Chapter 2 Revolutionary Ideals: Napoleonic Empire And The Idea Of Nationalism Introduction

Napoleon Bonaparte is known as one of the greatest generals in the world. He was born in 1769 in Corsica, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, ruled by the French. At the age of 15, he became an officer in the French army. In 1789, a great revolution broke out in France.

The king and the queen were executed. Spain and England attacked France to put an end to the French Revolution. Napoleon defeated them. Later, when Austria attacked France, Napoleon defeated the Austrian army too. Not content with driving off his enemies, Napoleon started attacking his neighbors. The Tsar of Russia, Alexander I, agreed with Napoleon. Only Britain remained outside Napoleon’s influence.

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Napoleon decided to attack Britain. Nelson, the British admiral, defeated Napoleon in the Battle of the Nile. Napoleon managed to return to Paris and took over the Government He was made the First Consul and in 1804, he became the Emperor of France.

His domestic achievements were long-lasting. He introduced a new legal code known as Code Napoleon. He centralized the administration, established a national educational network, reduced the power of the church, and abolished serfdom.

As an emperor, he reshaped Europe. By 1807, Napoleon’s armies had taken over nearly the whole of Europe. Garmany, Italy, Holland, Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, Naples, Denmark, and Portugal were part of his empire. Except for Britain and Russia, the whole of Europe came under his control.

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Napoleon adopted the policy of economic blockade against the English which is known as the Continental System. He forbade all his allies from engaging in trade with England. As a result, many sea battles between the English and the French followed. England attacked France through Spain and Portugal. Next, Napoleon attacked Russia. He lost his grand army in Russia.

After this disaster, the rest of Europe joined hands with the English armies which then entered Paris and defeated Napoleon in 1814. He was sent as a prisoner to Elba. A new king, Louis XVIII, was crowned in France. A year later, Napoleon escaped a.nd came to power again, but only for 100 days. He tried to drive away the foreign allied troops but was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. He was sent to St Helena. He died there six years later, at the age of 51.

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Chapter 2 Revolutionary Ideals: Napoleonic Empire And The Idea Of Nationalism Multiple Choice Type :

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 1. Napoleon’s greatest enemy was

1. Austria
2. England
3. Prussia
4. Russia

Answer:  (2) England

Question 2. The ‘Child of the French Revolution was

1.  Charles 4
2. Napoleon
3. Arthur Wellesley
4. Louis 16

Answer:  (2) Napoleon

Question 3. Napoleon invaded Milan in

1.  1795
2. 1796
3. 1797
4. 1798

Answer:  (2) 1796

Question 4. The currency system in France was reformed by

1.  Louis 16
2. Louis 18
3. Napoleon
4. Calonne

Answer:  (3) Napoleon

Question 5. Conferring of the Legion of Honour on men of eminence was an important reform introduced by

1. Montesquieu
2. Voltaire
3. Napoleon
4. Charles 2

Answer:  (3) Napoleon.

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Question 6. The number of departments into which Napoleon divided France was

1. 80
2. 82
3. 83
4. 93

Answer:  (3) 83

Question 7. Napoleon, by the Concordat of 1801, solved the question of conflict between

1. The First Estate and the Third Estate
2. The French Government and the army
3. The French Government and the clergy
4. The French Government and the Pope

Answer:  (4) The French Government and the Pope

Question 8. The greatest achievement of Napoleon’s financial system was the foundation of the

1. Heavy Industries
2. Rationing system
3. Bank of France
4. Employment exchange

Answer:  (3) Bank of France

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Question 9. After the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was sent to

1. Elba
2. Sparta
3. St Helena
4. Corsica

Answer:  (3) St Helena

Question 10. In the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was defeated by

1. Nelson
2. Talleyrand
3. Alexander 2
4. Duke of Wellington

Answer:  (4) Duke of Wellington

Question 11. In 1804 the legal veil of republicanism was dropped and

1. Dictatorship was established in France.
2. Monarchy was established in France.
3. Democracy was established in France.
4. Kingship was established in France.

Answer:  (1) Dictatorship was established in France.

Question 12. The Code Napoleon incorporated the noble principles of the French Revolution such as 

1. Banning of trade unions.
2. Equality before the law.
3. Abolition of private property.
4. Censorship of the press.

Answer:  (2) Equality before the law.

Wbbse Class 9 History Chapter 2 Questions And Answers

Question 13. The Continental System imposed by Napoleon intended to 

1. Bring Russia under control.
2. Bring Austria under control.
3. Bring England under control.
4. Bring Spain under control.

Answer:  (3)Bring England under control.

Question 14. Napoleon’s Moscow expedition failed because of 

1. Natural features and climatic conditions.
2. Shortage of arms and weapons.
3. Revolt by Napoleon’s soldiers.
4. Lack of adequate preparation for war.

Answer:  (1) Natural features and climatic conditions.

Question 15. One of the causes of the downfall of the Napoleonic empire was 

1. Military weakness
2.  Financial weakness
3. Built on military force and not on the consent of the people
4. Vast extent

Answer:  (3) Built on military force and not on the consent of the people

Question 16. Napoleon was influenced by contemporary philosophers like 

1. Karl Marx
2. Rousseau
3. Engels
4. Thomas Paine

Answer:  (2) Rousseau

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 17. Napoleon denied, one of the major ideals of the French Revolution

1. Fundamental rights
2. Liberty
3. Equality
4. Fraternity

Answer:  (2) Liberty

Question 18. Declared a counter blockade against the Berlin Decree known as Orders-in-Council

1. Italy
2. Germany
3. Russia
4. England

Answer:  (4) England

Question 19. The ‘Spanish Ulcer’ ruined

1. Arthur Wellesley
2. Nelson
3. Duke of Wellington
4. Napoleon

Answer:  (4) Napoleon

Question 20. The Moscow Expedition of the soldiers failed.

1.  British
2. Germans
3. Italian
4. French

Answer:  (4) French

Question 21. Introduced the doctrine of career open to talent.

1. Louis 16
2. Louis 18
3. Napoleon
4. Pope

Answer:  (3) Napoleon

Chapter 2 Revolutionary Ideals: Napoleonic Empire And The Idea Of Nationalism Very Short Answer Type :

Question l. Who was defeated in the battle of Fried land?
Answer: In the Friedland battle Napoleon defeated Russia in 1807.

Question 2. Who was defeated in the battle of Austerlitz?
Answer: In the Austerlitz battle, Napoleon defeated Austria in 1805.

Question 3. Which country was defeated by Napoleon in 1806 in the battle of Auserstadt?
Answer: In 1806, Napoleon defeated Prussia in the battle of Auserstadt

Question 4. In which year was the Bank of France founded?
Answer: In 1800 Napoleon founded the Bank of France.

Question 5. When was the second coalition of European powers formed against France?
Answer: In 1799 the second coalition of European powers against France was formed, consisting of England, Austria, and Russia.

Question 6. Who said, “I am the Revolution”?
Answer: Napoleon said, “I am the Revolution”.

Question 7. Why did the French people surrender to Napoleon?
Answer: The French people were tired of disorder and insecurity and Napoleon restored order and guaranteed the fruits of the Revolution.

Question 8. In which year did Napoleon become Emperor?
Answer: On December 2, 1804 Napoleon became emperor.

Question 9. Which country was defeated in the battle of Jena?
Answer: Prussia was defeated in the battle of Jena.

Question 10. When was the Third Coalition of European Powers formed against Napoleon?
Answer: In 1805 the Third Coalition of European Powers was formed against France consisting of England, Sweden, Austria, and Russia.

Question 11. When and between which powers was the battle of Austerlitz fought?
Answer: In 1805 the battle of Austerlitz was fought between Austria and France.

Question 12. Who did Napoleon call a ‘Nation of Shopkeepers’?
Answer: England was called a ‘Nation of Shopkeepers7 by Napoleon.

Class 9 History Chapter 2 Important Questions With Answers Wbbse

Question 13. When and between whom was the treaty of Amiens signed?
Answer: In 1802 the treaty of Amiens was signed between England and France.

Question 14. What is the Legion of Honour?
Answer: A special title of merit awarded by the Napoleonic Government was the Legion of Honour.

Question 15. Who said, “Impossible is a word which can only be found in the dictionary of the fools”?
Answer: The word “Impossible is a word which can only be found in the dictionary of the fools” was said by Napoleon.

Question 16. When was the Fourth Coalition against Napoleon formed?
Answer: The Fourth Coalition of the European powers against Napoleon was formed in 1813. England, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden joined the Coalition.

Question 17. When did the first restoration in France take place? Who was restored to the throne of France?
Answer: By the First Treaty of Paris of 1814, Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, the late king of France, was restored to the throne of France.

Question 18. Where and when was Napoleon Bonaparte born?
Answer: Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica in 1769.

Question 19. What was the period of rule of the consulate in France?
Answer: The period of rule of the consulate in France was 1794-1799.

Question 20. Who is known as Justinian II and why?
Answer: The most important of Napoleon’s contributions was the Code Napoleon which incorporated the noble principles of the French Revolution. For his progressive code, he was known as Justinian II.

Question 21. In which year did Napoleon become the Emperor of France?
Answer: Napoleon became the Emperor of France in 1804.

Question22. When and against whom did the Battle of Trafalgar take place?
Answer: The Battle of Trafalgar took place in 1805 against Napoleon.

Question 23. When and between whom was the Battle of Ulm fought?
Answer: The Battle of Ulm was fought in 1805 between France and Austria.

Question 24. Which two countries of Europe did Napoleon reconstitute?
Answer: Napoleon reconstituted Italy and Germany.

Question 25. Who introduced the Continental System and when.
Answer: Napoleon introduced the Continental System in 1806.

Question 26. What was the Berlin Decree?
Answer: The Berlin Decree issued by Napoleon in 1806 declared a naval blockade against England, i.e., the countries allied to Napoleon would have to stop trade with England.

Question 27. What was the Milan Decree?
Answer: The Milan Decree issued by Napoleon in 1807 was that any ship of any country trying to reach England would be caught and confiscated.

Question 28. When and between whom was the Treaty of Tilsit concluded?
Answer: The Treaty of Tilsit was concluded in 1807 between Napoleon Bonaparte, the ruler of France, and Alexander I, the Czar of Russia.

Question 29. What was the year of the Peninsular War?
Answer: The year of the Peninsular War was 1808.

Question 30. When did Napoleon invade Russia?
Answer: Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812.

Question 31. Which country followed the “scorched earth policy” against France?
Answer: Russia followed the “scorched earth policy” against France.

Question 32. When and against whom did the Battle of Nations take place?
Answer: In 1813 the Battle of Nations took place against Napoleon Bonaparte.

Question 33. When did the Battle of Waterloo take place?
Answer: The Battle of Waterloo took place in 1815.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 34. Who was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo?
Answer: Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo.

Question 35. Name the final battle that sealed Napoleon’s fate.
Answer: The final battle that sealed Napoleon’s fate was the Battle of Waterloo.

Question 36. Into how many parts were Code Napoleon divided?
Answer: Code Napoleon was divided into five parts—the Civil Code, the Criminal Code, the Penal Code, the Commercial Code, and other codes.

Question 37. What is known as the “Bible of the French”?
Answer: “Code Napoleon’ is known as the Bible of the French.

Question 38. Who established the Bank of France?
Answer: Napoleon established the Bank of France.

Question 39. What is Lycos?
Answer: Lycos is the residential semi-military school of France where boys of noble and aristocratic families used to study to become officers in the army.

Question 40. Who established the Louvre Museum?
Answer: Napoleon established the Louvre Museum.

Question 41. Name the islands where Napoleon was banished.
Answer: Napoleon was banished to the islands of Elba and St. Helena.

Question 42. Mention the period of the “Hundred Days” Rule”.
Answer: The period of the Hundred Days’ Rule was from 20th March to 29 June 1815.

Question 43. Write one chief feature of the Napoleonic empire.
Answer: Religious tolerance was one of the chief features of the Napoleonic Empire.

Question 44. Why did Napoleon introduce the Continental System?
Answer: Napoleon introduced the Continental System in order to defeat England in an indirect war.

Question 45. France lacked which thing to successfully enforce the Continental System.
Answer: France did not have the naval power required to successfully enforce the Continental System.

Question 46. Name a battle in which Napoleon was defeated.
Answer: Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Nations.

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Question 47. Who ascended the throne of France after Napoleon’s departure to Elba?
Answer: Louis XVIII ascended the throne of France after Napoleon’s departure to Elba.

Question 48. For how many days did Napoleon rule after his return from Elba?
Answer: Napoleon ruled in France for only 200 days after his return from Elba.

Question 49. Mention the merit of Napoleon’s legal code.
Answer: Napoleon’s legal code is still the basis of French laws.

Wbbse Class 9 History Revolutionary Ideals Mcq With Answers

Question 50. What were the codes issued by Napoleon?
Answer:

There were five codes in all: the Civil Code, the Code of Civil Procedure, the Code of Criminal Procedure and Penal Law, the Penal Code and the Commercial Code.

Question 51. What did Napoleon do with the palace of Louvre?
Answer: Napoleon converted the palace of the Louvre into a museum.

Chapter 2 Revolutionary Ideals: Napoleonic Empire And The Idea Of Nationalism 2 Marks Questions And Answers

Question 1. Where was Napoleon born? How did he come into the political picture of France?
Answer:

Napoleon was born in Ajaccio in Corsica in 1769. He saved the Convention in 1794 from the Parisian mob. Next, he was appointed to the command in Italy where he laid the foundation of his imperishable military career. Henceforth, the Revolution merged with the career of Napoleon.

Question 2. What do you know of the battle of Valmy?
Answer:

Battle of Valmy

In September 1792, the battle of Valmy was fought between the revolutionary army of France and Prussia. In this battle, Prussia was defeated.

Question 3. When and between which powers was the treaty of Campo-Formio signed? What was its importance?
Answer:

In 1797 the Treaty of Campo-Formio was signed between Austria and France. By the treaty of Campo-Formio Austria recognized France’s right of occupation in Italy.

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Question 4. Why did Napoleon attack Egypt? What was its result?
Answer:

Napoleon attacked Egypt to humble England by conquering the East But Napoleon was completely defeated by Nelson, the British admiral in the battle of Abukiray, better known as the Battle of Nile, in 1798.

Question 5. When was the Consulate formed? Who was the First Consul?
Answer:

The Consulate was formed in 1799. Napoleon was appointed the First Consul.

Question 6. What do you know of the Civil Code of Napoleon?
Answer:

Civil Code of Napoleon

Napoleon’s greatest achievement in the work of internal reconstruction was the Civil Code known as the Code Napoleon. Napoleon’s famous Code gave to France a common system of law, at once a clear, orderly, and systematic judicial administration, and thereby made justice more rapid and reliable.

It established social equality in the eyes of law, secured religious toleration to all, and perpetuated much of the social gains that had been won by the Revolution.

Question 7. What is Concordat?
Answer:

Concordat

Napoleon agreed with the Pope in 1801, known as the Concordat By it Catholicism was recognized as the religion of the great majority of the French people. The Bishops were nominated by the State but invested by the Pope and they must take an open oath of infidelity to the Government and the Church was made dependent on the State.

Question 8. What are the characteristics of Napoleonic reforms?
Answer:

Characteristics of Napoleonic reforms

Napoleon gave equality to the people but no liberty.

Question 9. When was the battle of Trafalgar fought? What was its result?
Answer:

The battle of Trafalgar fought

In 1805 the battle of Trafalgar was fought Admiral Nelson of England defeated Napoleon with the combined fleets of England and Spain. But he himself was mortally wounded and died soon after the battle was over. The victory destroyed the French naval power and thus closed the possibility of the invasion of Britain.

Question 10. What is the Confederation of the Rhine?
Answer:

The Confederation of the Rhine

In the year 1805 in Germany Napoleon formed a new political union under French patronage which was known as the Confederation of the Rhine. The new organization was meant to counterpoise the powers of Austria and Prussia. Moreover, it dealt a death blow to the Holy Roman Empire.

Question 11. In which year and between which powers were the treaty of Tilsit signed?
Answer:

In 1807, between France and Russia, the treaty of Tilsit was signed. Czar Alexander I of Russia and the French Emperor Napoleon were the signatories of the treaty of Tilsit. By this treaty, Napoleon was to have Russia’s support in his economic war with England.

Question 12. What do you understand by Continental System?
Answer:

Continental System

In 1806 Napoleon issued from Berlin a series of decrees declaring a blockade of the British Isles and forbidding all commerce with them. All British goods were ordered to be seized. In 1807 Napoleon declared the Milan decrees by which he decreed that any ship of any country which should touch a British port was liable to be seized and treated as a prize. The Berlin and Milan decree formed what is called Napoleon’s Continental System.

Question 13. What was the result of Napoleon’s Continental System?
Answer:

Result of Napoleon’s Continental System

The Continental System was one of its greatest blunders of Napoleon. The attempt at industrial strangulation of England rebounded upon Napoleon himself and it was one of the potent causes of his downfall.

Question 14. What is the significance of the Spanish Ulcer or the Peninsular War?
Answer:

Significance of the Spanish Ulcer or the Peninsular War

Spanish Ulcer means Spanish opposition to Napoleon and his defeat in the Peninsular War. It encouraged other nations to rise against France.

Question 15. When did Napoleon take recourse to the Moscow expedition?
Answer:

In 1812 Napoleon led the Moscow expedition. The ill-fated expedition shattered the military power of Napoleon and encouraged the powers of Central Europe to shake off his dominions.

Question 16. When did the War of Liberation or the Battle of Leipzig take place? What was its result?
Answer:

In 1813 the War of Liberation or the Battle of Leipzig took place. With the defeat at Leipzig, Napoleon’s political structure of Germany collapsed and Napoleon’s final surrender became a matter of time. Almost all of Europe took arms against Napoleon in 1813, so the Battle of Leipzig is known as the Battle of Nations.

Question 17. When did Napoleon abdicate? Where was he sent after the abdication?
Answer:

In 1814 Napoleon abdicated the throne of France. By the treaty of Fontainebleau, Napoleon abandoned his European position and he had to retire to the island of Elba where he was allowed to exercise sovereignty.

Question 18. Who ruled for ‘Hundred Days’ and when?
Answer:

In February 1815, Napoleon suddenly escaped from Elba and landed near Cannes in France. He was enthusiastically received by the people and his old soldiers joined him. Louis XVIII fled across the border and Napoleon entered Paris amidst the widest acclamation.

He ruled France almost for hundred days before his final defeat in the Battle of Waterloo. The restoration of Napoleon is called “Hundred Days Rule”.

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Question 19. Where and by whom Napoleon was finally defeated? Who defeated Napoleon in the battle?
Answer:

Napoleon was finally defeated in the battle of Waterloo in Belgium on June 18, 1815, by the combined armies of England, Portugal, Belgium, and Prussia under the British General Duke of Wellington and the German General Blucher.

Question 20. What were the results of the Battle of Waterloo?
Answer:

The results of the Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo and fled to Paris. He abdicated for the second time and tried to escape to America. But he surrendered to the captain of a British ship, was taken as prisoner, and carried by the English to St Helena where he died six years after (1821).

Question 21. What were the cardinal principles of the French Revolution of 1789? How did it influence Europe?
Answer:

Cardinal principles of the French Revolution of 1789

The cardinal principles of the French Revolution were – Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. The French Revolution was not merely a local event It burst the boundaries of France, carrying with it new ideas of social and political organization and thus, in the long run, helped to refashion Europe on new principles. Everywhere people heard the siren song of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, and the example of France became the inspiration of Europe.

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Question 22. Which incident is known in France as the 13th Vendemiaire? Or, What was the Incident of October 5, 1795?
Answer:

The incident of 5 October 1795 was an important stage in the rise of Napoleon to power who got the responsibility of commanding the French army in Italy. At that time the Reign of Terror was going on in France.

On 5 October 1795, the members of the National Convention were attacked by a rowdy mob. Napoleon with the help of his soldiers resisted the attack and thus saved the National Convention. This incident is known in history as the 13th Vendemiaire.

Question 23. What do you mean by the rule of the ‘Consulate’?
Answer:

Rule of the ‘Consulate’

In 1799 Napoleon took away the powers of the Directory, concentrated power in his own hands, and became the ruler of the country. At this time he introduced an administration popularly known as the ‘Consulate’. Under the Consulate France was ruled by a council that consisted of three members.

Question 24. What is known in history as the 18th Brumaire?
Answer:

History as the 18th Brumaire

When the popularity of the Directors of France was at its lowest ebb, Napoleon took advantage of the unpopularity of the Directory administration. He joined hands with a few Directors to overthrow it. Ultimately, by a military coup, Napoleon seized the administrative power of France on 9-10 November 1799. This incident is known in history as the 18th Brumaire.

Question 25. What were the provisions of the Treaty of Campo-Formio?
Answer:

The provisions of the treaty were:

(1) Austria gave up the Netherlands and Lombardy to France.
(2) The province of Rhine situated between Austria and Germany was also handed over to France.
(3) Italy accepted the supremacy of France over Lombardy.
(4) In return France gave Austria most of the old Venetian republic.

Question 26. What was the first military success of Napoleon?
Answer:

The first military success of Napoleon

Napoleon removed the English from the port of Toulon in 1793 as an employee of the French army and curbed the counter-revolutionaries there. This was the first military success of Napoleon.

Question 27. What was the Fontainebleau Decree?
Answer:

The Fontainebleau Decree

To make the Continental System successful, Napoleon issued the Fontainebleau Decree in 1810. It was declared that those found guilty of violating the commercial rules of France would be punished. By this decree, it was declared that the goods confiscated would be burnt publicly. A court of law was also established for those found guilty.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 28. What is the importance of Code Napoleon?
Answer:

The importance of Code Napoleon introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte is as follows :

(1) It protected the interests of the rising middle class.
(2) It guaranteed civil liberties.
(3)It preserved the social aims of the revolution.

Question 29. What do you mean by the ‘Concordat’ of 1801?
Answer:
Napoleon entered into an agreement with the Pope in 1801 which is known as the ‘Concordat’ in the history of Europe. The terms of the agreement were :

(1) All the Bishops would be appointed by the Pope from a list proposed by the state, and all the officials would receive their salary and take an oath of loyalty to the Government;
(2) The Pope agreed to the decision taken during the revolutionary period that the property of the church which was confiscated during the course of the Revolution would not be given back.

Question 30. In which year and by whom was the Battle of Pyramid fought? Who was defeated?
Answer:

The Battle of Pyramid was fought between France and England in 1798. England was defeated in the Battle of Pyramid.

Question 31. In which year and by whom was the Battle of Nile fought? Who was defeated?
Answer:

The Battle of Nile was fought in 1798 between England and France. France was defeated in the Battle of the Nile.

Question 32. Give an account of Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt.
Answer:

Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt

In 1798 Napoleon launched a campaign against Egypt On his way to Egypt he conquered Malta and Alexandria and achieved victory in the Battle of Pyramid. The Egyptian army was defeated by him and he entered Cairo, the capital of Egypt

Question 33. Write a short note on the Battle of Leipzig  (or Battle of Nations), in 1813.
Answer:

Battle of Leipzig 

The European nations were annoyed by Napoleon’s expansionist policy and the dissatisfied nations like Prussia, Russia, Sweden, England, and Austria formed a coalition against Napoleon.

A fierce battle which is known as the Battle of Leipzig between Napoleon and the allied countries was fought in 1813. In this battle also known as the ‘Battle of Nations’, Napoleon was defeated.

Question 34. Why is the Battle of Leipzig also known as the ‘Battle of Nations’?
Answer:

The Battle of Leipzig (1813) was fought between Napoleon and dissatisfied nations like Prussia, Russia, Sweden, England, and Austria. This battle is also known as the Battle of Nations because in this battle soldiers of all nations except Turkey fought against Napoleon.

Question 35. Why did Napoleon annex Portugal?
Answer:

Napoleon introduced the Continental System. When Portugal, an ally of the British, rejected the Continental System, Napoleon sent the French army to Portugal through Spain without caring to take the consent of the Spanish King. Portugal was annexed in 1807.

Question 36. What was the ‘Peninsular War’ (1808)?
Answer:

‘Peninsular War’

Portugal suffered greatly because of the Continental System introduced by Napoleon and naturally began to flout it Napoleon, therefore, attacked Portugal and occupied it. The French army on their way back to France occupied Spain. At this time Portugal joined Spain and declared war against Napoleon which is known as the Peninsular War (1808).

Question 37. “The Spanish Ulcer ruined me”. Who said this and why?
Answer:

“The Spanish Ulcer ruined me”.

Napoleon came to know through his agencies that Spain was not following his Continental System. He, therefore, launched an attack on Spain in 1808 but his so far invincible army was defeated by Spain with the help of the English army in 1808. The Spanish attack proved disastrous and ultimately Napoleon himself accepted it to be an ‘ulcer’ for him

Question 38. Why was Napoleon banished to the island of Elba?
Answer:

The European nations were threatened by Napoleon’s expansionist policy and dissatisfied nations like Prussia, Russia, Sweden, England, and Austria formed a coalition against Napoleon. A fierce battle was fought at Leipzig between Napoleon and the allied countries in 1813.

In this battle, Napoleon was defeated. Napoleon could not defend France from the violent invasion of the European powers. By the treaty of Fontainbleau, he resigned from the crown of France. He was banished to the island of Elba, a small island in Corsica.

Question 39. Who was Napoleon Bonaparte? Can he be called a Liberator?
Answer:

In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself the emperor of France and reintroduced monarchy in France. He conquered his neighboring countries and created kingdoms where he placed his own family members. Initially, people believed that Napoleon was a liberator who would bring freedom to the people, but soon his army was viewed as an invading force. So he was finally defeated in the Battle of Waterloo.

Question 40. Why is Napoleon called a modernizer of Europe?
Answer:

Napoleon is called a modernizer of Europe because he introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures as provided by the decimal system.

Question 41. When and where was Napoleon born?|
Answer:

Napoleon was born (1769) in a respectable family in Ajaccio, the capital city of the island of Corsica. A Corsican by birth, Napoleon was French only because the island of Corsica had been annexed to France the year just before he was born.

Question 42. Why was Napoleon appointed by the Directory in 1796?
Answer:

The Directory appointed Napoleon as the commander of the army in the Italian campaign (1796). The appointment of Napoleon as the commander, however, was not without reason. For, he had already given proof of his ability by the expulsion of the British army from Toulon (1793).

