people in most parts of the Mediterranean lands. Temperate climates and moderate rainfall enrich this region in agriculture. Important agricultural crops are cereals like wheat, maize, barley, and rice; vegetables like tomato, beans, carrot, etc. and fiber crops like hemp and cotton.

Due to moderate rainfall, and bright and abundant sunny weather in this region grapes, oranges, olives, apples, apricots, peaches, almonds, pears, lemons, walnut, peanuts, plum, and different types of citrus fruits are produced here.

Hence this region is known as the “Basket of fruits” or ” Orchard Farming Lands” of the world. The typically Mediterranean fruit is olive which is used not only as a cooling medium but also used for making olive oil and cosmetic industry.

MineraljResource: This climatic region is not rich in minerals. A few minerals are produced in limited areas, such as iron ore is produced in Spain; Sulpher, mercury, marbles, and granites are available in Italy; Bauxites is mined in southern France; petroleum, natural gas, and gold are produced in California; chromium, lead, and zinc in Turkey and nitrate is produced in central Chile.

Industry: Many countries of the Mediterranean climatic regions are famous for different industries. The major/ important industries are

1. Fruit processing industry (Jam, Jelly, Pickle, etc.)
2. Wine Production,
3. Tourism developed due to bright sunshine, moderate climate, and attractive scenic beauty and
4. The film industry of Rome in Italy and Hollywood in California where the clear sky and long hours of bright sunshine are very much favorable for this industry. Other industries
5. include,
6. Engineering,
7. Petrochemical,
8. Aluminium and
9. Flour industry.

Settlement and Lifestyle of the People: The charming healthy climate of this region is suitable for human settlement. Developed economic infrastructure, the privilege of occupation make this region densely populated and inhabitants are economically enriched.

The Mediterranean shorelands were the ‘cradle of world civilizations’ in the past. These regions were seats of ancient civilizations like Greek, Roman, etc. This region gave birth to great religions of the world. People are highly civilized.

Important Cities and Ports: Important cities of the Mediterranean climatic regions are—Rome (capital of Italy), and Naples in Italy. Athens (capital) in Greece; Cairo (capital) and Alexandria in Egypt, Til Aviv (capital) in Israel; Algiers (capital) in Algeria; Los Angeles in California; Adelaide in Australia; Cape town in South Africa; Llsben in Portugal are the main cities, ports, and industrial centers.

Future of the Region: Mediterranean lands were once the cradle of the civilization of Romans and Greek. For human development, climate plays an important role. It also attracts a large number of tourists.

Scientific and economic development have helped people achieve a high standard of living. All the countries of this region are highly developed and densely populated. People can easily earn their livelihood with a little effort. Therefore, the Mediterranean region is also called the “Region of Increment”.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Cold Climate-Tundra Climate Region

A cold barren plain region lying around the Arctic circle is called the ‘Tundra pimatic Region’. Northern parts of Asia, Europe, and North America are ice-capped and have typical vegetation like algae, such as mosses and lichens which grow only in a few ice-free months.

‘Tundra’ is the name of this type of vegetation, as such the climate is named after its vegetation.

Location: This region is lying beyond 65° north parallel of latitude and on the northern side of the coniferous forest belt. On the map, this location is marked by Isotherm limits of 0° to 10°C. Beyond it there is perpetual snow.

Boundary: The Tundra Climatic region covers the coastal strips of the Arctic Ocean in North America, Europe, and Asia. The main areas are the coastal strips of Canada and the coastal strip of Greenland. In Europe, the Tundra covers Iceland, the northern coast of Scandinavia, and small islands adjoining the coast.

The arctic coast of the Russian Commonwealth has a narrow strip of Tundra. A small part of Antarctica in the southern hemisphere is also in this region.

Characteristics of the climate: The climate of the Tundra region is characterized by the following feature:

1. It experiences severe cold and long winters.
2. Summer are short and cold.
3. Winter temperature remains below the freezing point (average temperature-22)
4. Temperatures are very low all year round.
5. The range of temperature between the maximum and the minimum is very much wide.
6. The rainfall is scanty and it is less than about 25 cm. annually.
7. The rainfall is chiefly of cyclonic in origin and falls in the summer
8. Heavy snowfall and blizzards are common in Winter.

Seasonal Conditions of the major elements of the climate: Winters are very long in this region. For about nine to ten months temperatures remain at freezing point. When heavy snowfall and blizzards occur, then the ground becomes frozen. The temperature drops to even from – 30°C to – 40°C. In winter, there is continuous darkness for 2/3 months.