Question 43. Which decrees constituted the Continental System of Napoleon?
Answer:

In 1806 Napoleon blockaded England through the Berlin Decree. The main object was to prevent the countries allied to Napoleon from doing business with England. After a few days, by the Milan Decree, Napoleon proclaimed that any ship of any country trying to reach the English ports would be caught and confiscated. The Berlin Decree and the Milan Decree constituted the Continental System of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Question 44. State two measures of Napoleon which violated the ideals of the French Revolution.
Answer:

Some of the measures Napoleon had taken as the Emperor clearly violated the ideals of the French Revolution. For instance, he severely restricted the scope of the representative institutions. Individual liberties were crushed by restrictions imposed on the freedom of expression. Restrictions were imposed on the press. Publication of articles on controversial subjects was prohibited.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 45. Did Code Napoleon aim to protect the basic principles of the French Revolution?
Answer:

The Civil Code of Napoleon aimed to protect some of the basic principles of the French Revolution. It provided:

(1) legal and social equality, equal rights of property among the children of a father.
(2) It assured freedom of thought, religion and individual liberty, and freedom of work.
(3) It made laws secular in character.

Question 46. Why were the “Orders in Council” issued by England?
Answer:

In 1807 Napoleon issued the Milan Decree by which the whole of the British Isles and her colonies were put under blockades. Neutral countries were warned not to enter any British or her colonial or allied port. All goods seized from English or neutral vessels were to be treated as enemy goods and were to be burnt. England strongly reacted and in 1870 issued the Orders in Council.

Chapter 2 Revolutionary Ideals: Napoleonic Empire And The Idea Of Nationalism 4 Marks Questions And Answers

Question 1. What was Code Napoleon?
Answer:

Code Napoleon

The most important of Napoleon’s contributions was the Code Napoleon—the French civil code established by him in the year 1804. France was plagued by numerous conflicting codes of law. These codes obstructed administrative efficiency as well as national unity.

Napoleon, therefore, instituted the codification of the laws of France and gave it a new name-Code Napoleon. It incorporated the great principles of the French Revolution of 1789—equality before the law, career open to talent, freedom of thought and religion, individual liberty, abolition of serfdom, protection of private property, and secularisation of the states.

Question 2. What is “Legion of Honour”?
Answer:

“Legion of Honour”

Napoleon introduced a special title of honor for eminent citizens called the Legion of Honour in 1802. Eminent writers, poets, scientists, and army generals were admitted to it on the basis of their merit. Those who could show their ability, courage, or any other work of outstanding ability were given the title of Legion of Honour. Its inductees received the Legion’s small white enameled cross which hung on a red silk ribbon as a public show of gratitude.

Question 3. What were the defects of Code Napoleon?
Answer:

The most important of Napoleon’s contributions was the Code Napoleon. The defects of Code Napoleon were :

(1) Women were declared to be inferior to men by law. Complete freedom was not granted to women.
(2) Workers were denied collective bargaining and trade unions were outlawed.
(3) The civil code was incomplete and full of inconsistencies.

Question 4. What were the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit?
Answer:

The terms of the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) signed between Czar Alexander of Russia and Napoleon Bonaparte were as follows:

(1) Czar Alexander of Russia recognized the Napoleonic settlement in Germany, Italy, and Poland.
(2) Napoleon and Alexander were free to interfere according to their will in western and eastern Europe.
(3) A new state named Westphalia was created by taking the provinces of the Rhine from Prussia.
(4) Russia was to act as a mediator between England and France.

Question 5. What were the consequences of Napoleon’s defeat in Russia?
Answer:

The consequences of Napoleon’s defeat in Russia

Napoleon made the most daring adventure in his life by launching the invasion of Russia in 1812. His invasion of Russia not only failed but proved contrary to his expectations.

(1) His Russian campaign destroyed his military strength.
(2) The enemies of Napoleon, being inspired by his defeats, raised their heads against him. The countries of central Europe were inspired and tried to achieve their independence. They united themselves for a war of liberation.

Question 6. How did Napoleon reorganize Germany?
Answer:

Napoleon virtually became the master of Germany after the defeat of Austria and Prussia. His most significant work was the reorganization of Germany. He organized 150 small states of Germany into 39 states and established a Federal Diet for their administration in which the protestants were in the majority in comparison to Catholics.

His aim was to create 39 kingdoms as satellites of France. He formed :

(1) The Confederation of the Rhine with 28 kingdoms,
(2) The kingdom of Westphalia with the rest and
(3) The Grand Duchy of Warsaw. His brother Jerome was appointed as the king of the Rhine kingdom and the ruler of Saxony. Another client of Napoleon became the ruler of Warsaw. He introduced Code Napoleon and his land reforms in Germany. Though he undertook all these activities for his own advantage, indirectly it contributed a lot towards the unification of Germany.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 7. How did Napoleon reorganize Italy?
Answer:

In Italy, Napoleon carried the reorganization by the Treaties of Campo-Formio (1798) and Pressburg (1805).

(1) He assumed the title of the king of Italy and he appointed his stepson Prince Eugine as the Governor of North Italy.
(2) He appointed his brother Joseph as the king of Naples.
(3) He created uniformity in different laws, taxes, educational systems, coins and weights, and measures.

Question 8. “The French blockade was a paper blockade” -Explain.
Answer:

“The French blockade was a paper blockade”

Napoleon Bonaparte, the Emperor of France, made several attempts to defeat England in direct wars, but he was unsuccessful due to a lack of naval force. So, Napoleon introduced the Continental System in order to defeat England in an indirect war. Through this system of economic warfare, he wanted to destroy the trade and commerce of England.

The Continental System introduced by Napoleon failed. British goods were smuggled to different parts of Europe and Napoleon could not check them due to his weak navy. It was impossible for Fir to need to control the vast sea without a powerful fleet. So it has been remarked that “the French blockade was a paper blockade.”

Question 9. What are the Decrees through which Napoleon declared the Continental System?
Answer:

(1) In 1806 the Berlin Decree was issued by Napoleon which declared a naval blockade against England, i.e., the countries allied to Napoleon would have to stop trade with England. ‘
(2) The Milan Decree issued by Napoleon in 1807 was that any ship of any country trying to reach England would be caught and confiscated.
(3) The Warsaw and Fontainebleau Decrees issued by Napoleon said that all goods seized from English or neutral vessels would be treated as enemy goods and were to be burnt

Question 10. What were the provisions of the Orders-in-Council?
 Answer:

The provisions of the Orders-in-Council

(1) The French and her allies and colonial ports were henceforth under British blockade.
(2) No country, not even neutral countries, could import goods from France or her colonies or any allied port. Violation of this order would be punished by seizure and confiscation.
(3) Any neutral country willing to send goods to France, must visit at first any British port and take a license for going to France or to any allied port of France by payment of heavy fees.

Question 11. Write a note on the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).
Answer:

Battle of Trafalgar

Napoleon chalked out a plan to attack England and mustered a large army. He gathered a large army at Boulogne. Villeneuve, the French naval commander, proceeded to Spain. The Spanish fleet tried to join Villeneuve, but could not unite with them due to the presence of the British fleet under the command of Admiral Nelson.

‘A fierce naval battle was fought by both commanders on the island of Trafalgar (1805). The French and Spanish fleets were completely destroyed. The supremacy of the English naval fleet was established. After this fateful battle, Napoleon realized that England could not be defeated in a direct war and abandoned the idea of defeating England on the sea.

Question 12. Why did Napoleon invade Russia?
Answer:

Napoleon and the Czar of Russia became allies after the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) but this relationship did not last long. Very soon differences arose between the two due to the following reasons :

(1) Napoleon was annoyed with the Czar because he felt that the Czar had not helped him in the battle of 1809 between Austria and France.
(2) Napoleon turned against the Czar as the latter was not following the Continental System rigidly.
(3) The Czar had a fear that Napoleon would help and instigate the Poles against him.
(4) The Czar doubted that Napoleon wanted to establish his sway over the whole of Europe including Russia. So he became suspicious of Napoleon.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 13. How did the Code Napoleon become a lasting gift to France?
Answer:

The Code Napoleon, despite its flaws, was a lasting gift to France because of the following :

(1) It helped to turn away from the past
(2) It cemented the idea of equality for all Frenchmen and freedom of civil society from religious control.
(3) By providing uniformity of laws it promoted unity fostered by the French Revolution.
(4) It gave a further impulse to the rise of the bourgeoisie.

Question 14. What were the causes of Napoleon’s defeat in Russia?
Answer:

Napoleon made the most daring adventure in his life by launching the invasion of Russia in 1812 with 600,000 French soldiers. The causes of his defeat were as follows:

(1) As a General and Commander Napoleon committed certain mistakes which resulted in his defeat
(2) Napoleon had not made proper arrangements to fight against Russia. Disaster hit the French army in the form of severe cold, lack of food, clothing and war materials
(3) The French army was shattered due to the guerrilla tactics of the Russian soldiers.
(4) The superior military tactics of the Russian commanders made Napoleon’s defeat inevitable.
(5) The Russians followed the ‘scorched earth policy’. Napoleon’s road to return was destroyed by the Russians. Bridges were demolished, food supplies were cut off and towns were destroyed by the ‘scorched earth policy’. His grand army was decimated due to starvation.

Question 15. Write a note on the Battle of Waterloo.
Answer:

Battle of Waterloo

In 1815 Napoleon came to France from Elba and his faithful soldiers and officers joined him. The allies forgot all their differences and prepared themselves to crush him. They accused Napoleon of disturbing the peace of Europe. Napoleon had a firm faith that he would defeat the joint army of the allies.

The allies also organized two armies under the Chief Commander Duke of Wellington and Marshall Blucher. Blucher was defeated at Ligny. The Duke of Wellington gathered a huge army on the plains of Waterloo. In June 1815 a fierce battle was fought for seven hours on the plains of Waterloo. Napoleon and his soldiers fought gallantly but were defeated in the Battle of Waterloo (1815). This battle sealed the fate of Napoleon forever.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 16. What was the “One Hundred Days’ Rule” of Napoleon?
Answer:

“One Hundred Days’ Rule” of Napoleon

Napoleon, the ruler of France, was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig (1813). After his defeat, he was exiled to the island of Elba. Meanwhile, when the allies were engaged in the process of distributing the territories of the vanquished among themselves in Vienna, Napoleon reached France evading the notice of England, and ran back to France. As soon as he reached France, faithful soldiers and officers joined him. Louis XVIII who had been appointed the King of France in the meantime fled the country.

Thus, without shedding a drop of blood Napoleon occupied the throne of France again and ruled for 100 days. The allies were alarmed at the news and prepared to crush him. The Duke of Wellington gathered his army in the plains of Waterloo in 1815. In the fierce Battle of Waterloo, the fate of Napoleon was sealed forever.

Question 17. Write a note on Napoleon’s campaign in Italy.
Answer:

Napoleon’s campaign in Italy

With a shabbily equipped army, Napoleon was called upon to meet the Austrians and the Sardinians whose troops numbered twice as large as his. By a quick march, he unexpectedly appeared before the gates of Turin and compelled the Sardinians to sue for peace by the cession of Silvoy and Nice. Next, he turned against the Austrians, crossed the bridge of Lodi in the teeth of a murderous fire, and entered Milan in triumph.

The Austrians were driven out of Lombardy. Napoleon next besieged Mantua where the Austrians had retired. The Austrians made repeated efforts to relieve Mantua but were terribly beaten at Bassano, Areola, and Riflloli. Mantua fell, and Venice was conquered. The Italian program of Napoleon included an attack upon the Papacy.

He invaded the Papal territory and forced upon the Pope the Treaty of Tolentino by which the latter agreed to maintain a neutral attitude, cede territories, and recognize the newly formed republics in Italy. The victorious conqueror then crossed the Alps and by a rapid march came within the striking distance of Vienna.

This sudden move frightened Emperor Francois II and so he concluded peace with Napoleon through the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797). By this treaty, Austria ceded Belgium to France and recognized the French possession of the Ionian islands and the extension of the French frontiers up to the Rhine.

She also recognized the two republics which Napoleon had created in Italy and made dependent on France. These were the Ligurian Republic created out of the old republic of Genoa, and the Cisalpine Republic created out of the Austrian province of Lombardy. In return for these concessions, France gave to Austria and Venice including Venetian territories in Istria and Dalmatia.

Question 18. What were the results of the Treaty of Campo Formio?
Answer:

The results of the Treaty of Campo Formio

The Treaty of Campo Formio initiated the process of changing the map of Europe which was to be carried on several times in the years to come. Bonaparte now secured to France the “scientific frontier” for which Louis XIV had striven in vain. France now acquired the Rhine frontier down to the Batavian Republic (Holland), which was virtually subject to her.

On the southeast, she had gained her natural frontiers (the Alps) by the acquisition of Savoy and Nice from Sardinia. These extensions of French territory were in accordance with the traditional principles of the French monarchy. To this system which was traditional, the Directory added a second, viz. the policy of surrounding France with a belt of dependent territories serving as so many buffer states of the Revolution.

The two republics created in Italy and the Batavian Republic are instances in point. They followed the train of French policy and represented a new element in Europe. The Treaty of Campo Formio was thus a great triumph for France. It secured France her natural frontiers and established her domination in Italy and Holland.

It gave her the Ionian islands which were so many stepping stones toward Egypt. Lastly, it shattered the remains of the once great first coalition and left France without any enemy on the Continent and left England without an ally in Europe. England alone had to struggle against the ever-increasing power of France.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 19. Was the peace of Amiens a triumph for Napoleon?
Answer:

Amiens was a great triumph for Napoleon. England agreed to recognize his annexations in Europe and to abandon them as an intervention in continental affairs. Thus he was given a free hand to impose his own policy on Europe. England had made war in 1793 to exclude France from Belgium, but she had to make peace in 1802 by accepting her own exclusion from Belgium.

But it should be noted that the Peace was too favorable for France to last long. England surrendered most of her overseas conquests although she had not suffered any serious reverse. France, on the other hand, retained all her conquests in Europe. This one-sided settlement could not be expected to prove long-lasting.

It was the weakness of the settlement of Amines that an undefeated party was pledged to a policy of non-intervention in Europe without either the compensation of colonial gains or an effective guarantee of non-aggressive policy in the future on the part of the other party. The Peace thus did not conform to the reality of the European situation.

Question 20. How did Napoleon become the emperor?
Answer:

Napoleon once said: “I found the crown of France lying on the ground and I picked it up with my sword”. Ever since his brilliant successes in the Italian campaigns, Napoleon had so fashioned his conduct as to make himself the most powerful man in the State.

The following are the steps by which he made himself Emperor of the French.

(1) The directory Govt was overthrown by Napoleon and His appointment as the First Consul placed the supreme executive power in his hands.
(2) The reforms he introduced further strengthened his position by enabling him to conciliate all hostile elements. A considerable portion of the people became reconciled to his paramount position.|
(3) The Legion of Honour he instituted formed the basis of a new aristocracy dependent upon him. This was a distinct advance in the direction of imperialism. (4) In 1802, he had himself elected consul for life. This step made him the absolute ruler of France and brought him within view of the throne.

Question 21. Why did the Treaty of Amiens rupture?
Answer:

The Peace of Amiens proved to be a hollow truce of short duration. Napoleon wanted a short space of time to consolidate his position at home by introducing some healing measures. His real object was to husband all his resources and then to make a bold bid for world domination. England, on the other hand, expected that peace with France would be followed by a revival of trade and industries. But she was greatly disappointed when she found Napoleon establishing high protective tariffs which excluded, or at least reduced English competition.

Thus tension of feeling continued which was intensified by Napoleon’s aggressive attitude. He annexed Piedmont, intervened in the affairs of Switzerland by sending troops and became its “mediator,” and virtually incorporated Holland in France. England complained that Napoleon’s aggression in times of peace was hardly less numerous than in times of war. This rapid extension of French influence was greatly alarming to Great Britain.

Question 22. What were the effects of Napoleon’s rule on Germany?
Answer:

The effects of Napoleon’s rule on Germany

It should be noted that the reconstruction of Germany by Napoleon began soon after the Treaty of Luneville (1891). In that treaty, it was agreed that the secular rulers of Germany who had been dispossessed of their territory by the French occupation of the left bank of the Rhine should receive compensation on the right bank of the river. In 1803 Napoleon used his influence at the Imperial Diet to procure the suppression of all the ecclesiastical states of Germany, and their territories were distributed among the lay states to whom compensation had been promised.

Subsequently, forty-four out of fifty-one free cities were also wiped out of existence. One hundred and twelve small states were thus absolutely annihilated, being absorbed into their greater neighbors. The same policy of mediatization was also followed after the Peace of Pressburg. As the result, the complicated political map of Germany was greatly simplified.

The old Germany was gone forever. By erasing a mazy network of internal frontiers Napoleon unconsciously took an important step in the Direction of German unity. Certainly, no other means than force such as Napoleon had at his disposal, could have reduced the multitude of small states to a reasonable number in so short a time.

Along with French influence there came into Germany many beneficial changes. In the territories annexed to France were introduced better government and higher ideals of social life based on Napoleon’s Civil Code. In the rest of the country, the inspiration of the French example had a very stimulating effect. Hence in the long run Germany gained much by the rule of Napoleon.

WBBSE Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 23. Why was Napoleon overthrown? Or, the reason behind the downfall of Napoleon.
Answer:

The real cause of Napoleon’s overthrow was his insatiable ambition. It blinded him to the sense of what is practicable or not, and so led him to stretch his power to the breaking point His attempt to establish a universal empire with himself at its head was fraught with inseparable difficulties which the rashness of his genius ignored or minimized. The empire he had hastily built up rested upon no sure foundation. Built up by war and conquest, it was environed by the hatred of the conquered.

Based on the force, it could be maintained only by force. As his Government was based on despotism, it evoked no loyalty but only obedience through fear. And lastly, erected by the genius of a single man, it depended solely upon his life, and fortunes and fortune are notoriously fickle. Hence with his fall, the imposing fabric of his empire fell to the ground. Besides his inordinate ambition, there were other forces at work that combined to bring about his overthrow. These were mainly the outcome of his mistakes, the results of which he could not foresee.

These were:

(1) His most serious blunder was the Continental System. The blockade of the continental ports caused a dislocation of trade and thereby enormously raised the prices of the articles of common necessity. Dire distress followed which made Napoleon’s rule highly unpopular. To enforce this system he had to adopt a policy of wanton aggression, which raised around him a host of enemies. His attack on Portugal, his treacherous seizure of the Spanish crown, and his quarrel with the Pope and the Czar of Russia, all were the outcome of his anxiety to rigidly enforce this system.

(2) His second great mistake was his attempt to place his own brother on the Spanish throne. This roused the national spirit of the Spaniards and evoked a corresponding sense of national patriotism in other nations. The national resistance that he met with in Spain, Prussia, and Russia considerably undermined his power. Napoleon had to learn that the roused spirit of nationalism could not be conquered. It was this rising tide of national enthusiasm which formed one of the most potent causes of his downfall.

Another serious lapse of judgment on Napoleon’s part was his harsh treatment of the Pope. He demanded that the Papal ports should be dosed against British ships but the Pope replied that he would remain neutral. Thereupon Napoleon imprisoned the Pope and annexed his territories. This gratuitous affront to the Pope shocked the Catholic sentiment of Europe and did much to shake the fabric of Napoleon’s power.

Lastly, it should be noted that the imperial system of Napoleon was largely based upon his alliance with Russia. His rupture of this alliance was perhaps the most important cause of his downfall. At the bottom, his power rested with the army, but his Grand Army was shattered to pieces as a result of his ill-fated Moscow expedition. By the army, he rose and with its collapse, he fell.

The Russian disaster encouraged the powers to combine against him, and this combination cion eventually proved fatal to him. The verdict of Waterloo registered his fate. Napoleon summed up the causes of his downfall in three words —Spain, Pope, and Russia. To these must be added the persistent hostility of England and her naval supremacy.

Class 9 History Napoleonic Empire Short Questions And Answers Wbbse

Question 24. How did Napoleon rise to power?
Answer:

Napoleon Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio in Corsica on 15 August 1769 shortly after the island was purchased by France from Genoa. In his youth, his great ambition was to free Corsica from French control. He was educated at the military schools of Brienne and Paris. At sixteen he became a sub-lieutenant of artillery. By 1793 he was a Colonel. In the struggle between the Girondists and the Jacobins, Napoleon sided with the latter.

In 1793 he distinguished himself by driving the English from Toulon. It was his first victory, the presage of his future greatness. He was given the rank of Brigadier-General. He further made his mark in 1795 by defending the Convention against the royalist insurrection.

Napoleon impressed the Directory with his military skill and in 1796 he was appointed commander-in-chief of Italy where he laid the foundation of his imperishable military fame. His Italian campaign lasted a year from April 1796 to April 1797. He was a military genius. His policy was to see that his enemies did not mute and then beat each other in turn.

With amazing speed and brilliant tactics, Napoleon led his forces across the Alps, humbled the Sardinians, and occupied every fort in Northern Italy. Sardinia was compelled to cede Nice and Savoy to France. When Bonaparte’s army approached Vienna, Austria sued for peace. By the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797) Austria gave up Belgium to France and abandoned to her the left bank of the Rhine. In return, Venice was handed over to Austria.

On his return to France, Napoleon was received with wild enthusiasm. But the time was not ripe for him to impose his authority upon the French people. Napoleon, therefore, persuaded the Directory that it was in the best interest of France that England should be ruined.

She was the soul and purse of the continental opposition. He took his army to Egypt and thence across the desert of Sinai towards the East. But he never reached India. He actually lost most of his fleet, failed to conquer Syria, and barely got back to France (October 1799) through Nelson’s fleet after abandoning his army. He arrived in Paris at the most opportune moment

WBBSE Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 25. What were the financial and religious reforms of Napoleon?
Answer:

1)Financial Reforms: Napoleon put the financial administration in proper order. He reduced public expenditure in a rigid economy. He increased the national income by centralizing the system of collecting taxes. The Bank of France was founded in 1800 and in 1803 it was given the monopoly of issuing bank notes. Thus France enjoyed a degree of stability she had never known before.

Napoleon imitated the good features of the age of Louis 14. He inaugurated a series of public works. Napoleon continued the protectionist tariff policies of the Directory which were directed primarily at Britain. Everything possible was done to promote the industry. There was a growth of 25 percent in the French industry. It may be said that the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution in France was laid during the Napoleonic period. Napoleon’s engineers built or repaired about 50,000 miles of roads. Every remote village benefited.

2)Religion: Napoleon regarded religion as a useful political instrument, a social cement, and a safety value. He wanted to come to an understanding with the Church, for he believed that religion was essential to strengthen his political career. He made a treaty of Concordat with Pope Pius VII in July 1801 whereby he set aside the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. He guaranteed freedom of worship and recognized Catholicism as the religion of the majority of the French people.

By the Concordat the higher clergy, though appointed by the state, must receive the confirmation of the Pope; the lower clergy were to be appointed by the bishops. In return, the State undertook to pay the salaries of all.

In April 1802 Bonaparte embodied the Concordat in a general Law of Public Worship which subjected the clergy to minute state regulation. Napoleon’s ecclesiastical settlement was a compromise. It left both extremes dissatisfied as it did not restore to the Church its property which had been confiscated during the Revolution. Nevertheless, the settlement continued in force till 1905.

Question 26. Write a note on the legal and educational reforms of Napoleon.
Answer:

1)Legal Reform: One of the greatest evils of the ancient regime was the lack of a uniform code of law. With the help of a commission of jurists, Napoleon in 1804 evolved a Code consisting of 2,287 articles. The Code emphasized the principles of Roman law, which made it more acceptable to other European countries in later times. There were five codes in all—the Civil Code, the Code of Civil Procedure, the Code of Criminal Procedure and Penal Law, the Penal Code, and the Commercial Code.

Of the five codes, the civil code was the most important. These codes granted religious toleration, civil equality, equality of inheritance, enjoined civil marriage, and permitted divorce. On the other hand, it upheld strongly the bond of family life, paternal authority, the sanctity of private property, and the subjection of women. Napoleon was rightly regarded as a Second Justinian. In Holland, Germany, and Italy, wherever the French armies marched, the Code exercised enduring influence. The Codes presented to Europe the main rules which should govern a civilized society.

2)Legion of Honour: Napoleon created a new aristocracy of merit by introducing the Legion of Honour in 1802. This he distributed primarily to soldiers but also to civilians of high merit.

3)Education: Napoleon ensured free social and educational opportunities and made possible a ‘career open to talents’. In his attitude towards culture, Napoleon could hardly be called liberal. The purpose of the schools, according to him, was to rear up faithful citizens, taught by men with fixed principles. He established four types of schools: primary, secondary, semi-military boarding schools, and schools for technical training. At the head of all was the Imperial University created in 1808.

He reorganized the Institute de France which had been established in 1795 for higher study and research. He prohibited the study of moral and political sciences. Napoleon preserved and expanded the Bibliotheque Nationale (National Library) and provided the Archives TMationales a new home in 1804. The whole structure formed a rigid hierarchy with an imposing bureaucratic apparatus centered in Paris and charged with regulating the educational life of France down to the smallest detail. He was equally opposed to the freedom of the press.

WBBSE Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 27. Comment on the Spanish expedition of Napoleon.
Answer:

The Spanish War: To enforce the Continental System on Portugal, an ally of England, Napoleon concluded a secret treaty with Spain for the partition of Portugal. The royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil in South America. Then Napoleon forced the Bourbon King of Spain to resign all claims to the Spanish Throne. In May 1808 Napoleon placed his elder brother Joseph on the throne.

Thus Spain owned France. He could not realize how difficult it was to subdue proud Spanish people amidst its mountains and arid plains. Spanish peasantry made common cause with nobles and priests. Guerilla force drove Joseph from Madrid and defeated two French divisions in the field at Baylen in July 1808. Thus began the Peninsular War which lasted until 1813 and baffled him at every stage and ultimately brought disaster to him. It cost him half a million men and perhaps his throne.

|Backed by British naval power and British forces under Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington), the Spaniards cleared the Peninsula in 1813. Napoleon remarked later, “It was the Spanish ulcer that ruined me.” The significance of the Spanish War lay in the fact that it was the beginning of a nationalist movement of resistance in other parts of Europe.

Napoleon underestimated the strength of the Spanish national resistance. Religion and national pride were the chief passions of the Spanish people which guided them to an obstinate resistance to the French. The French Emperor had to learn that a whole people is more powerful than disciplined troops’. Moreover, instead of harnessing all his resources into the enterprise, Napoleon hurried away in 1809 before he had completed the conquest of Spain.

He did not support Massena in 1810; he withdrew South in 1812; in 1813 he made futile efforts to hold Spain with armies which, if transferred to Central Europe, might have saved the Empire. Moreover, the physical features affording great facilities for guerilla warfare harassed the French armies and ultimately enfeebled them. In addition, the help of the British was of utmost importance to the Spaniards.

Question 28. Write a short note on the Treaty of Amiens.
Answer:

Treaty of Amiens

After the Peace of Luneville, the only member of the coalition that held out against France was England. But these two powers were hardly within striking distance of each- other. England had no allies on the continent, and France had no fleets on the sea. Unable to strike England on the sea, Napoleon turned to diplomacy and made use of the grievances of neutral powers against England.

The British ships used to search even neutral ships for French goods. Napoleon instigated the Czar to revive against England the Armed Neutrality, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark. The object of this league was to prevent England from searching neutral ships for French goods.

As soon as this league was formed the English fleet under Nelson bombarded Copenhagen, and captured the Danish fleet to prevent it from falling into the hands of Napoleon. This victory, as well as the assassination of the Czar Paul of Russia, broke up the Armed Neutrality.

Napoleon’s plan was foiled and England was saved from a formidable coalition. The English were also successful in Egypt. Abercromby’s victory at Abukir, followed by the surrender of the French garrison at Cairo, compelled the French to evacuate Egypt All these French reverses inclined Napoleon to conclude peace with England, and England too, tired of war, was ready to lend a willing ear.

By the Peace of Amiens which followed, England restored all conquests from France and her allies except Ceylon and Trinidad and promised to evacuate Malta. France agreed to evacuate Naples and the Papal States and to restore Egypt to the Sultan of Turkey. This peace was favorable to France and England tacitly recognized the predominance of France on the Continent as it was established by the Treaty of Luneville (1802).

Question 29. What was the significance of the Consulate?
Answer:

Significance of the Consulate: The work of the Consulate was an honest and successful attempt to secure to the French people the fruits of the Revolution by reducing the ideas of 1789 to a system of law. The Civil Code abolished all traces of aristocratic privileges and established equality in the eyes of the law.

By the Concordat the Pope recognized the new land system of France which rested on the revolutionary Church property. Thus the peasant was secured in the possession of what he had gotten by the Revolution. The Concordat further healed the ecclesiastical discord which was a source of the weakness of the Revolution.

In a word, feudalism, privilege, and all the social anomalies for the abolition of which the French people had made violent efforts in the past were all removed and the Consulate confirmed the revolutionary changes which had been effected in the social and economic life of France. But in politics, the Consulate showed a reaction towards the centralized despotism of the Bourbons.

WBBSE Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 30. Write an essay on Napoleon’s reconstruction of Germany.
Answer:

Napoleon’s reconstruction of Germany

The most striking changes he affected were in Germany. Napoleon’s Garman policy may be summed up in this picturesque expression, ‘to abuse the mountains and exalt the valleys’. In other words, his policy was to increase the lesser states of Germany to neutralize the power of the two great states, Austria and Prussia. So he lavished favor on these lesser states and made them strong enough to be useful as allies.

As these states were bound to France by selfish interests, they formed so many buffer states between France on the one hand and Austria and Prussia on the other. Thus, by the Peace of Pressburg, he raised Bavaria and Wurtemburg, hitherto duchies to the rank of kingdoms, and considerably enlarged their territories at the expense of Austria.

The elector of Baden also received a share of the outlying Austrian provinces in western Germany and assumed the title of Grand Duke. The Austrian power was thus reduced within the narrowest limits. Equally severe was his treatment of Prussia. During the campaign of Austerlitz Prussia had threatened intervention.

Napoleon and had thereby incurred his displeasure. So, by the treaty of Scbonbrunn Napoleon forced Prussia to surrender Rheniah territories which were converted into the Grand Duchy of Berg and placed under the charge of Munt. In exchange, Prussia received the most unwelcome gift of Hanover, which carried with it the certainty of war with England, and had to agree to close all her coastline to English commerce.

Having thoroughly humbled Austria Napoleon set himself on the task of reconstructing the German political system. In Germany, he formed a new political union under French patronage, called the Confederation of the Rhine. It was composed of Bavaria, Wurtemburg, Baden, and thirteen other minor states of southwestern Germany. These states renounced their allegiance to the Holy Roman Empire, agreed to recognize Napoleon as their Protector, and pledged themselves to support him in all his wars with an army of 63,000 men.

All the smaller princes and Imperial Knights within the limits of the Confederation were mediatized, that is, deprived of their governing rights, and their territories annexed to the large provinces in which they were situated. This new organization was meant as a counterpoise to the power of Prussia and Austria. It was also directed against Russia whom Napoleon sought to exclude from Western Europe by the erection in Germany of a political system subservient to French policy.

Russia remained his only enemy on the Continent after the break¬up of the Third Coalition at Austerlitz.
The secession of these states affected a revolution in the old German political system. The Confederation of the Rhine destroyed the Holy. Roman Empire, shadowy and unreal as it was, had been in existence for 110 thousand years. Emperor Francois formally resigned his imperial dignity and adopted the title of Franois I. Emperor of Austria. Thus perished the Holy Roman Empire.

Question 31. What were the causes of French failure in Spain?
Answer:

Causes of French failure: There were many reasons for the military failure of Napoleon in Spain. First, he had as many calls upon his attention that he could not personally control all the operations in Spain and so could not secure that unity of action which was essential to success. He left the task mostly to his generals whose jealousies prevented concerted action at many critical junctures. Secondly, he underestimated the strength of the Spanish national resistance and so did not throw all his resources into the enterprise.

The result was that throughout the conduct of the war, he committed grave mistakes. Thus in 1809, he hurried away to France before the Spanish rebellion was completely suppressed. In 1811 he did not adequately support Massena before Torres Vedras and in 1813 he made futile efforts to hold Spain with armies that, if transferred to Central Europe, might have saved the Empire. These mistakes of policy coupled with the absence of unity of action led to serious reverses. Thirdly, the physical features of Spain fought the French army.

The country is mountainous and poor so it was difficult for the French to secure food and transport for a large army for any length of time. Spain Is the typical example of a country”Where “large armies starve and small armies get beaten”.

The physical features were also well suited for guerilla warfare for which the Spaniards showed great aptitude. Lastly, Napoleon’s treachery provoked a national spirit and he had to learn that “a whole people is more powerful than disciplined troops”. This spirit was well sustained by Wellington whose endurance, political tact, and generalship were factors omitted from Napoleon’s calculations.

WBBSE Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 32. What was the significance of the Peninsular War?
Answer:

Significance of Peninsular War: Napoleon’s attempt to conquer Spain was more than a failure. It brought about his downfall. He expected a short contest but found himself involved in a long exhausting war. Everywhere the people spontaneously rose in arms.

To cope with the headed resistance he had to keep enormous war armies in Spain. This weakened his operations elsewhere and drained his resources which should have been carefully husbanded for more important purposes. Secondly, Napoleon’s intervention in Spain produced an outburst of national feeling throughout the country such as he had never met before.

He was confronted with the determined opposition of the whole people, and he had to learn that the Spanish nation was not the same thing as the Spanish Government which he had so easily overthrown.

Other nations took the cue from the Spaniards and organized popular and national resistance before which Napoleon had to give way. In other words, with the Spanish rising, the national reaction began, and its effect was seen in the immense impulse when to the national movement in Germany.

The Peninsular War thus proved to be a “veritable ulcer” that ate away the strength of Napoleon at a time when the European situation demanded all his strength. Lastly, the Spanish insurrection was rendered vastly more injurious to Napoleon because it gave the small land army of England exactly the theatre in which it could most effectively deploy its resources. Besides, bringing their weight to bear upon the struggle the English soldiers did much to stiffen the resistance of the Spaniards.

Question 33. Write an essay on Napoleon’s expedition to £gypt.
Answer:

Napoleon’s Expedition to Egypt : On his return to France after the Italian campaigns, Napoleon was received with transports of enthusiasm. His brilliant victories had lifted his head and shoulders above all rivals and henceforward he was at the forefront of public affairs in France.

Austria was humbled, and only one power remained at war with France, namely, England. The Directory appointed Napoleon to the command of the army meant for the invasion of England. But a direct invasion of England seemed impossible without a powerful fleet, so Napoleon advised the Directory to fit out an expedition for the conquest of Egypt, the key to the East.

This would be an indirect blow to England undermining her supremacy in the East and destroying her commerce. The Directors agreed to his proposal with a sense of relief as they were afraid of the military predominance of the great general and wanted him to be away from France.

Napoleon left Toulon and set sail for Egypt in May 1198. It should be noted that the Egyptian expedition of Napoleon was the outcome of his comprehensive Eastern design which aimed at destroying British power in India, as well as taking Europe in the rear by way of Constantinople.

The first indication of his Eastern design was to be found in his occupation of the Adriatic port of Ancona during his campaigns in Italy. The acquisition of the Ionian islands by the Peace of Campo Formio and the correspondence that he carried on with the Albanian subjects of Turkey were the deliberate steps already taken by him to promote his designs on Turkey.

He planned the Egyptian expedition as the culmination of his Levantine (eastern)projects. The conquest of Egypt would give him an- invaluable base for operations both against Turkey whos dismemberment he sought and against India from which he sought to expel the English. Eluding the vigilance of the British fleet Napoleon managed to reach Egypt, conquering Malta on the way. He won the famous Battle of the Pyramid which made him master of the basin of the Nile.

But the English admiral Nelson followed him closely and the battle of Abukir Bay, generally known as the Battle of the Nile, destroyed the French fleet. This victory was entirely out of Bonaparte and his army from communication with the French and he was as good as imprisoned in Egypt. He then invaded Syria but failed in his attempt to take Acre. He then returned to France leaving his army to its fate.

Question 34. Write a short note on the Consulate.
Answer:

Consulate

The overthrow of the Directory by Napoleon necessitated the revision of the constitution. Its forms and details as drawn up by Sieyes and amended by Napoleon gave to France a Consular Constitution.

The following were its main features :

(1) The executive power was vested in three Consuls who were to be elected by the Senate for ten years. One of them was to be the First Consul who was to have the power of making war and peace, appointing ministers, ambassadors, and all other officers, both civil and military. The other two consuls had only a consultative voice,

(2) The Legislative functions were distributed amongst three separate bodies, namely, the Council of State. Tribunate and the Legislative Body. The first drafted all laws and bills, the second discussed them without voting and the third voted upon them without discussing them.

There was also to be a fourth body higher than the others. It was a Senate of sixty members whose function was to reject or to ratify the measures referred to it by the Legislative Body. It was also an electing body; it chose the consuls, the members of the Tribunate, and the Legislative Body. But the members of the Council of State were to be nominated the First Consul. The constitution as drawn up by the Consulate was a mere sham. Appearances of popular Government were kept up to deceive the people.

All power was practically concentrated in the hands of the First Consul. The legislative functions were so divided as to leave no influence either on the Tribunate or the Legislative Body. The Senate and the Council of State, being nominated by the First Consul, were tools in his hands. France was a republic in name the Government became a veiled monarchy. Under this new Constitution, known as the Constitution of the year VIII, Napoleon was chosen as the First Consul and he took a long step towards making himself Emperor.

Question 35. What were the aims and objectives of the reforms of Napoleon?
Answer:

Aims and Objectives of the Reforms of Napoleon: Between 1799 and 1803 Napoleon as the First Consul was free to devote his energies to the internal reconstruction of France. As an administrator and a reformer, Napoleon was to some extent influenced by the philosophers of that time. From the history of England, Greece, etc. Napoleon learned lessons about the need for the establishment of a welfare state and reforms for the welfare of the people.

In his reforms, Napoleon was guided by four specific aims and objectives :

(1) To establish equality and fraternity in the socio-economic life of France that had been disturbed by the Revolution;
(2) To strengthen the central Government and to concentrate all powers at the center to root out internal disorder and establish national unity
(3) To reduce the rights and powers of the self-governing institutions; and
(4) To leave behind a fame that would be very well remembered by the posterity

Question 36. Write a short note on the conflict between the Napoleonic Empire and the new ideas of nationalism.
Answer:

The conflict between the Napoleonic Empire and the New Ideas of Nationalism: Napoleon sought to develop a new model of government and administration throughout the Empire. Such a model was for the middle-class people and the military. But it had relatively little appeal to the common people, both urban and rural of the Napoleonic Empire. The increase in taxation was resented by them.

The enlightened reforms like civil and legal equality granted by the satellite rulers of the Empire were less attractive to the common people when it was forced by the power of French guns. In such a background the significance of the newly emerging nationalism in Europe could not be ignored.

The sense of nationalism propounded by the bourgeoisie in Europe became widespread among the intellectuals and the educated middle class. This may be illustrated by the developments in Germany, particularly in Prussia. The defeat of Prussia at Jena and Auerstadt by Napoleon which led to the loss of independence created a deep sense of shame. It wounded the pride of the Prussians.

In consequence, a new sense of freedom and energy was spreading through society. The thinkers like Fichte and others began to emphasize the superiority of the German cultural tradition. This tradition was more based on emotions rather than the principles of the French Revolution. It was cultivated as a source of resistance to French domination and acted as a stimulus to German national consciousness. Herein lay the conflict between the Napoleonic Empire and the ideas of nationalism realized by revolutionary France.

Question 37. What were the noble ideas which spread through the Napoleonic Empire?
Answer:

Different noble ideas spread to different parts of Europe through the Napoleonic Empire.

These were nationalism, religious toleration, and secularism.

(1) Ideas of nationalism and patriotism spread to Europe through the Napoleonic Empire. Before the outbreak of the French Revolution, the people of Europe were loyal to the monarchy. However the French Revolution taught the people to give top priority to national interests. The deep sense of nationalism spread to different parts of Europe through the Napoleonic Empire. The concept of the national flag, national song, and national school inspired the people and spread throughout the Napoleonic Empire.

(2) Napoleon showed religious toleration to the Jews. This put to shame many European countries even in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The idea of religious toleration was adopted by almost all modern states.

(3) Through the Napoleonic Empire secularism, i.e., the idea that religion was separate from politics came to be established in Europe. Henceforth, in any matter of the state, the church was not involved.

Question 38. Why did Napoleon Bonaparte introduce the Continental system?
Answer:

Napoleon Bonaparte introduced the Continental System in 1806 which was an economic strategy in Europe intended to cripple Great Britain.

The reasons for the introduction of the Continental System were :

(1) If England’s trade and commerce were destroyed, it would ruin her economically.
(2) If the British-made goods were not exported, she would become bankrupt and she. could neither wage war nor help her allies.
(3) If the manufactured goods were not exported, the factories of England would be ruined. The businessmen and capitalists would suffer.
(4) The condition of England would deteriorate and thus England would have to sue for a treaty.

Question 39. What were the causes of the failure of the Continental System?
Answer:

The Continental System introduced by Napoleon failed due to various reasons :

(1) Most of the European countries depended on British goods, but when the supply of these articles was stopped, people had to face great difficulties and they began to oppose the Continental System.
(2) It was impossible for France to control the vast sea without a powerful fleet.
(3) British goods were smuggled to different parts of Europe and Napoleon could not check it due to his weak navy.
(4) Spain and Portugal did not join this scheme and extended their cooperation to England.
(5) Napoleon lost the sympathy of the people.
He was hated by the people for his selfish and tyrannical rule. Napoleon’s Continental System was a total failure and proved suicidal for him.

Question 40. Describe the nationalist reactions against the Napoleonic empire.
Answer:

The nationalist reactions against the Napoleonic empire

Napoleon declared himself the ‘Emperor of France’ in 1804 and he established a vast empire. He conquered Italy, Germany, Prussia, Holland, Switzerland, Denmark, Spain, Portugal, and Naples. But his empire did not last long and there were nationalist reactions against his empire.

(1) He was regarded as a foreigner by the people of the vanquished nations. Gradually, the spirit of nationalism grew powerful and people began to oppose him.

(2) The people of Spain began to organize revolutionary councils and national guards. All of Spain stood as one man against Napoleon.

(3) The spirit of nationalism that developed in Spain gradually spread to other European countries and initiated a formidable liberation struggle. The nationalist spirit of the Dutch, Belgians, Germans, Italians, Swiss, and Poles was provoked when they found that the French formed a ruling class over them.

(4) When Napoleon was trying to consolidate at home, Germans started their war of liberation under the leadership of Prussia, to which Austria and Russia also joined.

(5) Students, teachers, peasants, clergy, and nobles of Germany joined hands against Napoleon. Thus Napoleon had to face people imbued with the spirit of nationalism.

Question 41. Give an account of the reactions of the people against the Napoleonic Empire.
Answer:

The reactions of the people against the Napoleonic Empire

Napoleon Bonaparte, the French emperor, pursued a vigorous foreign policy to rebuild the French colonial empire which resulted in acquiring for France a large number of territories. He conquered most of Europe and Egypt for France. There were reactions from the people against the Napoleonic Empire.

(1) The Battle of Leipzig was a battle of nations and nationalities. Students, teachers, peasants, clergy, and nobles of Germany joined hands against Napoleon.

(2) Napoleon’s empire became very vast. There were Dutch, Belgians, Germans, Italians, Swiss, and Poles in his empire. The nationalist spirit of the people was provoked when they found that the French formed a ruling class over them and brought no new message.

(3) The people of Holland enthroned the Prince of Orange against the wishes of Napoleon.

(4) The Italian provinces rose in revolt against Napoleon.

(5) Even in France people began to oppose Napoleon. They were against the policy of forced

(6) He lost the support of the people of Europe. When he captured the Papal kingdom and imprisoned the pope for the latter’s refusal to accept the Continental System, the whole of the Christian world blamed him as a high-handed man.

Question 42. Can Napoleon be called the ‘Destroyer of the Revolution’?
Answer:

Napoleon was a supporter of the principles of the French Revolution, viz. liberty, equality, and fraternity. He provided equality to every individual in the country by implementing his code. Though he provided equality to his people, he took away their liberty. He believed in absolute monarchy and established his empire based on his personality. The administration was centralized completely.

He captured the real power of the provincial Government by placing all the officials under the central government. With all the rights of the judiciary and executive vested in him, he used to live in the palace of Tuileries like the absolute Bourbon kings. He established full control of education and destroyed individual freedom, the rule of law, freedom of speech, and the press. He sent honest critics arbitrarily to prison. Thus he killed the principles of the revolution keeping in view the necessity of the time. He is thus called ‘the destroyer of the Revolution’.

Question 43. Write a note on Napoleon’s campaign against Russia.
Answer:

Napoleon’s campaign against Russia

Ever since the Peace of Tilsit, Russia had been Napoleon’s ally, but circumstances combined to weaken this alliance and eventually bring about a rupture. The matrimonial alliance between Austria and Napoleon offended the Czar and the coolness which sprang up, was heightened by Napoleon’s seizure of the duchy of Oldenburg which belonged to the Czar’s brother-in-law. The Czar had all along looked upon with suspicion the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw by Napoleon.

The suspicion was changed into positive distrust when Napoleon enlarged the Grand Duchy by the territory acquired from Austria after Wagram. He feared that Napoleon’s object was to re-establish Poland and encourage Polish nationalism. Lastly, the rift between the two powers was completed by the Czar’s refusal to increase the rigors of Napoleon’s economic blockade of England.

The Continental system which the Czar had agreed to support, was causing great financial loss to Russia. So the Czar issued an edict in 1810, modifying his adhesion to the Continental System. This completed the rupture, as Napoleon would not tolerate any breach of the system by which he sought the compass of the economic ruin of England.

Both the powers prepared for war and Napoleon invaded Russia with the largest army he had ever commanded. Napoleon thought that a smashing victory like that of Friedland would speedily bring Czar Alexander to terms. Instead, he found that the Russians would not fight.

They steadily retorted, adopting the policy of avoiding fights and luring the enemy farther and farther into a country that they took pains to devastating as they retreated. Napoleon followed the Russians with his dogged energy, defeating them and finally occupying Moscow (1812). The Russians deserted their ardent capital and set it on fire.

This compelled Napoleon to retreat during which his army was exposed to indescribable hardships of hunger and exhaustion, intensified by the rigor of a Russian winter and the harassing attacks of the Cossack guerilla bands. Napoleon deserted the army and hurried to Paris. His Grand Army was reduced to a few paltry thousands. This ill-fated expedition shattered the military power of Napoleon and encouraged the powers of Central Europe to shake off his domination.

Chapter 2 Revolutionary Ideals: Napoleonic Empire And The Idea Of Nationalism 8 Marks Questions And Answers

Question 1. How did Napoleon rise to power in France?
Answer:

(1) Early life: Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769, on the island of Corsica, in a not-very-well-to-do family. Napoleon was enrolled as a student of the Military Academy of France and made his mark in the school through his brilliance. He displayed a marked fondness for mathematics, history, and the science of war. He also studied the works of the current philosophers. He had a faculty of keen observation and a capacity to learn from experience.

(2) Rise to fame: As an officer of the French army, Napoleon made his mark during the regime of the National Convention. By brilliant artillery action, he beat back the English invasion of the port of Toulon in 1793. As a result, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. He defended the Government from the attack of the Parisian mob in 1795. His profession of Jacobin faith made him acceptable to the government.

All these factors contributed to his promotion to the rank of a full general. But it was not till the Italian campaign that Napoleon could emerge from obscurity to the commanding reputation of the foremost general of France. Bonaparte’s name became familiar to the Parisians after his brilliant defense of the Directory from the mob in 1795.

(3) His Italian Campaign: When the Directory was faced with the formidable challenge of the First Coalition, Carnot the Minister of the charge of defense invested Napoleon with the charge of the Italian campaign. Carnot had seen a plan prepared by Napoleon for the conquest of Italy and became highly impressed by it. In 1796 Napoleon was appointed in Italy where he could apply his new principles of warfare and won striking success.

The Italian campaign was the dawn of his career and his accession to the French throne in 1809 was its logical result. Napoleon reorganized Italy after his sleeping victory and sealed it with the Treaty of Campo Formio with Austria. By this treaty, France got the Ionian Islands which provided for French foothold in the Eastern Mediterranean. Austria recognized the Italian republic founded by Napoleon. Peace was established between France and her allies.

(4) Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt: Napoleon’s sweeping victory in Italy and the treaty of Campo Formio made him a national hero. Paris gave him a rousing reception after his return from Italy. After tasting, success in Italy Napoleon displayed his contempt for the Directory and pursued his ambition. The Directors became jealous of his power and popularity. They prepared a plan of invasion of England and asked Napoleon to execute it.

Napoleon feared that the plan would be a failure which would ruin his career. Napoleon landed in Egypt with fifty-five thousand men, ships full of libraries accompanied by experts in history, archaeology, science, and medicine. He routed the Mameluks in the battle of the Pyramid. The French killed and imprisoned 24 thousand men with a loss of 200 men on their side.

This glazing victory was darkened by the bad news of the battle of Abukir Bay in which the French fleet was destroyed by the heroic English sea lord Admiral Nelson. The loss of the French fleet cut off Napoleon and his men from Europe and they were stranded like fishes out of water. Finding no other alternative to save his men, he left them and returned to France in 1799 on a daring adventure.

(5) End of the Directory: It was a puzzled and dejected France that received Napoleon in 1799. The corrupt administration of the Directory as well as the excesses committed by the radicals during the Reign of Terror made France tired of both the moderates and the radicals. There was a general desire for peace and security. Externally, the mismanagement of foreign affairs by the Directory led to the formation of the second coalition. The advantage gained by France by the Treaty of Campo Formio was lost by the Directory.

No one in France reproached Napoleon for his failure in Egypt. On the contrary, they welcomed him as the savior who could give the people order and glory through his strong Government. Napoleon was not slow to understand that fortune was smiling at him. Fie organized a coup on November 9, 1799, and overthrew the Directory. A Consulate form of Government was established in France and Napoleon became the First Consul with almost unlimited power.

(6) Conclusion: Napoleon had many great personal qualities that account for his success. Fie was marvelously versatile. Fie had a keen insight into the forces at work. Fie could do incessant hard work to the extent of 18 hours a day. Fie was immensely resourceful in ideas. His brain was never idle. Wherever he went, he prepared some plan for the improvement of the place. But he never made snap judgments. He carefully examined the minute details.

But he did pretend to be omniscient. He made himself the idol of his soldiers and developed familiarity even with the ordinary troopers. He spoke to them in a tone of fellowship which earned their devotion to him. All these qualities pave the way for the rise of Napoleon in France.

Question 2. Was Napoleon the “Child of the Revolution”?
Answer:

(1) Introduction: The rise of Napoleonic dictatorship and the foundation of the Napoleonic empire logically postulate the question as to what was Napoleon’s relation with the Revolution. Napolean called himself the ‘child of the revolution’. He was a supporter of the principles of revolution life liberty, equality, and fraternity. No correct assessment of Napoleon’s relation with the Revolution can be made unless we determine at first the heritage of the Revolution and judge Napoleon’s attitude towards it

(2) Napoleon and the Revolution: Napoleon’s youthful mind was saturated with the revolutionary ideas of the philosophers. He rode to the crest of revolutionary waves to reach the steps of the French throne. In their earlier life, he had worked with the Jacobins and saved them during the National Convention.

(3) Napoleon’s attachment to equality: Of the three great ideas of the Revolution—Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, Napoleon rejected Liberty and selected the other two. He translated them into reality. Equality is closely connected with both the democratic passion of envy and the philosophical notion of justice. It was suitable to his scheme of centralization and dictatorship. It also suited the people’s desires. Hence most of his reforms were based on equality. It was in that sense he • was too, the heir and executor of the Revolution.

In short, the reforms of Napoleon were inspired by the spirit of Equality. The revolutionary settlement of land which abolished feudalism and the revolutionary tax system which abolished privileges were all retained by him. It ensured equality. Secondly, Napoleon maintained legal equality and social equality, opening careers to talents. Equal inheritance was assured. His Code Napoleon was an embodiment of these principles.