However twilight stays for long periods when snow reflects the light of different celestial bodies and the glowing red or green curtains of Aurora Borealis are visible in the six months night sky. Summers occur here only for 2/3 months when temperature varies between 0°C and 10°C. The rainfall is light and occurs in Summer.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Biodiversity

Flora/Natural Vegetation: The natural vegetation of the Tundra region can be divided into the following groups

1. The Bush Tundra,
2. The Grass Tundra and
3. Flowering vegetation.

1. The Bush Tundra: The Bush Tundra has scrubby alders, birches, and willow which grow during short summer when ice melts.
2. The Grass’Tundra: The Grass Tundra covers a large area and grows generally under thick snow cover. Moss, lichen, and sedge are these types of vegetation.
3. Flowering Vegetation: During the summer, the thick ice cover begins to melt down and the flowering plants start to grow. They are short-lived plants and die after showing their colorful sight for a short period.

Fauna/Animal Life: In the Tundra climatic region most of the land animals are equipped with thick furs or long hairs to protect themselves against the bitterly cold winters. They have also thick layers of fat which provide them with more protection and food reserves for winter.

They are reindeer, polar bear, blue fox, musk-ox, hare, sled dog, caribou, and lemming. In the coastal region of the Arctic seas, there live seals, walruses, whales, and different types of fish. In summer birds migrate to the north and inhabit the Tundra. Penguins are very common in Antarctica.

Chapter 6 Climate Regions: Socio-Economic Environment And Life Style

Inhabitant’s lifestyle: The region is the least developed. The population is sparse. The average density of the population is less than one person per square kilometer. In North America, the Eskimos number only about 25000. Agriculture is not possible.

Life is difficult as the means of livelihood are limited. Therefore, this region is called the ”Region of Everlasting Difficulties”.

Occupation of the people:

1. Hunting: Most natives are hunters. They depend on hunting for fur and food.
2. Fishing: In coastal areas, people are fishermen. Eskimos use a boat named ‘a kayak’ for fishing. A spear named ‘harpoon’ is used for hunting seal.
3. Trapping: Trapping for fur-bearing animals is an important occupation.
4. Herding: Fur-bearing animals are reared on a commercial scale. Reindeer Farms have been established in Siberia.

The lifestyle of the People: People in Tundra are Nomads. They have to adapt themselves to the harsh environment. Many nomadic tribes are found in different parts of this region such as:

1. The Samoyeds, Yakuts in Siberia,
2. Laps and Fins in Europe,
3. Eskimos in Canada and Alaska.

These tribes move from place to place in search of food’ They can hardly maintain a livelihood. So, their number is decreasing. They live in compact snow huts (Igloos) during winter. In summer, they live in portable tents of skin (Topics).

Eskimos are hunters, fishers, and food gatherers. Their food is obtained from berries, fish, seals, and walruses. Reindeer provide a supply of meat, milk, fat, etc. Warm clothes are used in this region.

Recent Developments in Tundra Region: During the last few decades, the lifestyle of the Eskimos has seen many changes due to contact with white men. Log cabins, wooden houses, speed boats, and guns are being used. Women use sewing machines instead of bone needles. Reindeer farms and fisheries have been developed.

Railway lines have been constructed for transporting minerals. Ports like Igarka have been constructed on the Arctic ocean. Fur and Timber is shipped from Siberia. Modern ‘Ice-breakers’ keep the ports free. Many meteorological observatories have been established for the study of weather conditions.

Air transport is increasing in polar areas. Some parts are made ice-free and agriculture is done here with the latest technology by the greenhouse. Recently this region has been developed and inhabitants are habituated to modern lifestyle.

Future of this region: The region, was once regarded as completely useless, but now there is an indication of economic improvement that will be of great.

Chapter 7 Human Activities And Environmental Degradation

Even in the modern computer world environment plays a great role in human life. The word ‘environment refers to all those visible or invisible elements around a man which directly or indirectly affect his life and livelihood.

The advancement of Civilization and its effect on the environment: Early man was not capable of modifying his environment. He could not cut the trees even. He was frightened by the lightning and thunder of the clouds. He was afraid of wildlife living in dense forests.

Read and Learn all WBBSE Notes For 8 Class Middle School Geography

He was threatened by vast oceans and rivers. He used to worship the different forms of nature such as mountains, oceans, rivers and forests. It is an evidence that man was dominated by nature.