The Civil Code of Napoleon providing civil marriage and divorce liberated Europe from clerical tyranny of family life. For the first time since Constantine, Europe accepted a code of secular life ordained by a secular State. Napoleon made revolutionary philosophy a practical one by combining liberty with order. What he did was a synthesis between Revolutionary France and Old France and he left out those ideas like Liberty that stood in his way.

(4) European settlement based on Equality: Equality, the great message of the French Revolution, was spread by Napoleon outside France through the mouth of his guns. If he was the tyrant of Europe, he was also its benefactor. Wherever new conquests were made, Napoleon took special care to reorganize the area in the light of the French State refashioned by them; wherever he could lay his hands he abolished feudalism and serfdom and enforced equality—legal and moral. Napoleon’s Civil Code spread through Europe. The fame of the institutions of new France inspired the people of Europe.

The principle of Liberty— the cardinal doctrine of the Revolution was rejected by Napoleon when it conflicted with his purpose or wherever it conflicted with equality, he sacrificed liberty. The very constitution of the consulate which made the First Consul, the dictator of France as well as the foundation of the hereditary monarchy of his house, was the negation of liberty. Fie replaced the principle of reaction by appointment and made the legislature subservient to his will. Although he confirmed his despotic Government by a plebiscite, but that was merely a window dressing.

(5) Over-centralization of administration: Napoleon’s reforms overcentralized everything. It made every organ of society subjected to him. Education, religion,
administration, and law almost everything came under his control. It was a negation of liberty. The full expression of Liberty is nationality. Napoleon’s conquest of foreign lands and the system of despotism that he imposed on the conquered countries violated the aspect of the Revolution. In Spain and Germany, his rule became particularly hateful. Vanity and self-interest marred his judgment.

(6) Destroyer of Revolution: If Napoleon was the child of the Revolution, he was a genius in reaction against it. Fie trampled upon liberty which was one of the three great ideas of the Revolution. Fie established a despotism under a constitutional wig of the plebiscite. The wig soon fell when he overthrew the republic and declared himself Emperor.

His rigid centralization of administration extinguished all local elected bodies. His principle of selection banished the principle of election. He even policed the mind of the people through the system of regimented education. He even did not hesitate to police their soul by nominating the bishops.

Independence of sovereignty of legislature became a myth. Censorship of the press gagged the liberty of the press. Napoleon destroyed the Revolution and harnessed it to the chariot of autocracy. In Europe, while he sowed the seeds of new ideas on one hand by introducing his beneficial reforms, on the other :
on the other hand, he destroyed its liberty by establishing his domination over it.

Wbbse Class 9 History Chapter 2 Solutions

Question 3. Give a short sketch of the carrier of Napoleon the Great.
Answer:

Carrier of Napoleon the Great

(1) Early life of Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Ajaccio at Corsica in 1769, in a family of Italian origin. Napoleon was educated in French military schools at Brienne and Paris. At the age of sixteen, he left military school and became a second lieutenant in the artillery. By 1796 Bonaparte was appointed to command the army in Italy.

(2) Character of Napoleon: Napoleon was a marvelously gifted man. His character was a happy combination of the qualities of the practical and the poetic, the realistic and the imaginative, such reached the highest pitch. They were rendered potent by an obstinate will and almost superhuman activity.

(3) Napoleon’s character best suited for France: French politics gave Napoleon an extraordinary opportunity for his ambition, selfishness, and egoism. France was easily acquired in the usurpation of the power of Napoleon because of the foreign danger that threatened the country. The needs of France were such that only the highest of powers of technical administration were adequate to meet them.

Napoleon possessed exactly that combination of qualities that mark great Statesmanship and practical judgment. He had a clear intellect and he developed scrupulous attention to minute details. Napoleon was one of those men for whom everything—from a saucepan to the governing of men—was capable of improvement.

(4) Napoleon and Revolution: Napoleon said on one occasion, “I am the Revolution” and on another that “he had destroyed the Revolution.” It was Napoleon’s function in history to fuse old France with the new. A great opportunist Napoleon was not the man to be led away by revolutionary dogmatism. But he understood that whatever disgust might have been left for the Republic, France was still wedded to the cause of the Revolution.

(5) Rise to power:

Italian Campaign of 1796-1797: The Italian Campaign of 1796-1797 was the beginning of a long series of sensational military exploits that were to rank Napoleon as the great commander of modern times. The Sardinians were defeated and Bonaparte turned his attention to the Austrians.

To the famous exploits of Lodi, Napoleon with reckless courage at the risk of his own life affected the passage of the bridge of Lodi, and the Austrians were defeated. Austria concluded the Treaty of Campo Formio. France secured the Rhine frontier and control of the Cisalpine Republic in Italy. He overthrew the ancient Republic of Venice and plundered Italy with her works of art. The Italian campaign was the stepping stone of Napoleon’s fame.

(6) The Egyptian Campaign: After the Treaty of Campo Formio, only England remained at war with France. The Directory now appointed Napoleon as commander of the “Army of England”. They were glad to send him far away from Paris because his popularity became a menace to them. Napoleon, who had imitated Charlemagne in Italy, now dreamt of rivaling the exploits of Alexander in Egypt. The Egyptian expedition was doomed to fail as France lacked naval control. The French fleet was destroyed by Admiral Nelson in the Battle of the Nile and Napoleon secretly escaped to Paris in 1799.

(7) The Coup d’etat of Brumaire: The tragedy of the Egyptian campaign cast no shadow on the fortunes of Bonaparte. On November 9-10, 1799, Napoleon, assisted by Abbe Sieyes, successfully overthrew the unpopular and inefficient Directory, an incident known as the coup d’etat of Brumaire.

A new Constitution was drawn up for France with Napoleon as First Consul and Ducos and Abbe Sieyes being the other Consuls. This form of Government was known as the Consulate. As the First Consul Napoleon proved himself a successful administrator and introduced social, economic, political, administrative, and religious reforms to make France a modern and powerful State.

(8) War of the Second Coalition: A Second Coalition was formed against France by Britain, Austria, and Russia. Napoleon led the French army in person into Italy. The Austrians were decisively defeated at Marengo in 1800—one of the greatest victories of Napoleon. Austrians led for peace. England concluded the Peace of Amiens by which she recognized the existence of the French Republic.

(9) The Empire: On December 2, 1804, in the presence of Pope Pius VII, Napoleon placed a crown upon his head and assumed the title of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The establishment of the Empire was an outright repudiation of the French Revolution.

(10) Napoleon, The Imperialist: The history of the Empire is the history of ten years of continuous war. Napoleon was inspired by the name and example of Charlemagne and aspired to unite the Latin and Teutonic peoples under his Imperial crown. It was clear that the Holy Empire was doomed and the Austrian Empire faced ruinous defeat. Europe was threatened by a universal menace in the ascendency of France. Napoleon appealed to the French national thirst for military glory.

Question 4. Explain the workings of the Continental System.
Answer:

The workings of the Continental System

(1) Introduction: The Peace of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) left Napoleon face to face with only one power and that was England. The destruction of the French fleet at Trafalgar and the diminution of the strength of the Grand Army from the losses suffered at Austerlitz, Jena, and Dylan proved to the Emperor of the French that he had better abandon his project to invade England. But if he could not cross the channel in force or meet the English fleet at sea, he believed he could ruin England by excluding her from the markets of the continent.

The English ministry in pursuance of its reading of international law had closed all neutral sea-borne commerce from the mouth of the Elbe to the extremity of the French coast. Napoleon answered the measure by his Berlin decree which was issued on November 21, 1806, in that city and declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade. All English merchandise was to be confiscated as well as all ships which had touched either at a British port or a port in the British colonies.

(2) Progress of the Continental System: Napoleon followed up this measure with the Milan decree of December 17, 1807, by which he declared that any ship of any country which had touched a British port was liable to be seized and treated as a prize. He declared an absolute boycott of English goods throughout the continent. Every port in Europe from the Baltic to the Black Sea was to be hermetically sealed against their importation. But to make this blockade at all effective, Napoleon needed to obtain control of the navies of the few states that still maintained neutrality.

The entry of Russia into the scheme of the Continental Blockade would Napoleon hoped entirely ruined the English trade, but in reality, it did nothing of the sort. English commerce was as active and enterprising as ever, and the risks it encountered in running the continental blockade only increased the profits of the English merchants. The real sufferers were the inhabitants of the continent, who had to pay enhanced prices for such articles of prime necessity. Napoleon had hermetically sealed or seemed to have sealed the continent from St.

Petersburg to Lisbon, from Naples to Antwerp and Hamburg to the products and ships of the hated ‘nation of the shop keepers’. As a result, the popularity that the Emperor had originally enjoyed as the bringer of revolutionary benefits was gradually replaced by a sullen irritation.

The new state of mind was sedulously fanned to flame by the unreconciled patriots to be found in every country that had been obliged to assume the Napoleonic yoke. Their men were cut too quickly by the disgrace of their countries’ subjection and pictured Napoleon as a cruel tyrant and heartless conqueror against whom the nation must assert itself, otherwise, it would perish

Napoleon’s expectation that the carrying trade of the world would desert England and fall into the hands of France was not fulfilled, because English fleets remained complete masters of the sea and effectually, prevented the rise of any other commercial power. Denmark was the first victim indicated in the Tilsit agreement But Canning, then foreign minister of England, got wind of these secret agreements and promptly forestalled Napoleon. An English fleet was sent to Copenhagen to request the deposit of the Danish fleet for the period of the war.

But Denmark resented the demand and England was under the regrettable necessity of bombarding Copenhagen and taking by force the ships of Denmark refused to deposit with her. Nothing but a unique situation could justify conduct so highhanded but Napoleon had declared that he would not spare the Danish fleet It is clear then, that in the coercion of Denmark, Canning merely forestalled Napoleon. Portugal was another neutral country. After Tilsit, Napoleon required her to adhere to his Continental system. But as Denmark, so in Portugal, England with her command of the sea was able to frustrate Napoleon’s object.

The ‘Spanish ulcer’ then became a prolonged drain upon Napoleon’s resources and the Spanish resistance was a continual inspiration to the people of Europe. Holland which was almost entirely a commercial nation was so seriously affected that its King Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother refused to promulgate the Imperial Decree. The result of the continental system was, therefore, the impoverishment of the allies of France and their consequent hatred, while it increased rather than diminished the commercial prosperity of England.

Question 5. Discuss the impact of Napoleon on France and Europe.
Answer:

The impact of Napoleon on France and Europe

(1) Impact on France: For a decade and a half as never before or since in human history, the record of Western civilization was to be dominated by the biography of one man. As the First Consul with plenty of power and plenty of work, Napoleon had virtually been made the dictator of France.

Napoleon devoted himself immediately to the restoration of order within France. They constitute his best claim to statesmanship and have been eloquent testimony to his administrative genius which was nearly as high as his military abilities. Religion, Government, legal justice, and education, all came within the comprehensive scheme of reform.

His primary object was to restore order, confidence, and respect for authority. His financial measures complied with the establishment of the Bank of France and did much to restore financial confidence. The whole system of education was reorganized and higher studies on research were encouraged. His monumental civil code established civil equality and religious toleration.

He threw careers open to talent and thus removed all traces of aristocratic privileges. In a word, he consolidated revolution by securing to the people its more valued fruits. Thus he proved himself one of the greatest social reformers.

(2) Influence on Europe: But the French Revolution was not merely a local event. It burst the boundaries of France carrying new ideas of social and political organization and thus, in the long run, helped to refashion Europe on new principles. Everywhere the people heard the siren song of liberty, equality, and fraternity and the example of France became the inspiration of Europe.

The cardinal idea was that of liberty—an idea that found noble expression in the famous Declaration of Rights. In France, it made herself the spokesman of the human race, and it became the watchword of the charter of all reformers and revolutionists. Liberty, personal and political, became a universal creed. The serfdom was abolished,

Not only in France but all over the continent. Political privileges and despotism even of a benevolent type were abolished forever. It is practically identical to democracy and popular sovereignty. In the nineteenth century, the majority of the States of Europe had popularly elected parliaments with varying degrees of authority.

The example set by the French Revolution in establishing social equality was infectious. In the nineteenth century, the influence of this idea is seen in growing social conscience and in the increasing recognition given to the interests of the great masses of the people.

Another great legacy of the French Revolution was the idea of nationalism. It was the urge of national patriotism that for a time made the French people invincible in Europe. Eventually, France was beaten with her weapon when her action provoked similar national sentiments in other countries. Thus arose a new factor in Europe politics which was to be the most potent force in reshaping the boundaries of Europe.

The history of Europe in the nineteenth century is the story of the triumph of nationalism in Belgium, Italy, Germany, and the Balkan Peninsula. The history of Europe since 1815 has been the history of the growth of these ideas. The forces let loose by the French Revolution of 1789 are potent even to this day and are working out visibly or invisibly the destinies of the nations of the world.

Question 6. What were the effects of the Napoleonic regime on Germany and Italy?
Answer:

The effects of the Napoleonic regime on Germany and Italy

(1) Introduction: It is one of the ironies of history that Napoleon generated in Europe the very force that brought about his downfall—Nationalism. In Italy, it roused the national spirit by ruling in agreement with it, and Germany by ruling in defiance of it. Italy was the land of Napoleon’s ancestors. In no quarter of Europe was the unifying effect of Napoleon’s rule more felt than in Italy.

(2) Napoleon and Italy :

French Administration introduced in Italy: Under Napoleon’s rule for the first time since the Lombard invasions, the whole of the Italian Peninsula was governed on a single plan. The French codes were introduced throughout the length and breadth of Italy. French engineers built bridges and roads. Church properties were put to secular uses, towns were provided with lighting and conscription was introduced. The ablest sons of Italy entered the civil service and the armies of the Empire opened up careers to many Italians.

(3) French monarchies created in Italy: Napoleon became a creator and destroyer of the Italian states. The old aristocratic Republic of Genoa was changed into the Ligurian Republic, giving it a constitution similar to that of France. Napoleon’s most notorious act was the overthrow of the famous old republic of Venice. In 1809, the States of the Church were carved into Departments and incorporated into the French Empire. The new monarchies of a military dynasty brought life into a country that had been distinguished by the dying languor of old age.

(4) Obstacles to Italian Unification Removed Temporarily :

The French armies that followed Napoleon across the mountains into Italy, believed that France had a liberating message to give to the Italians. In the history of the Italian people, the first campaign of Bonaparte marks the beginning of the resurgence of national feeling, which is known as the ‘Risorgimento’.

The three great obstacles to Italian unity—the domination of the foreign dynasties of Flapsburgs and Bourbons, the Papacy, and the spirit of the locality were for a moment broken in the great movement of the French Empire. A way was prepared for the union of Italy and here, the name of Napoleon was long remembered.

(5) Napoleon and Germany : The Napoleonic Government of Germany was a salutary episode in the history of the German people. Before his iron touch, many of the time-honored political and social institutions crumbled away and Germany emerged as more manageable and easy to unite. She became more formidable to France. It is one of the ironies of history that Napoleon the Great prepared the way for Bismarck.

(6) Simplification of political geography: There was never so restless a diplomatist as Napoleon and never did territorial changes follow one another with such bewildering rapidity. A great simplification of the complicated political geography of Germany was carried out in March 1803. Of all the ecclesiastical States of Germany and of the fifty free States, only six remained. Of the 360 States that composed the Holy Roman Empire or German Empire in 1792, only 81 remained in 1802.

(7) Confederation of Rhine: After the Battle of Austerlitz, the pace of transforming Germany increased, ending in the destruction of the German Empire. The result was that in 1806, the new kings of Bavaria and Wurtumburg and fourteen other German princes formed a new Confederation of the Rhine.

They renounced their allegiance to the German Emperor, recognized Napoleon as their protector, and made an offensive and defensive alliance with him. Napoleon secured control of their foreign policy, the settlement of questions of peace and war, and the guarantee of 63,000 German troops for his wars. Many more petty German States were dissolved and annexed by the fourteen States.

The League which was inimical to German nationality received a large measure of support from the German princes as Napoleon bribed the German princes into marriages into the charmed circle of the imperial family of Bonaparte. After the battles of Austerlitz and Jena, there was no armed force among the Germans capable of resisting the Grand Army of Napoleon.

But more than fear and corruption, Napoleon’s policy received popular sympathy in Germany, because in Bavaria the Austrians had been regarded as a menace and in the Rhineland, the Prussians were hated. Napoleon’s policy was hailed until the pressure of his tyranny turned favor into bitter hatred.

History Class 9 WBBSE

(8) Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, 1806: Napoleon broke the spell of a thousand years with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. The formation of the Confederation of the Rhine had killed it. Emperor Francis who was defeated by Napoleon at Austerlitz renounced his title as Holy Roman Emperor Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire and became Francis I, hereditary Emperor of Austria.

The elimination of Austria which was an essential step in the unification of Germany was temporarily achieved. The formation of a united Germany without the Hapsburgs became one of the permanent political ideas in the German mind.

(9) Patriotism roused :

French Influence on Germany: French ideas modified the civil life of South Germany, where feudalism was to a great extent destroyed and religious liberty was established. But all these benefits were very soon forgotten for there was a negative influence of the reaction. Paradoxically, Napoleon had no intention of educating the German nation. These States should develop an.

independent or liberal life was the last thing that Napoleon desired. His object was to make Germany merely an arsenal to feed the French army. Cut off from colonial trade, denied entry into the French markets, and held down by foreign armies of occupation which plundered and pillaged the country, she was drained of men and bled white for money. No wonder, the Germans longed for a strong German nation to throw off the foreign yoke.

(10) The reaction of Germany: The reactionary movement against the French tyranny found its head and heart in Prussia, for that country nursed a vengeance since the battle of Jena. The kingdom of Prussia was marked out for special humiliation. She was deprived of her Westphalian and Polish provinces, condemned to pay a crushing war indemnity and to support the burden of a French army of occupation.

From every quarter, from poets and historians, from philosophers to men of action, came the cry that the German nation must be liberated from the Latin yoke. Even the French codes were denounced as alien to the Teutonic genius and the historic tradition of the German race.

(11) Conclusion: It is hard to believe that Napoleon had any permanent plan for the settlement of Europe.

Question7. Give an account of the code Napoleon vis-a-vis the ideals of the French Revolution.
Answer:

The Code Napoleon vis-a-vis the Ideals of the French Revolution :

The revolutionaries of France were keen on destroying the numerous legal systems that prevailed in the ‘ancient’ regime. They also hoped to codify the existing laws into a simple and uniform national code. The National Convention actually started the work, but it couldn’t complete it It was under Napoleon Bonaparte that real progress was made in this direction. Under the pressure from Napoleon as the First Consul, the insurmountable task of codifying the laws was undertaken by a Council although all the plans were supervised by Napoleon himself.

The Council held 84 sessions to discuss various drafts of the new codes, and Napoleon himself presided over as many as 36 sessions. The members of the Council based its approach on the revolutionary principles of absolute equality of persons, civil marriage, divorce, equal division of property among heirs, etc.

The final draft of the Code (in 1804), however, favored Roman Law rather than the ideas of the revolutionary period. In a word, the Code Napoleon rejected many ideals like the liberalism of the Revolution. The areas where the Code deviated from the ideals of the Revolution and reflected the ideas of the ‘ancient’ regime may be studied.

(1) Under the Code the right of individual property was assured. But the father was a despot and his authority over his wife and children, as prevalent in the ancient regime, was restored. A rebellious child could be imprisoned by his father.

(2) The status of women was lowered. A husband could divorce his wife on the grounds of adultery. Though such a right was accorded to women it came with many limitations. For example, a wife could divorce her husband on the same grounds only if the husband insisted on bringing his mistress into the household. Such kind of discrimination went against the ideals of liberalism of the Revolutionary period. Napoleon himself was hostile to any kind of women’s liberation.

(3) The Code Napoleon propounded equality of all in the eye of the law. But at the same time, the penal measures in the Code resembled more the ancient regime rather than the Revolutionary principles. For instance, trial by jury was not at the level it was earlier. The method of arbitrary imprisonment of the pre-Revolutionary days was revived. Special prisons were established for political offenders.

(4) The Code, while rejecting the democratic principles of Revolutionary France, adopted altogether a new concept of property rights and rights of citizens. Earlier concepts like feudalism and feudal privileges were destroyed. The Code insisted on an equal division of estates among sons. It has been pointed out by some historians that the most important of all the articles of the Code was that which insisted on an equal division of estates among sons.

History Class 9 WBBSE

Question 8. What was the conflict between the imperial ideology and the ideals of the French Revolution?
Answer:

The conflict between the imperial ideology and the ideals of the French Revolution

By 1810 the French Empire occupied much of Europe. Much of Europe was ruled directly by Paris. Historians were not unanimous if Napoleon had any definite master plan for the development of Europe. However the imperial ideology was that of a centralized empire that was to be ruled by Paris.

1. Napoleon ordered the dependent satellite kingdoms like Holland, Italy, Naples, Westphalia, Spain, and others intended to provide Napoleon with troops and money.

2. His other enemies were also conquered by him one after another. Austria and Prussia were forced to sign peace treaties and give up their lands to France. Napoleon also provided the thrones of the Netherlands and Spain to his brothers.

3. By 1808 barring Great Britain every major European nation was either directly under the control of France or was allied with France.

4. On the surface it seemed that wherever it went, the French army carried the revolutionary ideas of ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’ and Napoleon was cheered as a liberator. But soon the conquered people’s illusion was shattered and they realized that they had only exchanged one kind of absolute rule for another. The conquered peoples were often sent off to fight Napoleon’s wars. The citizens were forced to provide accommodation to the French soldiers in their homes. They were also forced to pay a high rate of tax.

5. Napoleon’s rule over the empire was mainly designed to serve the interests of France. It rested on force and the military. Hence the people did not accept the French hegemony of their free will.

6. Conclusively it can be said that liberty and equality were the minimum demands of the French Revolution. But as in France, so also in Europe, Napoleon did not permit them to flourish. Nowhere did he allow his subjects to enjoy individual liberty. Napoleon’s imperial ideology conflicted with the revolutionary ideals of ‘Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity’.

Wbbse Class 9 History Chapter 2 Long Questions With Answers

Question 9. What was the reaction of the people of France, Germany, and the Iberian peninsula against Napoleon?
Answer:

The reaction of the people of France, Germany, and the Iberian peninsula against Napoleon

The wars waged by Napoleon before and after his assumption of the title ‘The Emperor of the French’ differed greatly. Before he became the Emperor, Napoleon had to wage wars merely against the Governments and the official armies. However, after becoming an Emperor, he did not fight against governments alone. The people of different countries took together a part in them. Not only that but at a point in time in his own country (France) as well, Napoleon had to face the reaction of the population as a whole.

(1) France: Napoleon Bonaparte became the dictator of France in 1799. At that time the people neither got involved in organizing political opposition nor did they display any genuine enthusiasm for such activities. The promise of domestic peace and isolation with which Napoleon had come to power was achieved partially. For example, in the urban areas, efficient administrative machinery was proactive, and repressive measures could also be effectively enforced. But unrest in the countryside could never be contained.

(1) In the rural areas popular opposition to the Napoleonic regime took the form of desertion from the army. Resistance to conscription was another characteristic form of reaction against Napoleon.

(2) Reaction against Napoleon, however, was not confined to the rural areas. In the urban areas, the propertied class and the middle-class people rallied to the Napoleonic Empire in the aspiration of securing social stability. However, the Napoleonic regime never succeeded in attracting the obstinate loyalty of the bourgeoisie. Particularly, after 1812 when Napoleon missed victory the popular support degraded. This was one of the reasons behind the overnight downfall of the Napoleonic regime in France.

(2) Germany: After conquering Prussia, the leading German state, in the battle of Jena (1806), Germany was determined to recover its position by uprooting the Napoleonic regime. Meanwhile, there were indications of popular resistance all over Germany. Particularly in the greater part of North Germany, the patriots developed a system of secret communication amongst themselves.

The first martyr in the movement against Napoleon was a bookseller named Johann Philippe Palm. In 1806 he was murdered because he had authored a pamphlet entitled ‘Germany in her deep humiliation against the French’. A popular general insurrection was not yet possible. However, Napoleon’s army had to meet a hostile population in the countryside of Germany.

(3) The Iberian Peninsula :

It was in 1807 that Napoleon thought of capturing the Iberian Peninsula. Spain and Portugal were the two countries in the peninsula that were loyal to Britain which was a diehard enemy of Napoleon. Napoleon envisaged a plan for the invasion of Portugal through Spain.

Napoleon thought that it would be possible for him to incorporate Portugal and Spain into the French Empire without much difficulty. However, Napoleon didn’t possess much knowledge of the Iberian Peninsula. Fie also made a mistake in supposing that French ideas had a wider appeal in the two countries.

But unfortunately, the French were not at all welcome by the peoples of Portugal and Spain. Popular revolts broke out in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. They prevented Napoleon from fully occupying the country. In Madrid, the capital of Spain, a large section of the politicians became strongly anti-French and hence anti-Napoleon. In Spain, Napoleon’s army found itself among a hostile population. In the rural areas, the village headmen (mayors) organized ceremonies in which declarations of war were made.

Question 10. Estimate Napoleon’s statesmanship.
Answer:

Napoleon’s statesmanship

Napoleon’s domestic measures amounted to a wholesale reconstruction of France. They constituted his best claim to statesmanship and bear eloquent testimony to his administrative genius which was nearly as high as his military abilities. Religion, government, legal justice, and education all came within his comprehensive scheme of reform. Being raised above the strife of factions he could see the needs of the country as a whole, and he brought rare insight and detachment to the work of reconstruction and glorification.

In all that he did his primary object was to restore order, confidence, and respect for authority. His financial measures coupled with the establishment of the Bank of France did much to restore financial confidence. Social confidence was restored by the repeal of the decrees against emigrants well as other tyrannical laws of the Jacobins. Ecclesiastical tranquility was restored by the famous Concordat which healed the schism in the church. Thus he purged the Revolution of its excess and conciliated all sections of the people so that they became reconciled with the new order.

His monumental Civil Code established civil equality and religious toleration. He threw careers open to talent and thus removed all traces of aristocratic privilege. The whole system of education was recognized, and higher study and research, especially in physical science, was encouraged. In a word, he consolidated the Revolution by securing to the people its more valued fruits. Thus he proved himself to be one of the greatest social reformers.

In this work of reorganizing the institutions of France, “Napoleon showed himself at once the heir of the Revolution and the product of the reaction against it.” Of the cardinal principle of the Revolution, he was undisguisedly opposed to “liberty”; but he adopted the principle of “equality” in social and fiscal matters. His reforms were in accordance with. the principles of the Revolution in so far as equality was concerned.

His famous Civil Code enshrined that idea. He showed no partiality and had no favorites. All shred in bearing the nation’s burden in proportion to their ability and all had an equal chance of holding public offices. By throwing “carries open to talent”.he secured all equal opportunities and thus ignored any privileged caste. Thus the social basis of France remained revolutionary.

But Napoleon did not respect political liberty, the grand idea of the Revolution. He thought of liberty as a disturbing factor that prevented the efficiency of a state. Hence he allowed neither liberty of speech nor. the liberty of the press. He deprived the “Departments” of all powers of self-government and emphasized a reaction towards the old system of intendants by a law that imposed a perfect and a sub-perfect on every department. These officers were appointed by the central executive power in Paris, that is, virtually by Napoleon himself.

Thus the principle of election was subordinated to that of selection. By centralizing the administration and making it more efficient he did much to organize the ancient regime. In this respect, he may be looked upon as the “destroyer” of the Revolution.

The vigorous impulse given to useful and splendid public works, the attempt at the restoration of the colonial empire lost by Louis 15, the centralization of rule, and the restriction of political liberty—all these marked returns to the method of Louis XIV and Colbert. Again, the Revolution had accepted the principle of nationality, but Napoleon showed himself strongly anti-national in his dealings with foreign countries, especially Germany and Spain.

Question 11. Why did France submit to the monarchial rule of Napoleon?
Answer:

It looks like a paradox that France after having destroyed the Bourbon monarchy, should revert to hereditary absolutism, and surrender her political liberty at the feet of Napoleon. But the paradox can easily be explained. The French people were tired of the series of vicissitudes of fortune through which they had recently passed. They were sick of the trial of political experiments, none of which could give them peace and security. After ten years of war and revolution, they desired nothing so much as peace and a stable Government.

They clearly saw that only a soldier’s sword could free France from the entanglements of faction and establish an era of ordered progress. Hence they turned with a sense of relief to Napoleon who, they thought* was the only man who could restore discipline and respect for authority, which none of the previous governments could do.

Besides, Napoleon was the product of the Revolution and so his power was a guarantee that aristocratic privileges would not be restored and that the people would remain in secure possession of the lands they had acquired as the result of revolutionary arrangements.

Napoleon did protect the more valued fruits of the Revolution and thus reconciled the French people to his rule. In this connection, it should be noted that the French Revolution was motivated more by social wrongs and economic injustice than by political grievances.

Hence when Napoleon ensured equality in the sense of equal opportunity, the French people did not grudge about the loss of their liberty. Secondly, we should take into account the magnetic personality of Napoleon and his astounding victories. The French people loved nothing more than glary and they had their fill of it under Napoleon’s rule.

Question 12. What was the extent of the Napoleonic empire at its zenith?
Answer:

The extent of the Napoleonic empire at its zenith

Napoleon reached the apogee of his power at Tilsit (1807), but his territories received considerable addition after that date. They reached their maximum in 1811. At its height, the Napoleonic Empire “stretched without interruption across the continent from selt to sea.”

It had flung out its two arms. One to the northwest and the other to the southwest along the coastline of Europe. To the northwest, Napoleon annexed Holland in 1810, because his brother Louis who ruled there refused to sacrifice the interests of his Dutch subjects by enforcing the Continental System.

Next, he annexed a considerable portion of North Germany up to the Baltic to close the northern coastline of Europe to British ships. Similar considerations urged him to extend his empire to the southeast. To exclude the British from the Mediterranean he conquered Genoa and Tuscany in Italy, and then added the Papal States because the Pope proved unwilling to “march to his tune”. These states together with Piedmont (already annexed) formed an integral part of France. The other two Italian units were the Kingdoms of Italy and Naples.

Its king was Napoleon himself and it was ruled by his stepson-, Eugene as his regent. Naples was under Joseph Bonaparte and then on Joseph’s transfer to the Spanish throne, it was placed under Murat, his brother-in-law. Across the Adriatic, Illyria was incorporated into France.

In Germany Napoleon’s control was secured by the Confederation of the Rhine. Its policy was subservient to the needs of France, while its army was at the disposal of the Emperor. Outside the Confederation, Prussia was still under Napoleon, thumb, and Austria was crippled for the time being. Switzerland from which the Valais had been added to France, was well within the orbit of his power. Thus Napoleon controlled central Europe.

In the east, the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw gave France an important strategic position. It enabled Napoleon to keep a sharp watch on Prussia as well as Russia who was a doubtful ally.  In the extreme southeast, Spain had been reduced to a vassal state under the rule of his brother, Joseph. The neighboring country of Portugal also formed part of his system.

Thus Napoleon bestrode Europe like a Colossus with one foot resting on the ocean and the other touching the realm of his ally, the Czar of all the Russians. He was the master of the continent and Paris became the political capital of Europe.

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

Chapter 7 The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation Introduction

The terrible repercussions of the First World War (1914-18) had a strong impact on the minds of the people and made them cry out for peace. President Wilson of America took the initiative and made a plan for the establishment of a world peace organisation known as the League of Nations.

The League was established to prevent armed conflicts and to amicably settle international disputes, reduce armaments and achieve international peace and security.

Learn and Real all  WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

Many international issues arose after the First World War. At first, the problems were comparatively easy and the League was able to solve them by peaceful means were: But the League was too weak to deal with cases which involved the interests of the great powers.

Its influence began to decline gradually. The League failed utterly to prevent war and to maintain world peace. The Second World War broke out in 1939.

In spite of the failure of the League of Nations, statesmen were hopeful that world peace could be established by mutual cooperation, harmony and the feeling of internationalism. This gave birth to the international peace organisation — United Nations Organisation.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 7 The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation Solutions

Chapter 7 The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation Very Short Answer Type :

Question 1. What were the three principal organs of the League of Nations?
Answer:

The three principal organs of the League of Nations were :

(1) The Assembly
(2) The Council and
(3) The Secretariat.

Question 2. Who could become members of the General Assembly of the League of Nations?
Answer: All the states which were the members of the League of Nations were essentially the members of the General Assembly.

Question 3. How were new members admitted in the League Assembly?
Answer: Any member could be admitted in the League Assembly by a vote of assent by 2/3 of the existing members.

Question 4. Name the two great powers which were not members of the League in the beginning.
Answer: The two great powers which were not members of the League, in the beginning, were U.S.A and Germany.

Question 5. Who elected the temporary members of the League Council?
Answer: The temporary members of the League Council were elected by the League Assembly.

Question 6. Name the countries which were first elected as members of the League Council.
Answer: The countries which were first elected as members of the League Council were England, France, Italy and Japan.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 7. What were the two autonomous bodies of the League of Nations?
Answer:

The two autonomous bodies of the League of Nations were :

(1) The Permanent Court of International Justice
(2) The International Labour Organisation.

Question 8. When was the first session of the League convened?
Answer: The first session of the League was convened in 1920.

Question 9. Where was the first session of the League of Nations held?
Answer: The first session of the League of Nations was held in the city of Geneva, Switzerland. ‘

Question 10. When was the last session of the League of Nations held?
Answer: The last session of the League of Nations was held on 14th December 1939.

Question 11. What is Covenant?
Answer: The Constitution of the League of Nations is called Covenant

Question 12. How was the Secretary General of the League of Nations appointed?
Answer: The Secretary General of the League of Nations was appointed by the Council the Assembly was necessary.

Question 13. When was the Permanent Court of International Justice opened and where?
Answer: The Permanent Court of International Justice was opened in 1922 in Hague, the erstwhile capital of Holland.

Question 14. What was the function of the Permanent Court of International Justice?
Answer: The function of the Permanent Court of International Justice was to settle international disputes which might be referred to it by the Council of the League and interpreting international treaties and other legal complications.

Question 15. Who selected the name United Nations Organisation?
Answer: The name United Nations Organisation was selected by the American President Franklin Roosevelt.

Question 16. From where did Franklin Roosevelt select the name United Nations Organisation?
Answer: Franklin Roosevelt selected the name United Nations Organisation from Lord Byron‘s poem ‘The Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage’.

Question 17. When was the U.N.O established and where?
Answer: The U.N.O was first established on 24 October 1945 in New York, U.S.A.

Question 18. How many members are there in the Security Council of the U.N.  at present
Answer: There are 15 members in the Security Council of the U.N.O at present.

Question 19. For how many years and by whom are the members of the Security Council elected?
Answer: The members of the Security Council are elected for two years by the members of the General Assembly.

Question 20. How are new members admitted in the U.N.O?
Answer: New members are admitted in the U. N.O. on the recommendation of the Security Council and by a vote of assent by 2/3 of the existing members of General Assembly.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 21. What is the seventh principle enumerated in the UN Charter?
Answer: The seventh principle enumerated in the UN Charter is that UN would not interfere in matters strictly within the domestic jurisdiction of any state.

Question 22. How many principles have been mentioned in the UN Charter?
Answer: Seven principles have been mentioned in the UN Charter.

Question 23. Who is the present Secretary General of U.N.O?
Answer: The present Secretary General of U.N.O is Ban-Ki-Moon.

Question 24. How many charter members were there in the U.N.O.?
Answer: There were 51 charter members in the U.N.O.

Question 25. Which countries are the five members of the Security Council with the power of Veto?
Answer: The five members of the Security Council who have the power of Veto are U.S.A, U.S.S.R., England, France and China.

Question 26. What is the judicial organ of the United Nations?
Answer: The judicial organ of the United Nations is the International Court of Justice.

The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation Class 9 WBBSE Notes

Question 27. How many judges are there in the International Court of Justice?
Answer: There are 15 judges in the International Court of Justice.

Question 28. How are the judges of the International Court of Justice elected?
Answer: The judges of the International Court of Justice are elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council.

Question 29. Name two organisations under the Economic and Social Council.
Answer: The two organisations under the Economic and Social, Council are UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation) and FAO (Food – and Agricultural Organisation).

Question 30. What does UNICEF stand for
Answer: UNICEF stands for United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund.

Question 31. Where are the headquarters of WHO?
Answer: The headquarters of WHO are in Geneva.

Question 32. What does WHO stand for?
Answer: WHO stands for World Health Organisation.

Question 33. What does UNESCO stand for?
Answer: UNESCO stands for United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation.

Question 34. What is the composition of the Trusteeship Council?
Answer: The Trusteeship Council is composed of the representatives of permanent members of Security Council, representatives of all those states which hold the administration of colonies and some representatives elected by the General Assembly.

Question 35. How is the head of the Secretariat of U.N.O. appointed?
Answer: The head of the Secretariat, the Secretary-General, is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 36. Who were the original members of the League of Nations?
Answer: The Allied powers in the First World War who signed the different peace treaties, were called the original members of the League of Nations.

Question 37. What was the aim of the League of Nations?
Answer: The aim of the League of Nations was to maintain peace, order and security among the countries of the world.

Question 38. Where were the headquarters of the League of Nations?
Answer: The headquarters of the League of Nations were at Geneva, Switzerland.

Question 39. Which organ of the League had principal executive power?
Answer: During the time of the League, the Council had principal executive power.

Question 40. What did the Permanent Secretariat of the League consist of?
Answer: The Permanent Secretariat of the League consisted of a Secretary-General appointed by the Council and approved by the Assembly.

Question 41. Where was the Permanent Secretariat situated?
Answer: The Permanent Secretariat was situated at Geneva.

Question 42. What was the function of the World Court?
Answer: The Permanent Court of International Justice was to interpret any disputed point in international law. It also determined when treaty obligation had been violated.

Question 43. Which peace organisation was established after the Second World War?
Answer: The U.N.O was established after the Second World War.

Question 44. What is the executive authority of the U.N.O.?
Answer: The name of the executive authority of the U.N.O. is Security Council.

Question 45. Who signed the UN Charter for India?
Answer: Ramaswami Mudaliar. signed the UN Charter for India.

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Chapter 7 The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation 2 Marks Questions And Answers

Question 1. How was the League of Nations founded?
Answer:

The terrible repercussions of the First World War (1914-18) made a strong impact on the minds of the people and made them cry out for peace. President Woodrow Wilson of the United States of America took the initiative and made a plan to establish a world peace organization in 1920 known as the League of Nations which would solve disputes peacefully.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 7 Notes In Bengali

Question 2. With what aim was the League of Nations founded?
Answer:

After the First World War (1914-18) an international peace organization known as the League of Nations was established in 1920 with

The following aims in view:

(1) To prevent armed conflict and to promote international peace and cooperation,
(2) To establish honorable relations among different nations
(3) To promote international disarmament in order to reduce tension and
(4) To find out ways and means for peaceful settlement of international disputes.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 3. Describe the structure of the League of Nations.
Answer:

The structure of the League of Nations

The League of Nations had four main organs, the first of which was the Assembly consisting of representatives of every member state, meeting once a year in Geneva. The second organ was the Council, i.e., the executive committee composed of one representative from each of the five permanent states (Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Japan) and a temporary of nine other member states, chosen by the Assembly.

The third was the Permanent Secretariat, located at Geneva. The fourth organ was the Permanent Court of International Justice which was a court of arbitration for the settlement of international disputes with its office at Hague.

Question 4. Write a note on the Covenant of the League of Nations.
Answer:

Covenant of the League of Nations

The Constitution of the League of Nations, called the Covenant, consisted of 26 articles among which the tenth, twelfth, and sixteenth articles were of great significance.

(1) Under the tenth article of the Covenant, the members of the League of Nations promised to respect the political independence and territorial integrity of the member countries of the League.

(2) According to the twelfth article, the members unanimously decided to solve their problems through mutual negotiations.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 7 Question Answers

Question 5. Give an account of the General Assembly of the League of Nations.
Answer:

General Assembly of the League of Nations

The League of Nations functioned through a number of organs, the most important of which was the Assembly. All the states which were the members of the League were essentially the members of the Assembly. Every member state could send three representatives, although no state had more than one vote.

The function of the Assembly of the League was:

(1) to establish world peace
(2) to resolve international disputes
(3) to extend international security and
(4) to work to safeguard the interests of minorities.

Question 6. Who were they? members of the League Council?
Answer:

The members of the League Council were divided into two divisions:

(1) Permanent members
(2) Temporary members. There were five permanent members of the Council, viz. Great Britain U.S.A., France, Italy, and Japan. As the United States did not accept membership of the

League of Nations, the number of permanent members remained only four. The number of temporary members was four.

Question 7. What was the function of the Assembly of the League of Nations?
Answer:

The function of the Assembly of the League of Nations was :

(1) To establish world peace
(2) To resolve international disputes
(3) To extend international security and (iv) to work to safeguard the interests of the minorities.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 8. Give an account of the Council of the League of Nations.
Answer:

The Council of the League of Nations

The League Council comprised nine members, of which five were permanent and four temporary members. The five permanent members were Great Britain, U.S.A., France, Italy and Japan.

As the U.S.A. did not accept the membership of the League, the member of permanent members remained only four. Later on, the number of permanent members was increased to six. Germany and Russia became the new permanent members.

Question 9. Who are the permanent members of the League Council?
Answer:

The Council of the League consisted of four permanent members. Later the number of members was increased to six. England, France, Italy, and Japan were permanent members. Later on Russia and Germany were admitted as permanent members.

Question 10. What were the main functions of the League Council?
Answer:

The main functions of the League Council were :

(1) To discuss about various international disputes and to resolve them
(2) To make efforts to stop war and to reduce armaments
(3) Summoning of international conferences to resolve disputes.

Question 11. What was the function of the Secretariat of the League of Nations?
Answer:

The functions of the Secretariat of the League of Nations were:

(1) To list the subjects to be considered in the Assembly
(2) To preserve the documents and necessary papers regarding the minutes of the meetings, settlements, and treaties concluded among the member states
(3) To offer necessary suggestions for effecting modifications in the treaties.

Question 12. Mention any two causes of the failure of the League of Nations.
Answer:

Two causes for the failure of the League of Nations were:

(1) The League was never able to make itself truly representative of the entire world. Countries like the U.S.A., Germany, Russia, Italy, and Japan were not members of the League at different stages and no international organization can be really successful if some of the great powers remain outside it.

(2) The League had no army, navy, or air force of its own nor was it in a position to apply economic sanction on the Great Powers which looked after their own interests instead of fulfilling their obligations to the League.

WBBSE Class 9 History And Environment Chapter 7 Solved Exercises

Question 13. How did the United Nations Organisation come into being?
Answer:

Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of Britain and Franklin Roosevelt, President of the U.S.A. announced the Atlantic Charter where the term ‘United Nations’ was first adopted. In the Moscow Conference (1943) Britain, the U.S.A., Russia, and China were unanimous that an international peace organization should be set up.

This resolution was confirmed in the Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944) and the Yalta Conference (1945). Representatives of 50 nations met in San Francisco (1945) and prepared a Charter for world peace called the UN Charter on 24 October 1945 the U.N.O came into existence.

Question 14. What are the principal aims (objectives) of the U.N.O.?
Answer:

The principal aims (objectives) of the U.N.O. established after the Second World War are:

(1) To protect world peace, prevent armed conflict among nations, promote peaceful settlement of international disputes, and to remove international tension
(2) To promote education, culture, and health of mankind and to promote the economic condition of poor and underdeveloped nations.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 15. What is the UN Charter?
Answer:

UN Charter

Between April and June 1945, representatives of 51 nations who were directly or indirectly involved in the war against the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan), met at a conference at San Francisco. The Big Four (Britain, France, the U.S.A, and Russia) dominated the conference and prepared a charter for world peace called the UN Charter.

Question 16. Name two basic principles of U.N.O.
Answer:

Two basic principles of the U.N.O are:

(1) All the members, big or small, in order to enjoy the rights and benefits would sincerely carry out their duties as per the U.N.O Charter.
(2) All members shall settle international disputes by peaceful means

Question 17. Write a note on the membership of the U.N.O.
Answer:

Membership of the U.N.O

(1) The membership of the U.N.O is open to all peace-loving nations of the world that accept the obligation of the U.N.O and are willing to carry out these obligations.

(2) 51 states who signed the UN Charter are the original members of the UN.

(3) Any member could be admitted in the UN on the recommendation of the Security Council and by a vote of assent by 2 of the existing members of the General Assembly.

(4) America, England, France, Russia, and China are the permanent members of the UN Security Council.

Class 9 History The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation WBBSE Long Answers

Question 18. The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Answer:

The International Court of Justice (ICJ)

Composition: The International Court of Justice is located at Hague in the Netherlands. It consists of 15 judges. The judges are elected for a nine-year term. The Court elects its President and vice-president for a period of 3 years.

Function :

(1) A copy of a treaty signed between two or more two states is submitted to the International Court.

(2) It interprets international laws.

(3) It provides advice to the General Assembly and Security Council on any legal question.

(4) It has played an important role in the codification of International Laws.

(5) The Secretariat.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 19. What are FAO and WHO?
Answer:

FAO and WHO

FAO and WHO are two organs of the Economic and Social Council. FAO is the Food and Agricultural Organisation and WHO is the World Health Organisation.

Question 20. What are the six main organs of the U.N.O.?
Answer:

The six main organs of the United Nations organization are :

(1) The General Assembly
(2) The Security Council
(3) The Economic and Social Council
(4) The Trusteeship Council
(5) The International Court of Justice and
(6) The Secretariat.

Question 21. Why is 24 October celebrated as the United Nations Day?
Answer:

Between April and June of 1945, representatives of 51 nations who were directly or indirectly involved in the war against the Axis Powers met at a conference led by Britain, France, U.S.A., and Russia at San Francisco and prepared a charter for world peace called the UN Charter.

The Charter became officially effective on 24 October. So this day is celebrated as the United Nations Day.

Question 22. What is ‘Veto’?
Answer:

‘Veto’

The foremost responsibility of the Security Council is the maintenance of international peace and security. All the five permanent members of the Security Council (U.S.A, U.S.S.R., U.K., France, and China) must agree on all important issues.

A negative vote by any one permanent member is called a ‘Veto’. If the Veto is exercised, then the proposal or resolution is considered not passed. So on this issue the Security Council cannot take any action.

Question 23. What are the different functional agencies of the Economic and Social Council?
Answer:

The different functional agencies of the Economic and Social Council are:

(1) ILO (International Labour Organisation)

(2) UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation)

(3) WHO (World Health Organisation)

(4) FAO (Food and Agricultural Organisation)

(5) IMF (International Monetary Fund)

Question 24. What is the composition of the General Assembly?
Answer:

The composition of the General Assembly

The General Assembly of the U.N.O. consists of all member states of the United Nations Organisation. Each member ‘state can send five representatives to the session of the General Assembly. The total strength of the U.N. General Assembly is now 193.

Class 9 History The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation WBBSE Exam Questions

Question 25. What is the composition of the Security Council of the United Nations Organisation?
Answer:

The composition of the Security Council of the United Nations Organisation

The most important organ of the U.N.O. is the Security Council. There are two types of members in the Council permanent and non-permanent. Five permanent members are the U.S.A, U.S.S.R., U.K., France and China. The ten non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for a term of two years.

Question 26. Write a note on the membership of the Security Council.
Answer:

The membership of the Security Council

The Security Council is the most important organ of the U.N.O. There are two types of members in the Security Council permanent and non-permanent. Five permanent members are the U.S.A., U.S.S.R, France, and China. The other ten non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for a term of two years.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 27. Name the permanent members of the Security Council of the U.N.O.
Answer:

The Permanent members of the Security Council of the U.N.O are :

(1) America
(2) England
(3) France
(4) Soviet Russia and
(5) China

Question 28. What is the function of UNESCO?
Answer:

Function of UNESCO

UNESCO deals with the issues of economic and social welfare and works for the preservation of human rights across the globe. This body fights against illiteracy and devotes itself to the protection of health, the spread of education, improvement of the standard of living of the people. The task before UNESCO includes education, social science, natural science, mass communication, cultural activities, and relief services.

Question 29. What is the function of WHO?
Answer:

Function of WHO

WHO (World Health Organisation) organizes campaigns throughout the world against diseases such as pox, plague, smallpox, cholera, and others. It undertakes medical research to find out the causes of diseases, improve vaccines, and train medical research and aid workers.

Question 30. What is the function of UNICEF?
Answer:

Function of UNICEF

The function of UNICEF is to help the member countries improve the health condition of their children and to save the lives of sick or starving children in the world who suffer from malnutrition, hunger, and different kinds of diseases. It also looks after social welfare and vocational training of children. It also helps in the production of inexpensive books for children.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 31. What is the function of the Security Council of the U.N.O.?
Answer:

The functions of the Security Council of the U.N.O. is :

(1) It maintains international peace and security
(2) It investigates all disputes and recommends ways and means for peaceful settlement
(3) It can also take action against a defaulting state and can ask its members to send military forces in order to control a dangerous situation.

Question 32. What is the function of the Economic and Social Council?
Answer:

The functions of the Economic and Social Council, a non-political organ of the U.N.O. are as follows :

(1) To promote economic and social advancement of all people

(2) Planning of economic development, financial and technical assistance to underdeveloped countries, industrialization of backward countries, improvement of education and aid to the world’s needy children; and,

(3) To appoint special committees from time to time to study specific problems.

Question 33. Write a short note on the International Labour Organisation (ILO).
Answer:

The International Labour Organisation (ILO)

The headquarters of the International Labour Organisation were established in Geneva. All the member-states were also members of the International Labour Organisation. The main aim behind its establishment was to improve the condition of the Iabourers in different countries.

Question 34. What is the function of the Trusteeship Council?
Answer:

Function of the Trusteeship Council

After World War II, some underdeveloped countries were placed under the supervision of the Trusteeship Council. The primary task of the Council is to look after the economic, social, political, and cultural development of these countries.

An indirect function of the Trusteeship Council is to eliminate the possibility of rivalry among powerful nations of the world for the exploitation of underdeveloped nations.

Question 35. What is the function of the head of the Secretariat?
Answer:

Function of the head of the Secretariat

The head of the Secretariat, the Secretary-General, prepares an annual progress report of the U.N.O. and places it before the General Assembly. He has the right to draw the attention of the Security Council to any matter which, in his opinion, may threaten international security.

Question 36. When was the Yalta Conference held? Name the countries which took part in the Yalta Conference.
Answer:

The Yalta Conference was held in 1945. The countries that took part in the Yalta Conference were the U.S.A., Britain, and Russia.

Question 37. When and where was the Atlantic Charter signed?
Answer:

The Atlantic Charter was signed on 11 August 1941. Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of Britain, and Franklin Roosevelt, President of U.S.A. met together on a warship called the ‘Prince of Wales’ in the Atlantic Ocean near Newfoundland and signed the Atlantic Charter.

Question 38. What is the importance of the Atlantic Charter?
Answer:

Importance of the Atlantic Charter

The Atlantic Charter is important because it contained the aims and fundamental principles for the reconstruction of the post-Second World War. An indication to set up a world organization for the preservation of peace in the world was given in this Charter. In this Charter, the term ‘United Nations’ was first adopted.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 39. Mention two limitations of the U.N.O.
Answer:

Limitations of the U.N.O

(1) The first limitation in the Charter of the U.N.O is that the right of absolute veto has been given to each of the ‘Big Five’. The Big Powers have always on several occasions misused this right in their self-interest,

(2) The U.N.O has not achieved success in gaining the cooperation of all the ‘Big Five’ at a time on the question of the enforcement of the decision of the Security Council with the help of an international army.

Chapter 7 The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation 4 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Comment on the weaknesses of the League of Nations.
Answer:

The major weaknesses of the League of Nations are as follows :

(1) The first major failure came over the World Disarmament Conference. No agreement could be reached on this issue due to Franco-German mutual distrust and concealed unwillingness of the great powers to disarmament.

(2) The World economic crisis and economic depression of 1930 gave a serious blow to the League’s survival. Nations became more concerned with their economic survival than with making sacrifices for the fulfillment of the objects of the League.

(3) Meanwhile, Germany resigned from the League on the grounds that there was no equality among the members of the League.