In early times, the lifestyle of man was entirely dependent on nature. Then his demands were few and all his time was devoted to gathering food, hunting and self-defence. Gradually, a man tried to live in harmony with nature—

1. He started felling the trees and using the wood for his shelter,
2. He learnt how to lit light and fire. Fire protected him from wild animals and cold,
3. He started hunting wild animals,
4. He made tools out of stone and then metals,
5. Hunting and fishing helped him to overcome nature,
6. The use of technology helped man to overcome the limitation of the environment,
7. Agriculture provided a settled life of man.
8. Transport helped him to discover new areas,
9. Man modified his environment with new inventions,
10. The desert climate of Saudi Arabia was modified by the use of Air-conditioners.

Human activities has resulted in the degradation of the environment in the past. They were not aware of it. Deforestation has led to declining of Mesopotamian civilization in Iraq, Incas in Peru, and Indus valley civilization suffered due to the felling of trees on hill slopes. It resulted in soil erosion, floods, silting of canals and making cultivated land barren. It resulted in famines, droughts, deaths and desertion of villages.

The Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth century was a giant step in the advancement of civilization. From that time onward progress in industry, science, medicine and technology was really expedited. The Industrial Revolution encouraged the use of machines. Steam engines and other machines were invented. It had a dangerous effect on the environment.

1. It disturbed the equilibrium of the environment.
2. Many people died of accidents in factories.
3. Smoke from the factories and many pollutants polluted the water and air.
4. The population has increased. It has led to an energy crisis also.

The two World Wars in the twentieth century, testing of military weapons, scientific research and experiments and economic development started changing the face of the planet irreversibly. The malice of these has affected the entire living world adversely.

Chapter 7 Human Activities And Environmental Degradation: Environment Degradation

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the quality of the environment. Elements of the environment like water, soil, air etc. are affected by such deterioration.

Environmental degradation refers to the deterioration in the physical components of the environment, mainly due to the biological processes but more especially human activity, to such a great extent that cannot be easily restored by the self-regulatory mechanism or homoeostatic mechanism of the environment.

Homoeostatic Mechanism: The physical and biotic processes of nature have a self-regulatory style of working. Any change or damage caused by them to the environment is naturally restored, compensated or adjusted. This is called Homoeostatic Mechanism.

Environmental degradation may be due to extreme events and hazards or pollution. Extreme events and hazards are unexpected threats of a large impact. They may be classified on the basis of causative factors.

Natural Hazards: Natural Hazards are caused by natural factors. These may be terrestrial natural hazards which occur on the earth’s land surface, e.g., the continents and are caused by endogenetic forces, e.g., volcanic eruptions, earthquakes etc.

Atmospheric natural hazards occur by atmospheric processes affecting the living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components of the natural environmental system, e.g., cyclones, forest fires etc. and cumulative atmospheric hazards, caused by atmospheric processes which accumulate for several years in continuation, e.g., flood, drought etc.

Man-made Hazards: Man-made or Man-induced hazards are the result of cumulative and even sudden effects of man’s activities. These could be physical man-induced hazards, caused by large-scale landslides, deliberate forest fires etc;

chemical and nuclear hazards, caused by the release of toxic elements in the atmosphere by human activities, accidental outbursts of poisonous gases from chemical factories, nuclear explosions; and biological hazards induced by man, for example, sudden increase or decrease in the population of a species in a region due to increased nutrients or increase in toxic elements.

Biological hazards (not caused by man) include dangers posed by epidemics, natural extinction of any particular species, locusts, swarms etc.
It should be noted that environmental degradation caused by natural factors affects human lives but nature and mankind can restrict and repair such damage to a great extent.

On the other hand, various human activities (transportation, industrialization, use of chemical fertilizers and technology, and overall development) have irreversible adverse effects on the environment.

Chapter 7 Human Activities And Environmental Degradation: Some Development Plans And Their Effects

Modern Agricultural Methods:

Aim: The aim of the modern agricultural method is to increase agricultural production.

Results: Different chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used to increase agricultural production but it has an irreversible adverse effect on the environment. It pollutes soil and water.

Polluted water flows into the soil, is discharged into ponds, canals, rivers and other water bodies killing aquatic flora and fauna. Unscientific methods of cultivation reduce soil fertility also.

Urbanisation:

Aim: The aim of urbanisation is the provision for shelter and a better lifestyle.

Results of Urbanisation: Urbanisation depletes the reserve of underground water. It creates air and noise pollution. It creates problems of water logging. Many big cities of developing countries or the third world have grown around unplanned old cities. As a result, drainage and sanitation problems, traffic congestions and shortage of housing are acute.

Power Plants:

Aim: The aim of power plants is to produce electricity.

Results: The burning of coal and oil adds carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide to the atmosphere. The nuclear power plant also emits poisonous wastes to the environment, Due to the pollution and increase of atmospheric temperature the balance between heat received and radiated by the earth is disrupted.

Ash and wastes from power plants are dumped in nearby areas, thereby decreasing the fertility oi land as well as polluting the waters of rivers. Such as the Kolaghat thermal power station of Medinipur, West Bengal polluted air and its deposited ashes decreasing the fertility of the nearly agricultural lands as well as polluting the water of the river Rupnarayan.

Multipurpose River Valley Project:

Aim: The main aims of the Multipurpose River Valley Projects are:

1. Controlling flood
2. Supply of irrigation water
3. Helping in the production of hydroelectricity
4. Controlling soil erosion
5. Supplying drinking and industrial water etc.

Results: Dams across rivers are built to regulate the supply of water during dry periods. But silt carried by the river gets deposited in the reservoir. Below the reservoir (dam), the river is free from a load of silt.

Therefore, it erodes its own valley and surrounding area. In some rivers, the construction of a dam reduces the volume of water and causes the deposition of silt in the lower course. This results in the rise of the river beds and consequently, it leads to floods.

After the floods, the river may flow in a new channel. Thus, the river changes its course. The construction of the dam checks the deposition of silt in the lower course of the river. Sometimes the silt contains valuable nutrients. The area of the lower course of the river is deprived of such nutrients. Thus fertility of the soil is reduced and the yield of crops falls. The dams also check the free movement of fish and other organisms in the river.

Chapter 7 Human Activities And Environmental Degradation: Results Of Environment Degradation

Due to the degradation of the environment, people are forced to migrate because of the scarcity of food and energy resources. Natural hazards like droughts, floods, pollution, and accidents (due to chemical disasters, and earthquakes which occur at weak points of dams) are taking a heavy toll on human life.

Faster development of resources is leading to the degradation of the environment but it should be noted that the degradation of resources creates some problems and man is facing these from the environment as well as from the earth. It decreases biodiversity and the balance between demand-supply. It causes global warming, climate change and depletion of natural resources also.

Some Evidence of Environmental Degradation: There is some evidence which are related to environmental degradation.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984): This is an important example of a chemical disaster. Deadly Methyl Isocyanate(MIC) gas leaked out of a cracked tank of the chemical and pesticide plant of Union Carbide. About 4000 people and innumerable birds and animals died. Over 2 lakh people were affected by the disaster. People of this region are still bearing the brunt.

Nuclear Disaster in Chornobyl, Ukraine (1908) and Fukushima in Japan (2011): Nuclear disasters like the ones in Chornobyl, Ukraine and in Fukushima, Japan, remind us of the curses of modern technology.

How can Environmental Degradation be controlled: In recent times the economic activities of man have increased to the satisfaction of our needs which causes environmental degradation. Most of the resources face depletion because of environmental degradation.

This may result that the survival of man on earth becoming difficult. Environmental degradation must be checked immediately. The survival of mankind depends upon the fact that he has to live in harmony with the elements of nature.

So as conscious citizens environmentalists are campaigning and making people aware of their mission and visions to save the environment as well as the Earth. According to them, the following steps may be taken to save the environment.

1. Education and Awareness Programme: Illiteracy and lack of awareness are the main reasons for environmental degradation. It should be taken different plans to eradicate illiteracy and increase awareness about environmental issues.
2. Control of the Utilization of Wealth: It has become essential that the consumption of resources (which increases pollution) in developed countries must be reduced. Per-capita consumption of wealth, as well as energy, needs to be decreased.
3. Uses of Renewable Resources and Recycling Process: Resources should be recycled and con s users should be encouraged to use renewable or reusable commodities.
4. Must be checked Population growth: Population growth in developing countries must be checked so that the resource is conserved for future generations. The help of vigilance personnel may help to maintain of the balance between population and natural resources in a country.
5. Development in Planning way: Attention must be paid on planning and should be assessed before the implementation of the development projects by the government or others.
6. Conservation of Biodiversity: Conscious efforts should be taken to prevent the loss of biodiversity. It should be allowed all animals and plants to grow in their natural habits.
7. Increasing Reforestation: It should be restricted the deforestation and encouraged to reforestation.
8. Uses of Suitable Resources: Uses of alternative and pollution-free resources as well as sources of energy must be encouraged.
9. Awareness Programme with the Assistance of Mass Communication: To increase environmental awareness among the people it should be taken the assistance of mass- media and vigilance personnel.
10. Lawmaking: The national and local governments must prioritise environmental issues. Stricter laws must be formulated and implemented for the conservation of the environment.