(4) Japan violated the League’s ideals of peace and made a blatant attack on the Manchurian province of China. On China’s appeal, the League appointed the Lytton Commission which reported that Japan attacked Manchuria unprovoked.

The League declared Japan as an aggressor. Japan gave a rébuff to the League by withdrawing her membership and the League failed to punish Japan by applications of Article-16. The League’s failure to take action against Japan ruined the League’s prestige. Small nations of the World became aware that the League was unable to protect them.

(5) Italy felt encouraged at Japan’s instance. She attacked Abyssinia violating the ceasefire order of the League, while a commission of the League was engaged in a survey in Abyssinia. Italy’s arrogance angered world opinion and she was declared an aggressor.

The League applied sanction or economic blockade on her according to Art-16. Italy resigned her membership of the League and Germany, which had already resigned, supplied arms and ammunitions to Italy. The latter defied the League, defeated Abyssinia, and annexed it.

This was a major nail in the coffin of the League of Nations. The League lost its effectiveness in Nazi Germany’s aggression in the Rhineland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia. Britain did not actively support the League and the USA remained aloof. It was finally dissolved in 1946.

Question 2. Write a note on the evolution of the United Nations.
Answer:

The evolution of the United Nations

The League of Nations had failed to provide effective means for the peaceful settlement of international disputes among the great powers. Early in the Second World War, statesmen considered the necessity of replacing the League of Nations with a more effective body.

In August 1941 Churchill and Roosevelt met on a battleship in the Atlantic and issued a joint declaration, subsequently known as the Atlantic Charter.

This declaration laid down that the two countries abandoned any intention to annex any foreign territories, affirmed the principles of self-determination, and held out to all states equal freedom of access to trade and raw materials. On January 1, 1942, representatives of the twenty-six ‘United Nations’ signed a joint declaration endorsing the Atlantic Charter.

In the Moscow conference which met in November 1943, America, Britain, Russia, and China discussed the idea of a world peace organisation for the maintenance of international peace and security.

At the Teheran Conference in December, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin called for a world family of democratic nations. Early in 1914 the British and United States Governments began to work out detailed schemes for the future World Organisation.

A British Committee drew up proposals which were placed before a meeting of Dominion Prime Ministers in London in May 1944.

The proposals were for a World Assembly in which all member states would be represented and a World Council representing four powers and a number of other states. The World Council would take the initiative to maintain peace, which would be binding on the members of the organisation.

Representatives of Britain, Russia, China, and the United States met to consider the various proposals at a conference at Dumbarton Oaks, near Washington, in August and September 1944.

They reached an agreement on all important matters except the voting procedure. This was decided by the ‘Big Three’ at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. It was decided at Yalta to call a ‘Conference of the United Nations’ at San Francisco ‘to prepare the Charter of such an organization, along the lines proposed in the informal conversations at Dumbarton Oaks’.

On April 25, 1945, shortly before the end of the war, representatives from fifty-one nations met at San Francisco, to draw up a constitution for the new organization, to be called the United Nations.

The negotiations in San Francisco were not smooth. While the ‘Big Four’ were pledged to defend a common set of proposals, the lesser powers ‘the middle and smaller countries’ naturally resented what they alleged was excessive domination of the UN by the Great Powers as symbolized in the veto.

Although the Dumbarton Oaks framework remained virtually intact, important modifications were introduced. The Charter in its final form was adopted on June 26, 1945. The Charter came into effect on October 24, 1945, which is now observed throughout the world as ‘U.N. Day’.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 3. Write the aims and objectives of UNO.
Answer:

Aims and objectives of UNO

UNO was formed on 24th October 1945 with wide objectives which may be Classified under 2 groups – Primary objectives and Secondary objectives.

1. Primary Objectives :

The Primary objectives of UNO were formed to save the succeeding generations from the scourge of war and to establish such conditions under which international laws can be maintained.

2. Secondary Objectives :

(1) To maintain international peace and security.

(2) to recognize the right of self-determination of every nation of the world and to establish friendly relationship between states.

(3) The improve the economic, social, scientific ate cultural coming in every country.

(4) To co-operate mutually in solving the problems of food, health, education, unemployment, etc.

(5) To allow every nation of the world, whether great or ack to enjoy the status of ‘nation’.

(6) To maintain the sanctity of every country’s territorial limits and not to apply force on any other state.

(7) To assist in the improvement of backward and underdeveloped nations.

Question 4. Write a note on the dispute-solving mechanism of the League of Nations.
Answer:

If a dispute did occur, the League, under its Covenant

Could do three things These were known as its sanctions :

(1) It could call on the states in dispute to sit down and discuss the problem in an orderly and peaceful manner. This would be done in the League’s Assembly which was essentially the League’s parliament which would listen to disputes and come to a decision on how to proceed. If one nation was seen to be the offender, the League could introduce verbal sanctions — warning an aggressor nation that she would need to leave another nation’s territory or face the consequences.

(2) If the states in dispute failed to listen to the Assembly’s decision, the League could introduce economic sanctions. The purpose of this sanction was to financially hit the aggressor nation so that she would have to do as the League required. The logic behind it was to push an aggressor nation towards bankruptcy, so that the people in that state would take out their anger on their Government, forcing them to accept the League members not to do any trade with an aggressor nation in an effort to bring that aggressor nation to heel.

(3) If this failed, the League could introduce physical sanctions. This meant that military force would be used to put into place the League’s decision. However, the League did not have a military force at its disposal and no member of the League had to provide one under the terms of joining — unlike the current United Nations. Therefore, it could not carry out any threats and any country defying its authority would have been very aware of this weakness.

The only two countries in the League that could have provided any military might were Britain and France and both had been severely depleted strength-wise in World War I and could not provide the League with the backing it needed. Also, both Britain and France were not in a position to use their finances to pay for an expanded army as both were financially hit very hard by World War I.

Question 5. Write about the formation of the League of Nations.
Answer:

Formation of the League of Nations :

The horrors of the devastating warfare and the huge losses sustained during the First World War had a stunning effect on mankind. People all over the world were demanding peace. The result was the birth of the League of Nations.

President Woodrow Wilson of the USA, who was its real creator in the last of his Fourteen Points, said “A general association of nations must be formed … for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial solidarity of great and small states alike.”

The delegates to the Paris Peace Conference supported the proposal of Wilson and set up a commission to ponder over the formation of the proposed international institution. The commission recommended the setting up of an international body under the name League of Nations with its constitution and other relevant terms and conditions.

The recommended Covenant (pledge) for the League of Nations was subsequently accepted by the representatives of the Paris Peace Conference. The League Covenant contained 26 Articles specifying its objects, structure, etc.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 6. Comment on the nature of the United Nations.
Answer:

Nature of the United Nations: The principal aim of the UNO is the maintenance of international peace and security. Such responsibility is vested in the hands of the Security Council. On the basis of performance, it may be said that the UN has saved mankind from the deadly military conflict and the World War Il has not been followed by World War Ill.

This may be regarded as the most important achievement of the UN. It must, however, be said at the same time that the capacity of the UN to enforce a system of collective security is very much limited by the fact that it was essentially a puppet devised by its members.

In fact, the UN can do no more than its members, particularly the Permanent Members of the Security Council, permit. Thus its role has not been confined to provide ways and means that facilitate the peaceful resolution of international disputes.

Andrew Haywood has pointed out that even in this respect its record has been clean. The UNO was, indeed, successful in negotiating a ceasefire between India and Pakistan (1948). But during the long period of the Cold War (1947-1990) the UN was virtually paralyzed by the superpower rivalry.

The end of the Cold War raised new hope in the effectiveness of the UNO. But it was found confronted with new problems. Significantly the new task before the UN is to shift from traditional peacekeeping to ‘multidimensional’ or ‘robust’ peacekeeping.

Question 7. What is the United Nations Charter?
Answer:

The United Nations Charter: The United Nations Organization was formally established on 24 October 1945. When the UNO began to function its total number of member countries was 51. At present (December 2014) the total number of members stands at 193.

The constitution of the UNO is called the Charter. More than ten thousand words have been used in the Charter. It is thus a very long charter it consists of a Preamble, 19 Chapters, and 3 Articles. The Preamble of the UN

The Charter reflects the spirit of the UNO, which is as follows :

We The Peoples of The United Nations Determined :

(1) To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.

(2) To reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and

(3) To establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and

(4) To promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom. And For These Ends

(5) To practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, and

(6) To unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and

(7) To ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and

(8) To employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, Have Resolved To Combine Our Efforts To Accomplish These Aims

Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations.

WBBSE Solutions For Class 9 History Chapter 7

Question 8. What is the composition and role of the General Assembly in the U.N.O? What is the function of the Security Council?
Answer:

(1) Composition:

(1) All members of the UN send representatives to the General Assembly.

(2) Important decisions, budgetary matters, and admission of new members are taken by 2/3″ majority of the members.

(3) The General Assembly meets every year on the 3rd Tuesday of September.

(2) Functions:

(1) To discuss everything relating to international peace and security.

(2) To make recommendations on the maintenance of peace and security.

(3) To see the working of other agencies and organs

(4) To consider and approve the U.N. budget.

Functions of the Security Council:

(1) To maintain international peace.

(2) To investigate disputes and make recommendations about solving them.

(3) Take military action against the aggressors.

Chapter 7 The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Discuss the structure of the League of Nations.
Answer:

Formation of the League of Nations : The horrors of mechanized warfare and the huge losses sustained during the First World War had a stunning effect on mankind. People all over the world were demanding peace. The result was the birth of the League of Nations.

In 1920 President Woodrow Wilson of the USA who was its real creator in the last of his Fourteen Points, said “A general association of nations must be formed … for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity of great and small states alike.”

The delegates to the Paris Peace Conference supported the proposal of Wilson and set up a commission to ponder over the formation of the proposed international institution. The commission recommended the setting up of an international body under the name League of Nations with its constitution and other relevant terms and conditions.

The recommended Covenant (pledge) for the League of Nations was subsequently accepted by the representatives of the Paris Peace Conference. The League Covenant contained 26 Articles specifying its objects, structure, etc.

The Structure of the League of Nations : The League of Nations began functioning through an Assembly, a Council, and a permanent Secretariat. Moreover, it had under it two autonomous bodies, namely, the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Labour Organization.

The International Court of Justice had the responsibility to judge and settle international disputes, and the International Labor

The organization was to develop labor relations. Besides, there were some other socio-economic organizations under the domination of the League. Sessions of the League were to be held at Geneva annually in the month of September.

Special sessions, however, might be held in times of emergency. The first session of the League was convened on 15 November 1920, and the last, the 20th session on 14 December 1939.

(1) Assembly: The assembly of the League consisted of the representatives of all the member states, each being entitled to only one vote. The Assembly was a deliberative and advisory body. It had no power to legislate or compel acceptance of its decisions.

It made the budget for the League. It also elected the non-permanent members of the League Council and admitted new states as members of the League.

(2) Council: The League Council comprised of Permanent and Non-Permanent members. Originally there were five Permanent members, €.g. Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany and the USA. Four Non-Permanent members were elected from lesser important powers by the Assembly.

The non-permanent members were to serve for fixed terms. However, as a result of non-adherence by the USA, the Permanent members of the Council were reduced to four, while the non-permanent members were increased to six. During the time period of the League of Nations, the Council was the principal executive power.

The functions of the Council were :

(1) To formulate plans for the reduction of armaments.

(2)To advise on the ways and measures to be taken by the whole League to protect member states from aggression.

(3) To mediate and settle disputes between members.

(4) All emergencies arising in international affairs were to be dealt with by the Council.

(5) All important decisions of the Council were required to be unanimous.

(3) Permanent Secretariat: The Permanent Secretariat of the League consisted of a Secretary-General appointed by the Council and approved by the Assembly.

The functions of the Secretariat were : 

(1)To compile data on international problems.

(2) To register treaties.

(3) To act as secretaries at deliberations of the Council and of the Assembly. The Permanent Secretariat was situated at Geneva.

(4) Other Important Bodies: The League had two other important bodies, namely, the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Labor Organization. The Permanent Court of International Justice (or the World Court) had the responsibility to interpret any disputed point in international law.

It also determined when treaty obligations had been violated. The other body was the International Labour Organization which had the responsibility to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labor for men, women, and children.

Assessment of the League: The League started its work very well. The record of the League since its inception was one of success. In its attempts to prevent war the League also achieved some remarkable success. However, for the sectarian and selfish policy pursued by the big powers, this international organization finally failed to make the world a secure place to live with peace.

For example, when Japan attacked Manchuria in 1931, the League failed to discharge its responsibilities. Ultimately after Hitler started conquering territories in utter disregard to the Treaty of Versailles, the fall of the League became inevitable.

Class 9 WBBSE History Chapter 7 Important Questions

Question 2. Compare and contrast the League of Nations and the United Nations.
Answer:

Comparing The League of Nations and the United Nations

The ideals of the League of Nations and of the United Nations were more or less similar. They were formed with the purpose of ensuring international peace and security. The idea of world organization embedded in the League of Nations has assumed greater significance in the creation of the United Nations.

In matters of organization, the two bodies are almost similar. The League had three organs the Assembly, the Council, and the Security Council. The organization of the United Nations is more elaborate and it has six organs the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.

In the League of Nations, the Big Powers exercised influence in shaping its policy. Similarly, in the United Nations, the Big Five, America, Russia, Britain, France, and China, play a crucial role in directing the activities of the United Nations.

Both organizations have relied on peaceful methods for the solution of international disputes and have urges and sanctions against the disturbance of peace.

“For all their differences” it has been said, the League and the U.N., “are basically the same-voluntary associations of states established to foster cooperation among their members in certain stipulated political, economic, and social areas.

They were both endowed with essentially the same organizational limbs, including an assembly, council, economic and social bodies, trusteeship committee, courts, and secretariat. In most matters, these organs were authorized only to recommend, not command.

In the security sphere, their founders intended that action to extinguish threats to the peace should be left primarily to the political councils dominated by the great powers”. But in spite of the similarities, there have been wide differences between the two organizations. Both the United States and the Soviet Union who have been members of the United Nations from the beginning were not originally included in the League of Nations.

While all important decisions in the League Assembly required unanimity, in the General Assembly of the United Nations, they require a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting.

The power and responsibility of the League Assembly and the League Council were not clearly defined. But in the United Nations, the positions of the General Assembly and the Security Council have been clearly demarcated.

The Security Council has been given wider authority than the Council of the League, for in that body rests the primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security.

The incorporation of the Covenant of the League of Nations in the peace treaty of Versailles weakened the League. It appeared that the League of Nations was an attempt on the part of the victors to devise a political settlement intended to serve their interests. But the United Nations had nothing to do with any peace treaty. “It was the job of the United Nations to maintain peace, not to create peace”.

On the whole, the objectives of the Charter are far more comprehensive and radical than those of the Covenant. The League was not an effective instrument for the enforcement of sanctions. But the framers of the U.N. Charter ‘put teeth’ into the new collective security system. International organizations in 1919 had no concrete

Precedent whereas the United Nations of 1945 had twenty years experience behind them. In several respects, the United Nations is somewhat tighter than the League. “Its organs, when they can function at all, can do more.

But how far they can function at all depends, as before, on the will of its leading members to make them function”. The fabric of international society has been strengthened by putting more emphasis on the role of specialized agencies in promoting economic, social, cultural, and technical cooperation.

Question 3. How was UNO formed?
Answer:

Formation of UNO: The United Nations Organization is an international body. It was established on 24th October 1945 in order to maintain peace and security.

Circumstances leading to the formation of UNO: Nearly 50 million people lost their life during World War II. The deadly weapons terrified the men. The failure of the League of Nations forced the nation heads to form an international institution to establish durable peace and security in the world.

Different steps :

1. London Declaration: The London Declaration was the first step towards the foundation of UNO. In June 1941 the representatives of Britain, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa met in London and proposed for the first time to establish an effective organization to maintain international peace and security. This announcement came to be known as the London Declaration.

2. Atlantic Charter: In 1941 the British Prime Minister Mr. Churchill and the US President Mr. Franklin Roosevelt met on board of a British Warship (Augusta) somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean. Their declaration came to be known as the Atlantic Charter.

It became an important document when 26 leaders of different states including Stolin, the President of Russia put Here, in the conference, as many as 51 representatives of different states signed a document known as the United Nations Charter.

These 51 signatory states are the original members of the United Nations. The aims, objectives, composition, etc. of the United Nations were clearly laid down in the charter. Thus, UNO was formed on 24th October 1945 and this day is celebrated as UN Day every year.

3. Washington Declaration: In 1942 the representatives of 26 nations signed a declaration known as the United Nations Declaration. The name United Nation was devised by President Franklin Roosevelt. Most of the principles of the Atlantic Charter were accepted

4. Moscow Declaration: In 1943 the foreign ministers of Britain, America, Russia, and China met at Moscow. It was decided that an international body was “formed after World War – II. A joint communique was issued on ist November 1943. The first formal decision to establish the United Nations was taken at Moscow in 1943.

5. Dumbarton Oaks Conference:  The representative of Britain, America, Russia, and amet in 1944 at an estate known as Dumbarton Oaks, near Washington. At this Conference draft of the UN, charter was formulated.

6. The San Fransisco Conference and the Birth of the United Nations: The final step towards the formation of an international body, the United Nations, was taken at the San Francisco Conference of 1945.

Question 4. Write a note on the purposes and membership of the U.N.O.
Answer:

Purposes and Principles of the U.N.:The purposes of the United Nations are set forth in Article I of the Charter. These are :

(1) Maintenance of international peace and security;

(2) Development of friendly relations among nations;

(3) International cooperation in solving problems of economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian nature; promotion and encouragement of respect for human rights and fundamental freedom; and

(4) To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations to achieve the above ends.

In order to fulfill the purposes for which UNO was established, the UN acts in accordance with the following principles, as envisaged in Article 2 of the Charter :

(1) The organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its members

(2) All members shall fulfill in good faith the obligation they have assumed under the Charter

(3) They shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means

(4) They shall refrain in their international relations from the threat of use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of United Nations

(5) They shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the Charter, and to refrain in giving assistance to any State against which the organization is taking preventive enforcement action

(6) The United Nations to ensure that non-members act in accordance with these principles so far as is necessary for maintaining international peace and security;

(7) The organization shall not intervene in matters essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any State. This provision shall not, however, prejudice the application of enforcement action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression.

Membership: There are two kinds of members of the United Nations. According to Article 3, there are original members who participated in the San Francisco Conference or had signed earlier the Declaration by the United Nations on January 1, 1942, and signed the Charter and ratified it also. In all 51 States are regarded as original members.

Subsequent members are elected under Article 4 of the Charter, by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. Membership of the United Nations is open to all peace-loving countries that accept the Charter and have faith in the judgment of the Charter.

Any prospective country desiring to become a member must submit an application including a declaration that it accepts the obligations envisaged by the Charter. New members are admitted by two-thirds votes of the members of the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. Membership becomes effective on the date on which the Assembly accepts the application.

Question 5. Write an essay on the specialized agencies of the U.N.
Answer:

UNDP :

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is active in more than 150 developing countries and territories. This organ provides multilateral, technical, and pre-investment aid. It has five-year programs that cover varied fields like farming, fishing, forestry, mining, manufacturing, power, transport, communication, housing and building, trade and tourism, health and environmental sanitation, education and training community, economic planning and public administration.

The UNDP aims to help developing countries to make better use of their human and natural resources and improve living standards. Natural resources are surveyed and other potentials for increased output are examined. Educational systems are strengthened. Vocational and technical instruction is given at various levels.

UNICEF :

The United Nations International Children’s International Children’s’ session in 1946 to meet the emergency needs of children in post-war Europe and China, for food, medicines, and clothing. In 1950 to main objective of this agency was changed to promoting programs for the benefit of children of developing countries. Its name was changed to United Nations Children’s Fund but the by now popular acronym was kept. Whenever there are natural disasters, civil wars, or epidemics, UNICEF acts swiftly to help children and mothers.

All aspects of child care, immunization, breastfeeding, growth monitoring, and simple methods of rehydration have been included in the work of UNICEF. The training of national personnel consisting of teachers, health and sanitation workers, nutritionists, and child welfare specialists has been undertaken by UNICEF.

Paper for textbooks, equipment, and medicine for health clinics, pipes, and pumps for supplying clean water have been provided. Voluntary contributions finance UNICEF. About three-quarters of its income comes from Governments, the rest are donations. It also raises money by its sale of greeting cards and other fund-raising activities.

WHO:

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has its headquarters at Geneva. It is governed by the World Health Assembly on which 166 member states are represented. The Executive Board has 31 members sent by as many countries.

As the name implies, WHO aims to raise the health levels of all the people in the world. The World Health Assembly set a goal which was “Health for All by the year 2000”. Cooperation between Governments and people helps the programmes of WHO which involve eight essential elements.

Education about prevailing health problems, an adequate and nutritious food supply, safe water and sanitation, maternal and child health, immunization against major infectious diseases and appropriate treatment of common diseases and injuries, and supply of essential drugs, form important elements of the programmes.

The decade from 1981 to 1990 has been declared as “The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade”.

UNESCO :

The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisations (UNESCO) has its headquarters in Paris. UNESCO’s primary aim is to promote peace by making the member nations understand each other’s culture and collaborate through education, science, culture, and communication.

Firstly, UNESCO expands and guides education so that the people of every country learn to take care of their own development.

It also helps to establish scientific and technological foundations in order to enable the country to make better use of its resources. A special effort is made to encourage national culture and to preserve the cultural heritage of member nations.

Education is a field where UNESCO plays an important part. Literacy, universal primary education, training of teachers, educational planners and administrators, and the supply of equipment to schools, are all involved in the program initiated by this agency.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) is older than the United Nations as it was established in 1919, under the Treaty of Versailles, along with the League of Nations. The ILO became the first specialized agency under the United Nations when an agreement establishing its relationship with the UN was approved in December. 1946. It has its headquarters at Geneva.

The League Of Nations And The United Nations Organisation Class 9 WBBSE Summary

Question 6. Discuss the composition of the UNO.
Answer:

Composition of the UNO

The United Nations Organization (U.N.O.) was set up on October 24, 1945.

Main Aims of the U.N.O. :

(1) To maintain international peace and security.

(2) To promote friendly relations among different nations.

(3) To achieve international cooperation in solving the worldwide economic, social, and cultural problems.

(4) To promote respect for human rights, dignity and freedom.

(5) To promote respect among the member-nations for fundamental rights and freedom of mankind.

The principal organs of the U.N.O. :

(1) The General Assembly
(2) The Security Council
(3) The Economic and Social Council
(4) The Trusteeship Council
(5) The International Court of Justice and

(6) The Secretariat:

(1) General Assembly: This is the main body of the United Nations. The representatives of all the member countries sit in this Assembly. At present, it has about 150 members as its members. Every member nation can send 5 representatives in this Assembly but they will have a single vote. Its session is held once in a year.

Functions :

(1) This assembly thinks over the matters to maintain peace and security.

(2) It passes the budget of the United Nations.

(3) The Members of the General Assembly elect the members of other organs of the United Nations.

(4) The assembly takes the decisions to give membership to the new nations and to remove the existing nations if the need arises.

(2) Security Council: This Council is the executive wing of the United Nations. It has total 15 members 10 temporary and 5 permanent.

Its permanent members are :

(1) U.S.A.
(2) Russia
(3) England,
(4) France and
(5) Communist China.

Its temporary members are elected by the General Assembly for the term of two years.

Functions of the Security Council :

(1) This Council is responsible for the establishment of peace in the world. Every member country of the United Nations has the right to send its complaint to the Security Council.

(2) It settles the disputes and conflicts among the countries of the world. If the need arises it has the authority to use force against any country.

(3) This council appoints the judges of the International Court of Justice, along with the cooperation of the General Assembly.

(3) Economic and Social Council: This Council consists of 27 members. They are elected by the General Assembly for three years. 1/3 members retire every year and the new ones are elected.

Functions: This Council considers matters concerning Economic, Social, Cultural, and Educational matters of all the member countries of the United Nations.

(4) Trusteeship Council: This Council is formed to look after the matters and administration of those countries that have been kept in trusteeship of some countries by the United Nations. Its members are also elected by the General Assembly.

Functions :

(1) The Trusteeship Council sends its missions from time to time to those countries that have kept in trust of the United Nations.

(2) It listens to the complaints of the people of those countries which have been kept in trust.

(5) International Court of Justice: This Court of Justice is one of the important organs of the United Nations. This court is of 15 Judges. The judges are elected by the members of the General Assembly and Security Council for nine years.

Functions :

(1) This court decides those disputes which are presented to it by different countries of the world.

(2) This court has advisory functions also. It provides legal advice to the different organs of the United Nations.

(6) Secretariat: This is the main office of the United Nations. Its head is called “Secretary General”. He is nominated by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. About 6000 employees work under him in the office. These days Mr. Ban ki-Moon is the Secretary General of the United Nations.

Functions of the Secretariat: The Secretariat is involved in all the paperwork of the U.N. It organizes seminars, and coordinates the work of organs and agencies.

Specialized Agencies of the U.N.O. :

(1) The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (UNESCO)

(2) The World Health Organization. (W.H.O)

(3) The Food and Agriculture Organization. (FA.O.)

(4) The International Labour Organization. (I. L.O)

 

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath Introduction:

About the Second World War and its Aftermath :

The germs of the Second World War lay in the Treaty of Versailles (1919) which was imposed on defeated Germany after the First World War. It was a humiliating and shameful treaty for Germany which imposed drastic losses and unbearable burdens on her. The treaty made the Germans feel a desire to have the treaty nullified as soon as possible.

Learn and Real all  WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

The problems and needs of the victorious powers in the First World War. were also not settled by the Treaty of Versailles. The new states which had arisen in central Europe felt insecure about their fate.

There were also rivalries over political ideologies of democracy and dictatorship. There was also the challenge of communism. The western democratic countries were not happy with the growing power of the USSR and the spread of communism in Eastern Europe.

So the western democratic countries preferred to appease Germany and Italy. This emboldened Hitler. In 1938 he first occupied Austria and then Czechoslovakia, then Danzing on the Baltic Sea. On 1 September 1939, the German army marched into poland. So Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3 and the Second World War started.