What should be done: Progress and survival of mankind is not possible without development. Development is necessary, and so is saving the environment. Development and conservation of the environment have to be carried out simultaneously. Hence the eco-friendly way to progress and prosperity are to be traversed. To ensure this, environmentalists suggest ‘sustainable development’.

The idea of sustainable development is dynamic, hence the definition varies in different countries in tune with their cultural, political and economic traditions. Generally, sustainable development refers to development aimed at the optimum use of natural resources in the present scenario, so that development can go unhampered while also preserving reserves of nature and the potential of human society to develop, for future use.

There are some points of agreement which are as follows:

1. Its attainment is improbable in the short run.
2. Its basic principle is equity and justice.
3. The approach towards sustainability is balanced and integrative.
4. There are different ways, although the goal is common.
5. It views nature not only as a resource but also as the ‘earthly womb’ necessary for our survival.

The Objectives of Sustainable Development are as follows:

1. The basic needs of all, viz., the rights to live, food, shelter, clothing, education, health, etc., should be kept in mind.
2. An agri-articulated development process without disturbing ecological balance and environmental sanctity is to be initiated.
3. All countries of the world must cooperate to create a conducive environment in which the above two goals will be fulfilled.

India is a rapidly developing country. Extraction of different types of resources and execution of modern agricultural methods, construction of infrastructure like roadways, railways, industrialization, urbanisation and implementation of various projects are being carried out in different parts of the country.

Along with such developments, the occurrence of hazards, accidents and as well as environmental degradation also happen. 13 of the 20 most polluted cities in the G20 countries are in India as reported by the World Health Organization.

The main environmental problems of India are reduction in forest resources, misuse of resources, degradation of agricultural lands as well as food shortage, deterioration of public health standards, unplanned development, poverty and loss of biodiversity.

According to a report of the World Bank, recent environmental degradations cost in India is about $80 billion (about Rs. 480,000 crores) every year.

A survey on environmental degradation, conducted in 132 countries of the world reveals India ranks at the 126th position. Our country is placed right at the bottom of the list in terms of the adverse effects of air pollution on the people.

Though the problems of illiteracy and poverty which faced by. Indians cause the degradation of the environment but it is true that there are conscious citizens also. They are not sitting idle and they have started campaigning and participating in different movements which have been organized in India.

The important environmental movements are as follows:

1. Chipko Movement (1973) started in Uttar Pradesh.
2. Silent Valley Movement in Kerala (1976).
3. Protection of the Narmada Movement in the leadership of Medha Patekar. The movement is going on till now.
4. The movement offers Dam Project by the leadership of Sunderlal Bahuguna.

Environmental Degradation Problem related to the Green Revolution: The success of the ‘Green Revolution’ is mostly found in the wheat belt of North-Western India (mainly in Punjab and Haryana). But present negative side effects resulted in the form of environmental degradation.

A sudden rise in the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has harmed the long-term fertility of soil and caused water pollution. Even in the case of chemical fertilizers, the ideal N : P: K ratio of 4: 2: 1 has not been maintained.

Besides high yielding seeds speed up vital genetic defects. The supply of water in irrigation as wasteful useful water, the water table has fallen sharply and other harmful effects of injudicious use of water include waterlogging, silting, salinisation, alkalinisation etc.

Environmental Degradation in East Kolkata (Dhapa, Salt Lake etc.): At present environmental degradation is.blatantly visible in the ‘Salt Lake’ Wetlands of East Kolkata. The wetlands have been filled and used as construction sites for high-rises. As a consequence, the groundwater level has fallen. The quality of groundwater decreases and salinity increases.

Acquisition of cultivable lands and felling of frees for the construction of buildings have disturbed the ecological balance as well as environmental degradation.

Besides, dumping of garbage in the Dhapa area has contaminated water and soil substantially and also made the air stink.

What can the students of Class 8 do in spite of all their limitations:

1. Keep the school, home and neighbourhood clean. Plant trees on school premises in -the yard or in the rooftop plant pots or in the roadsides.
2. Initiate a ‘Green Compaingn’ is possible, in nearby areas.
3. They should be conscious and reasonable when they use electricity and water. They should not waste such resources.
4. They should reduce domestic waste as far as practicable and stop using materials like nylon, plastic etc.
5. They should avoid overuse of electrical equipment like A.C. machines, refrigerators etc. and use of cosmetics like scents, creams, deodorants etc. They should not burn many
6. quantities of fossil, fuels (coal, petroleum etc.).
7. They should organize or participate in awareness programmes, seminars, rallies, debates etc. in their school or any institution nearly to promote their own and public awareness of
8. environmental degradation as well as environmental issues.

Chapter 8 Some Neighbouring Countries Of India

A person who dwells near another is called a ‘neighbour’. People living around us are our neighbours. It is very important to keep good relations with neighbours. The adjoining countries or the countries lying near or beside a particular country are called ‘neighbouring countries.

As a good neighbour, a country should maintain a good relationship with its neighbouring countries because of the following reasons:

Read and Learn all WBBSE Notes For 8 Class Middle School Geography

1. No country is totally self-sufficient. Every country imports certain commodities and exports its surplus commodities, So there is an exchange of commodities to meet each other’s needs. But trade with the neighbouring countries can be carried only if good relations are maintained with them. So good relations with the neighbouring countries are essential for the growth of trade and commerce.
2. A good relationship with the neighbouring countries considerably determines our peace and prosperity; because a strange relationship with a neighbouring country entails high expenditure on defence accounts curtailing expenditures on social and economic uplift of the people.
3. Good relation on the other hand not only reduces defence expenditure but can also take advantage of mutual benefits derived from trade, technical know-how and a larger market for selling products.
4. Good fences made good neighbours. If good relations are not maintained border disputes arise and cause tension, Indo-Pak and Indo-China wars over our northern borders are good examples. This hampers the economic development of a country. So there should be good relations with the neighbouring countries.
5. A country should try to maintain a good relationship with neighbouring countries for the establishment of industries. It helps to collect raw materials and market for its finished products in the neighbouring countries which are not at all developed in industries.
6. Friendly neighbouring countries may act as buffer states during wartime’.
7. In the international field, a country should follow the policy of life and let live. It stands for international peace and understanding. The formation of SAARC explains the importance of mutual understanding among the nations of the sub-continent.
8. A country should maintain a good relationship with its neighbouring1 countries to exchange cultural heritage (education, music etc.) with them. It promotes cultural progress with the spirit of mutual cooperation.

The neighbouring countries of India:

The neighbouring countries of India are —Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Srilanka, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China and Maldives. (Afghanistan, China and Maldives are out of the syllabus).

According to the size and population of China is the largest and most populated neighbour of India. The smallest neighbour of India is Maldives Island.

Indian Sub-continent: During British rule, the entire areas comprising India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan would form a well-defined geographical and geopolitical unit because they have such similarities. in natural and cultural features.

The then ruler, i.e. the English people would call the entire geographical unit surrounding India a sub-continent. This sub-continent has been separated from Asia by the waters of the Indian Ocean on the south and by the inaccessible mighty walls of mountains on the north, northeast and northwest. After the partition even today in common parlance India is called a ‘sub-continent’.

SAARC: The formation of SAARC explains the importance of mutual understanding among the nations of the sub-continent. For the purpose of peace,-stability,‘and economic progress, India and her neighbouring countries established SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation) in 1985.

India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Srilanka, Pakistan, Maldives and Afghanistan, these eight countries are members of SAARC. The Headquarters of SAARC is situated at Kathmandu in Nepal. The main purpose of SAARC are to keep good relations among the member countries. It facilitates increased cooperation in the field of culture and

Chapter 8 Some Neighbouring Countries Of India: Nepal

The official name of the Nepal Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal’. After 240 Years under the Shah dynasty, Nepal abolished its monarchy and became a republic in May 2008. Nepal lies between China and India in South Asia.

The mountainous heart of Nepal consists of the towering Himalayas (including Everest, the highest peak in the world). There are 16 aks about 8000 metres). There are many beautiful valleys in this region as Kathmandu Pallev Pokhara valley etc.

The climate of Nepal is Temperate Monsoon type. Nepal has covered r forests (over 50% of its area). The majority of the inhabitants are farmers. Industrially Nepal is not developed. The communication system is very underdeveloped.

Tourism Industry of Nepal: Tourism is the largest industry and main earning source of foreign money of Nepal. There are many beautiful places, gardens, and highways decorating the towns There are ten highest mountain peaks of the world situated in Nepal.

These are attractive to most of tourists. The mountaineers of the world come to Nepal for mountaineering. The most attractive tourist centres are the temple of Pashupatinath, Buddhist monasteries, Tribhuvan University, Durbar house, New Market etc.