The war, in the beginning, proved to be highly favourable to Germany. From the end of 1944, the war situation began to change in favour of the Allies. In early 1945 the Allies launched massive attacks on Germany and the German armies surrendered. Japan’s surrender came a few months later when the U.S.A dropped two atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.

The Second World War destroyed far more lives and properties than the First World War. In Germany, Russia and Japan several millions of people lost their lives.The signing of treaties after the Second World War did not mean the coming of peace.

Armed conflict ended but a cold war between two superpowers – the U.S.A and USSR started. International agencies like the U.N.O were set up to settle international issues and for the establishment of peace, but these have not been able so far to prevent the race for armament, in particular, nuclear armament which is a great menace to world peace even today.

One positive result of the war was that the war weakened the old colonial empires and forced them to grant independence to their colonies which they had held for generations.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath Solutions

Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath Very Short Answer Type :

Question 1. Which treaty is known as a ‘dictated peace’?
Answer: The Treaty of Versailles is known as a ‘dictated peace’.

Question 2. What is the name of the republic that was established after 1918 in Germany?
Answer: The name of the Republic that was established after 1918 in Germany was known as the Weimer Republic.

Question 3. On which date did the Second World War begin?
Answer: The Second World War began in September 1939.

Question 4. Who was the Prime Minister of England when the Second World War started?
Answer: Neville Chamberlain was the Prime Minister of England when the Second World War started.

Question 5. Who was the Prime Minister of France when the Second World War broke out?
Answer: Daladier was the Prime Minister of France when the Second World War broke out

Question 6. Who was the founder of the Nazi Party?
Answer: The founder of the Nazi Party was Hitler.

Question 7. When did Germany withdraw from the League of Nations?
Answer: Germany withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 8. Which country was first attacked by Hitler during the Second World War?
Answer: Poland was first attacked by Hitler during the Second World War.

Question 9. Which port of Poland was demanded by Hitler?
Answer: Danzig, a port of Poland, was demanded by Hitler.

Question 10. Who was Hindenburg?
Answer: Hindenburg was the President of German Republic.

Question 11. Which country other than Germany and Italy was a part of the Axis group of nations?
Answer: Japan was a part of the Axis group of nations other than Germany and Italy.

Question 12. Which British Prime Minister appeased Germany?
Answer: The British Prime Minister who appeased Germany was Neville Chamberlain.

Question 13. When did Japan attack Manchuria?
Answer: Japan attacked Manchuria in 1931.

Question 14. Which British warships were drowned by German U-boats?
Answer: The British warships HMS Courageous and the HMS Royal Oak were drowned by German U-boats.

Question 15. Who was Mac Arthur?
Answer: Mac Arthur was the American military General.

Question 16. Which American naval base in the Pacific Ocean was attacked by Japan?
Answer: The American naval base at Pearl Harbour was attacked by Japan.

Question 17. In which year was Pearl Harbour attacked by Japan?
Answer: Pearl Harbour was attacked by Japan in 1941.

Question 18. In which year did Hitler attack Russia?
Answer: Hitler attacked Russia in 1941.

Question 19. In which year did Japan surrender to the Allies during the Second World War?
Answer: Japan surrendered to the Allies during the Second World War in 1945.

Question 20. When did the Second World War come to an end?
Answer: The Second World War came to an end in 1945.

Question 21. Where is Pearl Harbour located?
Answer: Pearl Harbour is located on the island of O’ahu in Hawaii.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 22. Who were the US Presidents during World War II?
Answer: Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman both served as United States Presidents during World War II.

Question 23. Name the World War II General who went on to become the President of the United States of America.
Answer: The World War II General Eischen hower went on to become the President of the United States of America.

Class 9 English Bliss	Class 9 Life Science
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Question 24. In which year was the Tehran Conference held?
Answer: The Tehran Conference was held in 1944.

Question 25. In which year was the San Francisco Conference held?
Answer: The San Francisco Conference was held in 1945. ©

Question 26. Who first popularised the term ‘Cold War’?
Answer: The term ‘Cold War’ was first popularised by Walter Lipmann.

Question 27. Name two superpowers which were the main rivals in the Cold War.
Answer:

The superpowers who were the main rivals in the Cold War were:

(1) United States of America and
(2) Soviet Russia.

Question 28. Name two parties in the Cold War.
Answer:

The two parties in the Cold War were:

(1) United States of America and
(2) Soviet Russia.

Question 29. What does NATO stand for?
Answer: NATO stands for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.

Question 30. What does SEATO stand for?
Answer: SEATO stands for South East Asia Treaty Organisation.

Question 31. In which year was Truman Doctrine proclaimed?
Answer: Truman Doctrine was proclaimed in.1947.

Question 32. In which year was Marshall Plan proclaimed?
Answer: Marshall Plan was proclaimed in 1947. :

Question 33. Who is the author of the poem “The White Man’s Burden”?
Answer: The author of the poem “The White Man’s Burden” is Rudyard Kipling.

Question 34. What is the concept of ‘The White Man’s Burden’?
Answer: ‘The White Man’s Burden’ is the idea that white people are superior to then on white races and so, colonial rulers have a duty to take care of and ‘civilise’ the native inhabitants of their colonies.

Question 35. When and between whom was the Russo-German Non-Aggression pact signed?
Answer: The Russo-German Non-Aggression pact was signed ch 23 August 1939 between Russian foreign minister Molotov and German foreign minister Ribbentrop.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 36. After which incident did U.S.A join the Second World War?
Answer: When Japan attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbour, U.S.A joined the World War II.

Question 37. What was the direct cause of Second World War?
Answer: The direct cause of Second World War was Hitler’s attack on Poland.

Question 38. Which day is known as the ‘D-Day’ (Deliverance Day)?
Answer: 6th June 1944 is known as the ‘D-Day’.

The Second World War And Its Aftermath Class 9 WBBSE Notes

Question 39. Who followed the polic
Answer: The Prime Minister of Britain, Neville Chamberlain and Edouard Daladier, the Premier of France followed this policy.

Question 40. Name the countries which took part in the Second World War.
Answer: The countries which took part in the Second World War were Germany, Italy, Japan, Britain, France, Soviet Union, U.S.A, Poland, Yugoslavia, Romania, Greece, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Holland, Belgium, Finland, Bulgaria, Albania, Norway, Denmark, etc.

Question 41. What is meant by Third World countries?
Answer: A group of developing countries in Asia, Africa and South America which achieved independence after the Second World War were known as the Third World countries.

42. What is a Non-Alignment policy?
Answer: Non-Alignment policy which aims at ensuring international peace means keeping away form the two military blocks led by U.S.A and USSR and solving all international conflicts and disputes peacefully through cooperation.

Question 43. When did the Second World War come to an end?
Answer: The Second World War came to an end on 2 September 1945.

Question 44. For how many years did the Second World War continue?
Answer: The Second World War started on 1 September 1939 and ended on 2 September 1945 so the war continued for 6 years.

Question 45. What was the aim of the Versailles Treaty
Answer: The Treaty of Versailles aimed to weaken Germany both economically and militarily.

Question 46. In which year was the Battle of Britain fought?
Answer: The Battle of Britain was fought in 1940.

Question 47. What was the main reason of the defeat of Germany in the Second World War?
Answer: The main reason of the defeat of Germany in the Second World War was the conspiracy of the German generals and the discontent of the soldiers.

Question 48. Name the Czar of Russia who established his capital at Leningrad.
Answer: The Czar of Russia who established his capital at Leningrad was Peter the great.

Question 49. When was the U.N.O established?
Answer: U.N.O was established on 24 October 1945.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 50. Why was Hitler in favour of union between Germany and Austria?
Answer: Hitler was in favour of union between Germany and Austria as a sizeable number of Germans lived in Austria.

Question 51. Under whose leadership did the Russian army defeat the Germans?
Answer: Under the leadership of Marshall Zhukov the Russian army defeated the GermAnswer:

Question 52. How did the U.S.A become the arsenal of democracy?
Answer: U.S.A became the arsenal of democracy when the American Senate enacted the Land-Lease Act in March 1941 and allowed the US government to offer warships, war planes and other weapons to the Allied powers to fight against Fascism.

Question 53. Which Act made the U.S.A. the ‘Arsenal of Democracy’?
Answer: The Land Lease Act enacted by the American Senate in 1941 made the U.S.A. the ‘Arsenal of Democracy’.

Question 54. Which day is regarded as a date which will live in infamy in the U.S.A.?
Answer: The day is regarded as a date which will live in infamy in the history as Japan bombed the US naval base at Pearl Harbour on this day.

Question 55. When was ‘Victory-in-Europe Day’ observed?
Answer: Germany surrendered to the Allied Powers formally on May 7, 1945, and the whole of Europe observed May 8, 1945, as ‘the Victory-in-Europe Day’.

Question 56. What was the Grand Alliance?
Answer: U.S.A, Great Britain and Soviet Russia formed an alliance against the Axis powers which is known as the Grand Alliance.

Question 57. Who followed the ‘one by one policy’?
Answer: Hitler, the German dictator, followed ‘one by one’ policy.

Question 58. What was the ‘Land Lease Act’?
Answer: The American Senate enacted the Land Lease Act in March 1941 and allowed the US Government to offer warships, war planes and other weapons to the Allied powers to fight against fascism.

Question 59. Under whose leadership did the German soldiers start ‘Operation Barbarossa’?
Answer: The German soldiers started ‘Operation Barbarossa’ under the leadership of Hitler.

Question 60. When and by whom was the Anglo-Russian Alliance signed?
Answer: Churchill, the British Prime Minister, concluded the Anglo-Russian Alliance of 1941.

Question 61. Which incident made the Far East the centre of war during World War II?
Answer: The Japanese attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbour made the Far East the centre of war during World War II.

Question 62. After which invasion did the ‘Beginning of the End’ of Germany start under the leadership of Hitler?
Answer: After the invasion of Russia, the ‘Beginning of the end’ of Germany started under the leadership of Hitler.

Question 63. Name the two atom bombs dropped by the U.S.A. on Japan.
Answer: U.S.A. dropped the atomic bombs named ‘Little Boy’ on Hiroshima and ‘Fat man’ on Nagasaki in Japan. :

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

64. Why did Hitler attack Poland?
Answer: After the Munich Pact, Hitler demanded the use of the port of Danzig and also the Polish corridor to reach the port. When Poland refused this demand, Hitler attacked Poland.

Question 65. What was the aim of Hitler’s foreign policy?
Answer: Hitler’s foreign policy aimed at German expansion in East Europe in order to carve out some ‘Living Space’ (Lebensraum) for the surplus German population.

Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath 2 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Name the Allied and Axis powers in the Second World War.
Answer:

In the Second World War, the Allied powers were England, France, the USSR, U.S.A. and China. The Axis powers were Italy, Germany and Japan.

Question 2. Through which military campaign did Mussolini try to fulfil his imperial ambition?
Answer:

The Fascist Government under Mussolini became hungry for colonies and Mussolini tried to fulfil his imperial ambitions through his military campaign in the East African country of Ethiopia (Abyssinia). In 1935 he attacked Ethiopia to exploit its minerals and raw materials for industrial development and Ethiopia was formally in 1936.

Question 3. Why did Hitler sign the Munish Pact?
Answer:

England and France followed the policy of appeasement towards Hitler and signed the Munich Pact in 1938. Hitler agreed to sign the Munich Pact because:

(1)Germany was authorised to occupy four border provinces of Czechoslovakia within ten days.
(2) The Czechoslovakian Government was forced to release all the political prisoners of Sudetenland. This territory was also given to Germany.

Question 4. Write a note on the Battle of Leningrad.
Answer:

Battle of Leningrad

At the initial stage of the Second World War, the German arty achieved great success. They besieged Leningrad. The Soviet army followed the ‘Scorched Earth’ policy and guerilla model of warfare. As a result, the Nazi forces began to retreat. In the beginning of 1942, Leningrad was vacated by the Russian Red Army.

Question 5. Which incident forced the U.S.A. to join the Second World War?
Answer: The sudden Japanese air attack with 360 aircraft struck at the American fleet at Pearl Harbour in the Hawaiian Islands on 7 December 1941 and wiped out all the American planes on the ground there. This incident at Pearl Harbour forced U.S.A. to join the Second World War.

Question 6. Write a note on bombing the U.S.A. at Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Answer:

Bombing the U.S.A. at Hiroshima and Nagasaki

The U.S.A. prepared a plan to drop the newly discovered atomic bomb on Japan on August 6, 1945. The atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, an industrial town in Japan, which destroyed half the city and caused 80,000 deaths.

This was the first use of a top bomb during World War II. On August 9, a second atomic bomb was dropped at Nagasaki in Kyum, destroying the whole municipal area and killing 40,000 people. The whole world was alarmed at the extensive destructive capacity of these new weapons.

Question 7. How can you explain the Second World War as a struggle between Fascism and Nazism versus democratic ideals?
Answer:

The Second World War was, in fact, the struggle of two contradictory principles, versus democratic principles. England, France and America were the supporters of the principles of democracy, while the principles of autocracy were fully supported. by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Thus war was inevitable between the supporters of these two contradictory principles.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 8. What is UNRRA?
Answer:

UNRRA

As a result of the Second World War, there was total destruction, devastation and despair in the whole of Europe. In order to regenerate the economy of the devastated countries, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (U.N.R.R.A.) was set up in 1943 in Washington, U.S.A.

It was an international body to provide relief to countries liberated from the German occupation. This economic recovery programme provided substantial economic help to the war ravaged countries like Poland, Italy, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Austria, etc.

Question 9. What was the ‘Fulton Speech’?
Answer:

‘Fulton Speech’

On 5 March 1946 the former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered a speech at Westminster College, Fulton in the state of Missouri, U.S.A. He warned that a large part of Europe from Stettin to Triest had passed under the “iron curtain” of the Soviet Union. He warned that America should become alert otherwise the Soviet Union would one day conquer the entire continent of Europe.

Question 10. What was the Vichy Government?
Answer:

Vichy Government

A puppet French Government led by Petain was established under the control was the capital of this new French Government, it was also called the Vichy Government.

Question 11. When was the Yalta Conferénce held ? Name the countries which took part in the Yalta Conference.
Answer:

The Yalta Conference was held in 1945. The countries which took part in the Yalta Conference were the U.S.A., Britain and Russia.

Question 12. What is the Marshall Plan?
Answer:

Marshall Plan

The American Foreign Secretary, George Marshall, in a lecture at Harvard University, spoke of a plan of economic resurgence of the war-ravaged countries like France, Britain, Belgium, Italy, West Germany, etc. The plan of Marshall which wanted to save Europe from poverty, hunger and lawlessness is known as the Marshall plan, a programme to finance the recovery of the European economy.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 6 Question Answers

Question 13. What is internationalism?
Answer:

Internationalism

Internationalism is a movement which advocates the economic and political benefit of all. It is the belief that countries can achieve more advantages by working together and trying to understand each other than by arguing and fighting wars with each other.

Question 14. What is nationalism?
Answer:

Nationalism

Nationalism is basically a collective state of mind or consciousness in which people believe their primary duty is loyalty to the nation-state. It implies national superiority and glorifies various national virtues. It is a political or social philosophy in which the welfare of the nation-state as an entity is considered paramount

Question 15. What is the Maginot line?
Answer:

Maginot line

The Maginot Line, an elaborate defensive barrier in northeast France, was named after its principal creator, Andre Maginot who was France’s Minister of War when the fortification was ‘begun in 1929: It was a line of fortification. built by France to defend its border with Germany prior to World War ll.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 16. What is Operation Barbarossa?
Answer:

Operation Barbarossa

On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany and her allies began a massive invasion of the Soviet Union under Operation Barbarossa. Hitler changed the original name Operation Fritz to Operation Barbarossa to refer to Frederick Barbarossa, the Holy Roman Emperor, who had set out to conquer the Holy Land in 1190.

Question 17. What is Seigfreid Line?
Answer:

Seigfreid Line

Seigfreid Line was a line of defensive forts and tank defences built along the German western frontier opposite the French Maginot Line in the 1930s and greatly expanded in 1941.

Question 18. What was decided in the Yalta Conference?
Answer:

In the Yalta Conference (1945) it was decided that:

(1) Britain, America and Russia would divide Germany after her surrender into four sectors and each power would occupy one sector. Berlin, the capital of Germany, also was to be divided into four parts.

(2) The heads of different states would meet at a conference at San Francisco to prepare a charter for an international body.

Question 19. What are the characteristic features of democracy?
Answer:

The characteristic features of democracy

The characteristic features of democracy include open-minded critical enquiry and ‘mutual regard and compromise’. The opposition functions as a legitimate partner of the democratic system. Democracy refuses to go by one-party rule and recognizes ‘individual liberty’.

Question 20. Why did democracy come under strain in Europe?
Answer:

The causes may be described as follows :

(1) Economic crises included inflation in post-war Europe. The Great Depression led to tariff barriers and disruption of trade.

(2) Some of the states suffered racial instability as a result of conflicting ethnic groups.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 21. What are the characteristic features of fascism?
Answer:

However, a clearer understanding may be found by an analysis of the characteristics of

Fascism which were as follows :

(1) Aggressive nationalism and racism,
(2) Mass support,
(3) The leader principle,
(4) Undecided relationship with socialism, and
(5) Autarchy (economic self-sufficiency).

Question 22. Why did dictatorship supplant democracy?
Answer:

Firstly, a strong anti-democratic movement developed in Europe in the Liberalpolitics ceased being favoured. Secondly, during the period after 1920, liberal politics was not looked upon with much favour. Rule by committee and discussion which is a part of the democratic process came to be considered as inappropriate to deal with the critical issues at hand.

Question 23. What is the relation between nationalism and fascism?
Answer:

The relation between nationalism and fascism

Nationalism was the springboard of Fascism. To the Italian nationalists whatever was a ‘mutilated victory’. This national frustration was a major factor that paved the way to the rise of Fascism.

Question 24. How did the Second World War outbreak?
Answer:

The outbreak of the Second World War: A worldwide conflict became inevitable when Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939. The war was between the Allied Powers and the Axis Powers.

The Allied Powers principally consisted of Britain, France and Poland, the USSR (joined in 1941), the USA (joined in 1941) and several other small powers. The Axis Powers were Germany, Italy (from 1940) and Japan (from 1941), supported by Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary and Romania.

Question 25. What do you mean by Phony War?
Answer:

Phony War: The period between the start of World War II in 1939 and the German onslaught towards the West in 1940 came to be called the ‘Phony War’. During the period Hitler’s Soviet Russian ally invaded Poland in the east and German troops in the west.

As a result Poland quickly collapsed. On the other hand, the Allied strategy aimed only at holding off German pressure on the Polish front.

Question 26. Why was the Russo-German Non-Aggression Pact signed?
Answer:

Hitler’s agenda was to annex Poland which was opposed by Britain and France. In the event of a war Britain and France would lend support to Poland. But if the Soviet Union were to side with Germany, Poland would be caught in a German-Russian trap. For Stalin negotiations with Britain and France had limited progress.

Stalin was becoming increasingly convinced that the two democracies had no real sympathy for Soviet security concerns. This creates a suitable pepper for the signing of a Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 27. What prompted Hitler to invade the Soviet Union?
Answer:

The answer may be found in the following :

(1) Hitler was not at all sincere in signing the Pact with the Soviets. He signed it as a strategic move.
(2) Without winning over the Soviet Union to his side, it would have been impossible for the Nazis to win the wars of 1939-1940.

Question 28. What was the Pearl Harbour incident?
Answer:

Pearl Harbour incident

The Pearl Harbour Incident: Pearl Harbour in Hawaii was the main US naval base. Without any formal declaration of war, the Japanese airforce attacked Pearl Harbour early on 7 December 1941 sinking as many as 19 ships, destroying 188 planes and killing 2400 people.

Immediately the USA declared war on Japan, and it was a matter of days before Germany and Italy, who were Japan’s allies, declared war on the USA. American naval losses at Pearl Harbour gave an advantage to Japanese sea power immediately after the attack. However, the strategically important aircraft carriers remained undamaged as these were not in the harbour at that time.

Question 29. What are the major differences between Democracy and Fascism?
Answer:

The major differences between democracy and Fascism are :

(1) Democracy allows and encourages different political parties and political views to function in the political system to turn the wheels of the political system to turn the wheels of the political machinery. On the other hand, Fascism does not tolerate any political party or political views other than the view sponsored by the Fascist dictator.

(2) Democracy develops balanced, healthy and creative nationalism. This appears to be a source of strength and progress in the life of a nation. But Fascism generates hatred and preaches aggressive nationalism. Such perverted nationalism is the cause of conflict among different nations.

Question 30. What was ‘NATO’ and ‘Warsaw Pact’?
Answer:

‘NATO’ and ‘Warsaw Pact’

After the Second World War U.S.A and Soviet Russia who had helped each other in the Second World War became rivals and a competition arose between them to assume the leadership of the world. In 1949 U.S. formed a military alliance called NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) with 15 nations as its members.

It was strong enough to repulse any invasion of West Europe by the Red Army. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, apprehended an invasion of East Europe and Russia by the NATO army. She entered into the Warsaw Pact with East European countries in 1955,

Class 9 History The Second World War And Its Aftermath WBBSE Long Answers

Question 31. What is the ‘Cash and Carry’ policy?
Answer:

‘Cash and Carry’ policy

In 1939 the American legislature allowed the U.S.A. to help the Western democratic states and sell arms and ammunition to them. This policy was known as the ‘Cash and Carry’ policy. It was a policy to preserve neutrality while aiding the Allies.

It allowed the sale of arms, ammunition and war materials to belligerents (countries engaged in war) as long as the recipients arranged for transportation using their own. ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risks in transportation.

Question 32. What was the Cold War?
Answer:

Cold War

Tension of war without an actual shooting of war has been termed as the Cold War. Cold War is a state of tension between countries in which each side adopts policies designed to strengthen itself and weaken the other by falling short of actual war. It is a kind of verbal war and even more terrible than the ‘Warm War’.

Class ix History Question Answer

Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath 4 Marks Questions And Answers

Question 1. Would you say that Europe was on the brink of war in 1939?
Answer:

On the Brink of War : 1939: By 1939 Europe was on the brink of another World War.

The causes leading to the hostilities were as follows :

(1) Failure of the peace talks and initiatives at the end of the First World War.

(2) The imperialist policy pursued by Nazi Germany under the leadership of Hitler.

(3) The policy of appeasement followed by Britain and France.

(4) The policy of isolationism was followed by the USA. By the Munich Pact (1938), signed by the representatives of Britain, France, Germany and Italy, the occupation of Sudetenland (a part of Czechoslovakia) by Germany was agreed upon and ratified.

Britain and France hoped that the agreement would put an end to Hitler’s territorial ambitions and demands. In fact, by the Munich Pact Hitler promised that he would not use again war as a means to settle political disputes. With this belief, Chamberlain, the then-British Prime Minister, claimed that another World War had been avoided. But destiny had some other answer Soon it became clear that Hitler had fooled all concerned when in March 1939 Hitler occupied the entire Czechoslovakia.

The seizure of Czechoslovakia by Hitler alarmed the British and the French. They feared that Hitler would next annex Poland. Hence the British and French Governments promised to stand by the Poles (people of Poland) in case of an attack from Germany.

Question 2. What were the contributions of the USA to the Second World War?
Answer:

The USA and the Second World War: At the outbreak of World War II the USA remained committed to a policy of isolation or non-participation under the ‘Neutrality Act’ of 1937. People hoped that the USA could avoid future wars by neutrality.

However, the circumstances of war events led to almost an immediate change in the policy. The American attitude drastically changed on Sunday 7, December 1941 when the Japanese bombers attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbour at Hawaii and the airfield at Manila. The USA was now formally engaged at war against the Axis Powers.

The American Contribution: The American Government stepped up its aid.to Britain on a massive scale. Despite Pearl Harbour, the US President Roosevelt insisted in. giving priority to the European theatre of the global conflict.

For, America’s huge production potential was always likely to ensure the defeat of the Axis. The US economy was fully mobilized to produce huge quantities of weaponry which included tanks, merchant shipping and aircraft.

Besides, about 1-5 crore of men and women were enlisted in the war effort. It has been pointed out that the American entry into the war led to another major consequence. It marked the decline of Europe which became more and more dependent on decisions made in Washington.

Question 3. Would you say that World War II was truly a ‘global’ war?
Answer:

The Second World War as a truly ‘global’ War: The Second World War is called the really ‘global’ war for the first time. The cause of it lies in the fact that it was the only war fought on most of the inhabited parts of the earth.

Over 90 million (900 Lakh) soldiers were mobilized, of which war dead ranged from 40 to 60 million (4 to 6 Crore). However, the Second World War was truly ‘global’ in the sense that it had started as a European war with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany. Within a few days, Britain and France formally declared that they were engaged in

war as Germany attacked the country. In 1941 Yugoslavia, Greece and the Soviet Union were engulfed in the war due to the German invasion. The war spread to Asia due to the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbour that drew the USA into war against the Axis powers.

The Japanese involvement in the war resulted in a front in Burma (present Myanmar) and much of Southeast Asia and the Pacific. From 1942 onwards the war also spread to Africa. In view of the involvement of most of the countries of the world in the war, the Second World War was truly a ‘global war’.

Question 4. What were the qualitative and quantitative changes in the destructiveness of war?
Answer:

Qualitative and Quantitative Changes in the Destructiveness of War :

During the Second World War, scientists on both sides were employed in inventing weapons. Their motive was to invent such weapons that were more destructive than anything that the world had ever seen.

Apart from the technological changes that increased the effectiveness of the weaponry, the Germans invented long-range rockets and flying bombs which needed no pilots. These were radio-controlled.

These could be bombed on targets like cities where thousands of civilians — innocent men, women and children lived. But the most terrible weapon of all was the atomic bomb, finally developed by the USA.

This was a terrible weapon which was thousands of times more destructive than any ordinary bomb. The Atom Bomb explodes using the energy that is produced when an atom or atoms split.

One Atom Bomb is sufficient to destroy a whole town. An example can be had of Hiroshima where alone over 50,000 people were killed and another 100,000 injured by one Atom Bomb. Thus in the Second World War, there were some qualitative and quantitative changes in the destructiveness of war.