The famous archaeological sites oPatan ancPatgaon is located nearby Kathmandu. Kathmandu is also the headquarters of SAARCP Pokhra is also a famous tourist town (The second largest city of Nepal). The white snow-covered peaks of the Himalayas look beautiful from this city. The hotel industry has developed here.

Tracking can be done from here to Muktinath. Kapilavastu (Lumbini) situated in the Terai region, to the south of Nepal is the famous birth place of Lord Gautam Buddha etc. are attracted tourists.

Tourists coming to trek in the mountain and climb the peaks contribute to national income because Sherpas benefit from the mountaineering boom and tourism in the Everest region, owing much of the lodging and transportation. So, it is truly called that tourism is the largest industry and source of foreign money as well as the main earning source of Nepal.

Chapter 8 Some Neighbouring Countries Of India: Bhutan

The official name of Bhutan kingdom of Bhutan. Bhutan is a tiny, remote and impoverished country between two powerful neighbouring countries, India and China. Bhutan’s ancient Buddhist culture and mountain scenery make it attractive for tourists, whose numbers are limited by the government.

Forests still cover nearly 75% of Bhutan’s land area. Almost all trade is with India. Due to showers with thunderstorms, Bhutan is known as the Land of Thunder Dragon’. The climate of Bhutan is a Moist Temperate Monsoon type. No important minerals are mined in Bhutan, so large industries have not developed here. The Chukha Hydel project has been constructed with the cooperation of India. There are no railway lines.

Fruit Processing Industries Of Bhutan: There are different fruits like apples, oranges, pineapples etc. are produced in Bhutan. So, fruit processing mostly in small factories is important. u an is world famous in making jam, jelly, squash, and pickle from these fruits.

Chapter 8 Some Neighbouring Countries Of India: Bangladesh

The official name of Bangladesh is ‘Peoples Republic of Bangladesh’. Bangladesh became an independent country on 16th December 1971. Bangladesh is surrounded by India on three sides. It is a low lying country formed by the alluvial plain of the river system of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra.

Bangladesh is a network of rivers. It has a Tropical Monsoon climate. The Sundarbans mangrove forest—one of the largest in the world and home of the Royal Bengal tiger is situated on the southern portion of the estuarine Gangetic delta near the Bay of Bengal.

Bangladesh is an agricultural country with 70% of the land being used for agriculture. There is a little mineral resource in Bangladesh. A large amount of natural gas is found in the Sylhet region. Industrial development has occupied, very slightly in Bangladesh.

Agro-based Industry of Bangladesh: Due to the lack of mineral resources large-scale metallurgical industries have not been set up. Bangladesh is an agrarian country.

However, some agro-based and forest-based industries have developed here, like-jute industry, paper industry, tea Industry, sugar industry, cotton-textile industry, silk-textile industry and food processing industry etc. The main industry of Bangladesh is the jute industry with nearly about 80 jute mills are situated at Dhaka, Narayanganj, Khulna, Daulatpur, Chittagong and other cities.

The famous ‘Adamji Jute Mill’ is located in Damrai, near Narayanganj. The handloom (Tant) at Tangail, and Maslin at Sonargaon near Dhaka are world, famous. Bangladesh is developed in handicraft and cottage industry, like the conch industry of Dhaka, combs of Jessore etc. Besides these cement, ship repairing, sugar refining, and chemical fertilizer industries have been established here.

Chapter 8 Some Neighbouring Countries Of India: Myanmar

The official name of Myanmar (Burma) republic of the Union of Myanmar”. It is a resource-rich country with a strong agricultural base. Myanmar’s Irrawaddy Basin is surrounded by forested mountains and plateaus. Most people live in the fertile valley and delta of the Irrawaddy river. The climate of Myanmar is Tropical Monsoon type.

Mineral and Forest resources of Myanmar:

Mineral Resources: Myanmar is rich in mineral resources. Some important minerals are- mineral oil, tin, tungsten or Wolfram, lead, zinc, silver and precious stones.

Mineral oil is found in the Irrawaddy and Chindwin river valleys, mainly irMinbu, Enang Young, Chak etc. Tin is found in the Mouchi and Tyavoy regions of Tenasserim. In the Shan plateau region lead, Zinc, manganese, tungsten and silver are found. In this plateau, precious stones are found in Mogok. World-famous Ruby is found here. Some low-grade iron-ore, nickel and copper are also mined here.

Forest resources: About 70% of the country is covered with forests. Different types of forests are found in Myanmar. In the forest areas sal, teak, poma trees are found in the deep interior. These trees are valuable hardwoods ‘Burma teak’ is famous in the world.

In the plains, deciduous trees are found. In the rain shadow areas in the middle of the country, trees are fewer and tall grasses are found. Important Evergreen trees like Garjan, Chaplash, Mahogony etc. and deciduous trees like Arjun, Sal, Teak etc are the valuable forest resource of Myanmar.

Chapter 8 Some Neighbouring Countries Of India: Srilanka

The official name of the Srilanka Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka’. Srilanka, known as Ceylon until 1972, is a tropical island lying near the southern tip of India and the Equator. From the coast, the land rises to a central plateau, where tea plantations are found. Srilanka has an Equatorial climate.

Agriculture of Sri Lanka: Agriculture is the main occupation of the people of Srilanka. Rice is the most important crop and yields are high due to the two rainy seasons in the year. Tea and rubber is cultivated intensely in the extensive highlands in the centre of the country.

Though small in size Srilanka ranks third after India and China in tea production. Srilanka earns high foreign exchange from the exports of tea and rubber. Tobacco is an important cash crop in the Jaffna, peninsula to the north of the country. Coconut is also an important cash crop of Srilanka. In coconut production, Srilanka ranks fourth in the world.

The various spices produced in Srilanka are cinnamon and clove. As cinnamon production is high, Srilanka is also called the “Cinnamon Island”. Other crops produced are maize, oilseeds, millets, cinchona, varieties of vegetables, bananas etc.

Mineral Resources: Srilanka is famous in mineral extraction. Srilanka occupies the first position in the production of Graphite. Precious stones like Saphire, Ruby, Cat’s eye etc. are produced in Srilanka.

These minerals are mainly mined from the old rocks of the central mountains. Gem City, the sabargammoya produces varieties of precious stones etc. Some limestone is produced from the northern Jaffna peninsula. Some bauxite is also mined from the central highland.

Chapter 8 Some Neighbouring Countries Of India: Pakistan

The official name of Pakistan is the Islamic Republic of Pakistan’. It is located along the north¬ western frontier of India. Pakistan is surrounded by Afghanistan and Iran on its north and west and India on its east and southern region and the Arabian Sea in the south.

The eastern and southern parts of Pakistan are dominated by the Indus river and its tributaries. West of the Indus, the land becomes increasingly arid and mountainous. The climate of Pakistan is dry and extreme type.

Rainfall is low here and summer temperatures shoot up while in winter they drop. Thus summers are very hot and winters are very cold Jacob Abad in the province of Sind records the highest temperature of 52°C in summer. Lack of rainfall has allowed less area to be under forest. In the arid regions
xerophytes are found.

Irrigation and Agriculture of Pakistan: In Pakistan, the rainfall is very low, so irrigation is essential for cultivation. Canal irrigation is the most important. A large number of perennial canals are found in West Punjab.

The upper and Lower Jhelum canals, the upper and lower Chenab canals, and the lower Bari Daab canal from the Ravi are the most important of them. In Sind, the Liyod or Sukkur Barrage has been constructed over the Indus at Sukka. From the river, a large number of canals have been constructed to irrigate different parts of Sind.

In Baluchistan, the water dries up as soon as it comes down from the hills to the dry sand at the foot. So water of the hill streams is carried to the agricultural lands through underground tunnels. This system is called ‘Karez’.

In West Punjab and Sind, there are wells. Besides, iyo barrage, other dams have been constructed over other parts of the Indus and its tributaries for irrigation. Eg. Mangla Dam over the Beas river in the north, Gulam Mohammad Dam over the Indus, Jinnah Dam etc. Agriculture of Pakistan depends largely on irrigation.

Agricultural of Pakistan: Pakistan is prosperous in agriculture due to the irrigation system in spite of different problems. Extensive irrigation has made large areas of the semi-deserts and deserts convert to productive farm lands overcoming the main problem of low rainfall.

In Pakistan, wheat and cotton are the most important crops. The other important crops are rice, sugar- cane, maize, millet etc. Wheat is cultivated in West Punjab, Sind, and. N.W. Frontier Province.’

It is grown there in the weil-irrigated areas. West Punjab is the most important wheat-producing, area of Pakistan. Cotton cultivated with the help of canal irrigation is of very good quality, Rice grows in river valleys and deltaic regions.

N. W Frontier Province, sugar cane, grows in the river valleys. Different types of fruits like ‘apples, dates, peaches etc are also important agricultural products of Pakistan.