Question 5. How has aggressive nationalism been a threat to internationalism?
Answer:

Aggressive Nationalism versus Internationalism : Broadly speaking nationalism incorporates identical sentiments over allegiance to the state, traditional cultural heritage, unity among the people, territorial integrity and sovereignty But when it assumes an aggressive posture it may prove self-destructive. In this regard, the Nazi regime of Germany may be an example.

As against ‘aggressive nationalism’ emerged the phenomenon of internationalism. Internationalism is a practice of politics based on cooperation among nations. Internationalism recognizes the right of all nations of national sovereignty, security and self-determination.

It also includes cultural peace, socio-economic Progress and the right to defend the country’s borders against external aggression. There has been a bloom of internationalism in the era we are living in.

The international agencies that have contributed to the growth of internationalism are the United Nations Organization (UNO), the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), etc. However, it is worthy of mention here that the recent state of international terrorism is a danger to the spirit of internationalism. The trend can only be eliminated if all the nations of the world stand united against the menace of aggressive nationalism.

Question 6. Write a short note on the Pact of Paris.
Answer:

Pact of Paris

The most important milestone in the history of international relations after the Locarno Treaty was the Kellogg-Briand Pact or the Pact of Paris. On April 6, 1927, French Foreign Minister Briand had sent a message to the American people, in which he suggested that the tenth anniversary of the entry of the United States

Into the war might be celebrated by a mutual agreement in favour of ‘the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy’, American Secretary of State, Kellogg, after a long delay, replied with a counter-proposal that the suggested pact should be universal.

Briand agreed. Eventually, on April 27, 1928, representatives of the six great powers (America, Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Japan), the other three Locarno powers (Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia) and the British Dominions and India met in Paris and signed the Pact. This was known as the Kellogg-Briand Pact or the Pact of Paris.

In the first article, the signatories condemned recourse to war for the solution of international controversies and renounced it as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another. Within a few years, sixty-five nations, including the Soviet Union, signed the pact.

The Pact of Paris was not a far-reaching event. It renounced only wars of aggression. War was not outlawed :

(1) When resorted to in self-defence

(2) In the fulfilment of responsibilities under the League Covenant or Locarno agreement. Though the Pact condemned aggressive wars, it made no provision for punishing the guilty. There was not even a provision for consultation among the signatory powers in case of a breach of the Pact. The assertion of self-defence by Britain and the United States exposed the hollowness of the Pact. The original authors of the Pact did not ban war in self-defence.

Nevertheless, the Pact of Paris was an important landmark. The universal repudiation of war as an instrument of policy seems to have a unique importance. It continued a great step forward on the road to international security.

Question 7. Narrate in brief the collapse of Germany in World War II.
Answer:

Collapse of Germany in World War II

Even in the midst of defeat, Nazi Germany made a determined bid to recover its power. In mid-November 1944 a general offensive was launched by all six Allied armies on the Western front. It yielded little result at a heavy cost In mid-December the Germans under their experienced commander, Marshal Von Runstedt, struck back at the heavily forested area of Ardennes.

Soon a whole sector of the Allied line in Belgium and Luxemburg was thrown into confusion; a great ‘bulge’ opened which had to be closed at all costs. In the so-called ‘Battle of the Bulge’, Runstedt cut fifty miles through American lines and reinvaded Belgium.

Supplementing this effort, Hitler employed small, unpiloted air-craft bombers which did considerable damage to the civilian population of London. Next were the long-range rockets – so-called V 2 – against which no effective defence could be found in time. But the Nazi offensive proved to be temporary.

By the end of January 1945, the Germans were again driven out of France with the loss of 120,000 men. The Arderures offensive had exhausted Hitler’s last reserves — it hastened rather than delayed the fall of Germany.

The opening of the Second Front in June 1944 brought great advantage to the RussiAnswer: After overrunning Romania, Bulgaria, and Poland, Russian forces reached by January 31, 1945, the Lower Order, only 40 miles from Berlin. Meanwhile in early February 1945 Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin met at Yalta in Crimea. Here a general plan for the destruction of Germany was approved.

In early March, Eisenhower’s armies began a general advance towards the Rhine. They were followed by the British to the north and the French to the south. On April 11, the Allied armies readied the Elbe, only 60 miles from Berlin.

In March and April 1945, Russian armies under Generals Zhukov and Konev took Danzig and Vienna, overran Czechoslovakia and rushed towards Berlin. By April 25, Berlin had been encircled by the armies of Zhukov and Konev. On the 27th Konev’s forces joined the Americans on the Elbe. On April 30, 1945, Hitler shot his mistress and himself in a bunker in Berlin.

Goebbels and his family also took their own lives. On May 2, after desperate street-by-street resistance by the Germans, Berlin capitulated. On May 7, 1945, the Third Reich, under Admiral Karl Doenitz, surrendered unconditionally to the Allies.

It was a formal ending of the Second World War. The real ending took place on August 14, 1945, when Japan surrendered on the terms laid down by the Allies.

WBBSE Solutions For Class 9 History Chapter 6

Question 8. What was the immediate cause of the Second World War?
Answer:

Immediate cause of the Second World War

In the Second World War (1939-1945) Germany, Italy and Japan were on one side and Britain, France, USSR, U.S.A and China were on the other. The immediate cause of the Second World War is to be found in a series of acts of aggression by the German leader Hitler.

Germany annexed Austria and then demanded Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. By the Munich Pact of 1939 the Allies admitted the German claim. Soon after, Germany swallowed up the remaining portion of Czechoslovakia and demanded Danzig from Poland.

Britain, France and Poland formed an alliance against German aggression. Great Britain and France were engaged in negotiations with Russia. In the meantime Germany and Russia concluded a Non-Aggression Pact for 10 years (1939).

Hitler thus emboldened, invaded Poland without any formal declaration of war. Great Britain and France declared war against Germany in September 1939 and the Second World War started.

Question 9. Discuss the nature of the Second World War.
Answer:

Within twenty years of the First World War (1914-18) the Second World War broke out on 13 September 1939.

The nature of the Second World War is discussed below :

(1) The Second World War was more destructive and extensive than the First World War.

(2) This was for the first time that the war was extended in three fronts—land, air and water. It was fought on all major seas in Asia, Africa and Europe. Sixty nations were involved in the war, seven of them on the side of the Axis.

(3) Deadly weapons and the dreadful atom bombs were used in the war. Airplanes played a major role. Fleets of aeroplanes attacked troops and naval units, destroyed railroads and prepared the way for invasion.

(4) The war was fought not only by armed forces ‘at the battlefield but also by civilians in the factories and at home. School children also took part in the war, collecting rubber, newspapers and scrap metal, assisting in War Bond drives and helping air raid wardens.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 10. What was the ‘D-Day’?
Answer:

‘D-Day’

‘D-Day’ was the Deliverance Day, (June 5, 1944). On that day vast Anglo- American force Ianded at the Normandy coast of northern France by crossing the English Channel. The operation was gigantic. The Military General of U.S.A, Eisenhower took the leadership.

One thousand Anglo-American air crafts conducted a massive dropping of Allied air-troopers behind the German lines by parachute. Nearly 11 thousand warplanes were ready for their defence. Four thousand Allied naval ships and thousands of land forces joined. Caught between the Allied army in the

front and at the back, the Germans became bewildered. The superior Allied forces captured Toulon, Marseilles, Nice, Lyons and the German airfields in France. They liberated Paris from foreign occupation on April 25, 1944. The Allied army then proceeded towards Germany.

Question 11. What were the main theatres of the Second World War?
Answer:

The Second World War began in 1939 and ended in 1945 after lasting for six years. Around 60 countries were involved in this violent war. The war was fought on the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Pacific, and in four major land campaigns—in the Soviet Union, North Africa and the Mediterranean, western Europe, and the Far East.

The main theatres of the war were:

(1) The Russian Theatre or Eastern Theatre
(2) The Mediterranean Theatre
(3) The African Theatre
(4) The Pacific Theatre
(5) The Asian Theatre
(6) Arctic and Atlantic Theatre.

Question 12. When was the Potsdam Conference held? Name the countries which took part in the Potsdam Conference. What was decided in the Potsdam Conference?
Answer:

The Potsdam Conference was held in 1945. The countries which took part in the Potsdam Conference were Russia, America and Britain.

At the Potsdam Conference, it was decided:

(1) Germany was to be divided into four zones, namely American, Soviet, French and British.

(2) Like Germany, its capital Berlin was also to be divided into four zones.

(3) Berlin would be placed under a council named ‘Allied Kommandatura’.

(4) Though Germany was divided into four zones, it was to be treated as a single economic unit.

(5) The Allied Control Council would be formed to supervise the working of Germany as a single economic unit.

(6) Germany would undergo the ‘Five Ds’ (demilitarization, deindustrialisation, decentralisation, democratization and denazification).

Question 13. Write a note on the evolution of internationalism after the Second World War.
Answer:

Evolution of internationalism after the Second World War

The destructive effect of the Second World War (1939-45) opened the eyes of different countries of the world. They realised that peace and cooperation could not be established without mutual cooperation and trust. They also realised that war was not the ultimate means to solve problems.

The international peace organisation   The League of Nations which was established after the First World War collapsed before the selfish motives of different nations. International cooperation failed in the field of politics and the Second World War broke out in 1939. After the Second World War, different nations again realised the importance and necessity of mutual cooperation.

They decided to solve their problems through peaceful meetings so that the damage of war might be removed forever and peace might be established among different nations of the world. The United Nations Organisation (U.N.O) was established in 1945 the sole aim of which was to maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations and international cooperation.

Question 14. What were the factors that helped in speeding up the collapse of imperialism after the Second World War?
Answer:

The factors that helped in speeding up the collapse of imperialism after the Second World War

After the Second World War, there have been vast political, economic and social changes in every part of the world. Within about 25 years of the end of the Second World War, most countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America which had been under imperialist rule, won their freedom.

The rise of nationalism and the growth of nationalist movements in Asia and Africa increased rapidly. The Second World War had, besides destroying fascism, weakened the imperialist countries of Europe.

Many of these countries had themselves taken victim to fascist aggression. For example, three imperialist countries of Europe France, Belgium and Holland (The Netherlands) had been under German occupation during the war. Their military power as well as economies had been shattered during the war.

The main factors of the collapse of imperialism were as below :

(1) Setting up of socialist Governments in Eastern Europe under the rule of Communist parties

(2) Serious internal problems

(3) Imperialism no longer was considered a mark of superior civilization

(4) Imperialism associated with injustice and exploitation

(5) Dominant ideas of self-determination, national sovereignty and equality

(6) Cooperation in international relations

(7) Growth of solidarity among the freedom movements of different countries. Each country’s freedom movement supported the freedom struggle in other countries.

(8). The United Nations also has been a major force in promoting the process which has brought about the ending of imperialism.

Class 9 WBBSE History Chapter 6 Important Questions

Question 15. What is the composition and role of the General Assembly in the U.N.O? What is the function of the. Security Council?
Answer:

(1) Composition:

(1) All members of the UN send representatives to the General Assembly
(2) Important decisions, budgetary matters, and admission of members are taken by 2/3 majority of the members.
(3) The General Assembly meets every year on the 3rd Tuesday of September

(2) Functions:

(1) To discuss everything relating to international peace and security
(2) To make recommendations on the maintenance of peace and security
(3) To see the working of other agencies and organs
(4) To consider and approve the U.N. budget

Functions of the Security council:

(1) To maintain international peace
(2) To investigate disputes and make recommendations about solving them
(3) Take military action against the aggressors

16. When was the Yatla Conference held? Name three prominent leaders who attended it. Name any two military alliances which came into being as a consequence of the Cold War.
Answer:

The Yatla Conference was held in 1945. The three prominent leaders were US President Roosevelt, the British P.M. Churchill and the Soviet Premier Stalin. NATO, Warsaw Pact were two military alliances which came into being as a consequence of the Cold War.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 17. What were the Internal Policies of Mussolini?
Answer:

The internal policies of Mussolini are as follows :

(1) Mussolini and the Working class: Fascism opposed the Marxian theory of class struggle. It believed in the harmony of capital and labour. To gain the support of workingmen, it undertook social changes and established a ‘corporate State’.

In 1926, non-Fascist trade unions and all strikes were banned. ‘Syndicates’ were organised of thirteen members—six of employers, six of employees and one of professional men. Under these were tribunals to settle labour disputes. The working hours in the day were fixed at eight. The employers were to contribute to the insurance of the workers against illness, accidents and old age.

(2) Mussolini and the Catholics: Mussolini won the support of the Italian Catholics by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 with Pope Pius XI. It was like the Concordat of Napoleon. It recognised the independence of the Pope in the Papal States. However, soon differences arose on the questions of schools and youth organisations.

(3) Education: The system of education was based upon regimentation. The youths were indoctrinated with Fascist ideologies, nationalism and militarism. The army was increased by conscription and its equipment improved.

(4) Public Works: For patriotic reasons as well as the solution to the unemployment problems, the government fostered a great variety of public works. Mussolini aimed at economic self-sufficiency for Italy. Ancient monuments were repaired and modern improvements were made. Marshes were drained. Railways and huge steamships were built. An electric power plant was constructed.

(5) International Relations : Fascism was a disruptive force in international relations, for it glorified war. In ranting speeches, Mussolini praised war and the war like virtues of the ItaliAnswer: He followed a policy of agressive imperialism. In 1935 Mussolini defied the League and occupied Abyssinia.

In 1936, the ‘Berlin- Rome Axis’ came into being directed against Russia. In the same year Japan, Germany and Italy together made the Anti-Commintern Pact to fight communism. In 1939 when the Second World War began Mussolini joined the Axis and ultimately brought disaster to Italy and to himself.

Question 18. What was the impact of the World War II on contemporary world history?
Answer:

Impact of the Second World War on Contemporary World History: Despite all the suffering and loss of life and materials the Second World War was of profoundly important consequences. e As pointed out by A. J. P.

Taylor, despite all the killing and destructions that accompanied it, ‘the Second World War was a good war’. With the defeat of the Axis powers, the world was relieved of the destructiveness of Fascism. The conflict also brought about certain indirect benefits. Great advances were made in science and in state planning.

In Britain, for example, guidelines were issued for the creation of a Welfare State and state socialism. Even the invention of nuclear weapons with all their potential evils has in the long run proved beneficial to mankind. By multiplying man’s power to destroy his own kind, they have made the consequences of another war so horrifying that they have been an effective instrument for the prevention of war.

It thus contributed to peace. As the destruction of material assets was enormous, Europe seemed destined for some years to endure poverty and starvation. In contrast, the USA appeared immensely strong as rejuvenated.

Out of the Second World War emerged two superpowers, namely the USA and the Soviet Union. It became clear after 1945 the two superpowers would enjoy a predominant influence in world affairs.

One of the most important changes that took place after 1945 that was the growth in the number of new, independent states, most of them in Asia and Africa. The colonial empires of Britain and France disappeared. In their place new nations, such as India, Pakistan, Algeria, Nigeria and a host of independent countries emerged.

Question 19. Write about the technological changes in war weaponry during the Second World War.
Answer:

Technological Changes in War Weaponry During the Second World War: Technology played a crucial role in the course of the World War Il in determining its course and outcome. In the beginning, the soldiers fought with technology that had remained mostly unchanged from World War I.

However, within six years, between 1939 and 1945, technology was rapidly adavancing by leaps and bounds. Scientists were engaged by the both sides for the improvement in the technology in the war weaponry. In the European scenario of the World War II air attacks became crucial throughout the war.

It was possible for the German armies to overrun Western Europe with great speed in 1940 due to the use of sophisticated aircrafts of improved technology. The Soviet JS-3 or the German Panther tank outclassed the best tanks used in the initial stage of the war.

In the navy the battleship, long seen as a dominant element of sea power was displaced by the technological innovation of the aircraft carrier.

The amphibious tanks, amphibious trucks, Higgins boat and many others were the new generation of weaponry developed for use during the war. These are some of the war weaponries developed as a result of the technological changes that took place during the period of the war.

The most dreaded and deadly weapon invented and devised causing massive destruction during the World War II, however, was the Atom Bomb, and henceforth, our age has come to be called the Nuclear Age.

Question 20. The fundamental cause of World War II must be sought in the Treaty of Versailles – Discuss.
Answer:

The fundamental cause of World War II must be sought in the Treaty of Versailles

(1) The Treaty of Versailles has been called ’a dictated Treaty’ which was imposed upon vanquished Germany by the victorious Allied Powers. The delegates of Germany were not invited to the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and the treaty was a revengeful treaty.

(2) The treaty did not adhere to the principle of self-determination. The right of self-determination was not applied for Sudetenland which was transferred to Czechoslovakia. It led to a loss of balance of power in Europe.

(3) While England and France increased their colonies, German colonies were confiscated in the name of good government.

(4) The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were taken away from Germany and were given back to France. The Saar Valley on the western frontier of Germany was handed over to France for fifteen years, after which the fate of the region was to be settled by a plebiscite. The port of Danzig was also snatched away from the possession of Germany.

(5) Germany was saddled with a huge reparation amount by the Treaty which was impossible for her to pay.

(6) The German bared of staff or general of the army was dissolved. Germany had to surrender her fleet to the Allies. According to Wilson’s Fourteen Points, it was decided that all the states would reduce their war armaments. But this clause was only applied to Germany.

Humiliated Germany was looking forward to another war as an opportunity to avenge her defeat. So it is said that the fundamental cause of World War I] must be sought in the Treaty of Versailles.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 21. How did the failure of the League of Nations constitute a cause of the Second World War?
Answer:

The terrible effects of the First World War (1914-13) had stunning effects on the minds of the people and made them cry for peace. President Wilson of America took the initiative and made a plan for the League of Nations which was established in 1920, the primary object of which was to prevent armed conflict. Many international problems arose after the First World War.

At first, the problems were comparatively easy and the League of Nations was able to solve some of them by peaceful methods. But the League’s inability to control the Great Powers became quite evident in the thirties which constituted a cause of the Second World War.

In 1931 when Japan swallowed Manchuria the League did not adopt any penal measure against Japan, and the grievances of China remained unredressed. Encouraged by the failure of the League the autocrats of different countries also started aggression totally ignoring the League of Nations.

In 1935 Italy, under the dictatorship of Mussolini, invaded and occupied Ethiopia (Abyssinia) in Africa. Ethiopia complained to the League and a decision was made by the League Council for enforcement of economic sanctions against Italy.

But Italy did not obey the League’s order and resigned from the League of Nations. During the Spanish Civil War, the League was unable to adopt effective measures to restore peace in Spain and to prevent external intervention.

Franco became victorious and this added to German confidence. For this reason, the Spanish Civil War is regarded as the stage rehearsal for the Second World War. The failure of the League made Hitler and Mussolini bolder.

Immediately after the assumption of dictatorial power Hitler withdrew Germany from the Disarmament Conference in 1933 and from the League of Nations. Within a few years, Hitler swallowed Austria and Czechoslovakia (1938- 39) and invaded Poland in 1939.

The invasion of Poland by Germany was the signal for the outbreak of the Second World War. In no case could the League of Nations prevent or restrict Hitler’s aggressions. Thus the failure of the League of Nations in different international disputes constitute a cause of the Second World War.

Question 22. Discuss the role of the U.S.A. in the Second World War.
Answer:

The role of the U.S.A. in the Second World War

The U.S.A. followed a policy of neutrality towards international politics after the First World War. She did not join the Second World War and kept herself aloof from the war. But when Japan attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbour on 7 December 1941, the U.S.A. joined the war.

(1) Deviation from the path of neutrality: During World War II, the U.S.A. was sympathetic towards the Allied powers. In 1939 the American legislature allowed the U.S.A. to help the Western democratic states and sell arms and ammunition to them.

This policy was known as the ‘Cash and Carry Policy’. It was a policy to preserve neutrality while aiding the Allies. It allowed the sale of arms, ammunition and war materials to belligerents (countries engaged in war) as long as the recipients arranged for transportation using their own ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risk in transportation. !

(2) System of conscription: In the U.S.A a system of conscription was introduced. According to this, all youths in the age group between 21 and 31 were obliged to join the army.

(3) Land Lease Act: The American Senate enacted the Land Lease Act in March 1941 and allowed the US Government to offer warships, warplanes and other weapons to the Allied Powers to fight against fascism. U.S.A became the arsenal of democracy.

(4) Incident of Pearl Harbour :

Japan attacked the American fleet at Pearl Harbour in the Hawaiian islands on 7 December, 1941with 350 aircraft and wiped out the American planes on the ground there. This incident forced U.S.A to join the Second World War.

Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Describe the rise of Fascist Dictatorship in Italy.
Answer:

The rise of Fascist Dictatorship in Italy

(1) Introduction: In the period following the close of the World War 1, liberalism was in its deathbed. It witnessed the close of the 19th-century liberal democracy and the rise of dictatorships in almost all the countries of Europe—Italy, Germany, Poland, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria and Turkey.

In Russia Czardom was replaced by the totalitarian States of the Communists. In the years after the war the world was faced with the strange phenomenon of dire poverty existing in the midst of unexampled plenty. Laissez-faire had to give place to a planned economy.

(2) Favourable conditions in Italy for the rise of Fascists: Fascists depict that in the years which immediately followed the war of 1914-1918, Italy was in the grip of the post-war slump. It was in the State of economic dislocation which the feeble government under Nitti and Goiliti was unable to deal with.

Distress and disorder was the order of the day. Agriculture was stagnant and hunger led to disturbances, strikes and riots. Italy was in danger of turning communist.

The real discontent in Italy as in Germany, was embitterment of the army politic

They were disappointed with Italian gains in the war. The Fascist Party exploited their discontent and recruited supporters from the war veterans. All this would have subsided, but for the emergence of dynamic personality in the person of Mussolini whose ambition was to become the dictator of Italy.

(3) Benito Mussolini: Benito Mussolini was the son of a socialist blacksmith at Forli. In his early life, he was an elementary school teacher and before the war, a left-wing socialist. He served jail lived in exile and at length, became the editor of the ‘Avanti’ or the official organ of the Italian socialists.

During the war, he became an ultra-patriot and broke away from the socialist party on the issue of Italy’s attitude to the war. He gained the support of the restless demobilized soldiers, dissatisfied workers, youthful intellectuals and groups of frightened businessmen.

(4) Growth of Fascism: The word Fascism was derived from ‘Fascio’ or club which Mussolini organised at Milan in 1919. In the next two years, he gave time and energy to organise a network of similar clubs all over Italy.

In 1921 they were consolidated into a political party with Mussolini at its head. Fascism adopted the symbolism and ceremony of Rome in the days of Caesar. It promised to revive the glories of Imperial Rome. They expected to make the Mediterranean Sea an Italian lake.

Fascists wore black shirts in imitation of Garibaldi’s red shirts. The Black Shirts’ of Mussolini corresponded to Hitler’s ‘Storm Troopers’. With perfect organisation and violence, Fascists gathered momentum during 1921-1922 while its opponents Liberals, Socialists and Catholics were divided and weak.

In October 1922, Mussolini ordered the mobilization of the Black Shirts and Emmanuel III, convinced of the Fascist strength, asked Mussolini to form the ministry.

(5) Mussolini becomes a Dictator : Fascism is a totalitarian concept which glorifies the State and subordinates the individual to it. The Duce or the leader of the Fascist Party controls the political, military and economic institutions of the kingdom. He is the commander of the Fascist militia and presides over the Grand Council of Fascism.

Mussolini emerged as a dominant figure in a totalitarian regime. He forced the terrified Parliament to grant her dictatorial powers. Fascists were speedily put into key positions throughout the country and were given a monopoly on propaganda.

Socialists were suppressed and their strikes stopped. Strict censorship was forceful and police measures set up a veritable reign of terror. Opponents were imprisoned or exiled. Critics were silenced.

Between the years 1925 and 1929 Mussolini consolidated his dictatorship. Political parties other than the Fascists were banned. Mussolini was authorised to initiate legislation and appoint local officials. The electoral law wase changed to a mere ‘yes’ or ‘no’ vote on a list of Fascist candidates.

The Second World War And Its Aftermath Class 9 WBBSE Summary

Question 2. What are the achievements of Mussolini?
Answer:

(1) Mussolini’s achievements: Fascism, as organised by Mussolini, set before itself three definite aims :

Exaltation of the state, protection of private property, and a strong foreign policy which would rehabilitate Italy’s position as a great power. The movement began as an impulse towards law and order and sought to safeguard existing institutions against the destructive influences of Bolshevism.

But as it progressed, it developed a philosophy. It claimed to be a spiritual movement aiming at re-vivifying the Italian soul in terms of duty to the Italian state. It thus became the essence of nationalism and stood for the grandeur that was ancient Rome.

Fascism achieved much for Italy. It restored the nation’s confidence in itself and made the administration of Government efficient in every respect. Mussolini balanced the budget, stabilised the currency, and adjusted the difference between labour and capital so that the two should act as partners under the supervision of the state.

Fascism encouraged economic self-sufficiency and efforts were made to reduce the country’s dependence upon foreign imports of wheat, cotton and tobacco.

Energetic measures were taken to develop Italy’s share of grid shipping and tourist traffic. Education was encouraged by increasing the number of schools by enforcing laws for compulsory school attendance.

One of Mussolini’s outstanding achievements was the settlement of the long-standing dispute with the Papacy. By the Lateran Treaty of 1929, the Pope recognised the Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy, with Rome as its capital.

The Italian state, on the other hand, recognised the Pope as a sovereign power in the Vatican and indemnified him for the loss of his temporal possessions. Along with this treaty, a Concordat was concluded by which the future relations between the State and the Papacy were defined.

The result of this pact was to secure for the State the unstinted support of the Church and thereby to remove one of the causes which had largely contributed to the weakness of the Italian Government.

The Italians would no longer have to choose between their loyalty to the state and obedience to their religious head. They could be good citizens as well as good Catholics. Like Bonapartism, Fascism made political use of religion and saw in it a valuable aid to authority and a stabilising force against social upheaval.

Thus under the Fascist regime Italy was saved from disorder and anarchy and she came to occupy a commanding position in Europe. But these advantages were secured at a price, namely, political liberty.

Fascist rule is frankly autocratic, in which there is no room for popular sovereignty. Parliament was not abolished, but the electoral system was so altered as to ensure Fascist predominance with the result that Parliament was reduced to the humble position of an advisory council.

The Press was rigidly censored and freedom of meeting and speech severely restricted. Opposition to Fascism was severely punished, and anybody not believing in its creed was open to suspicion and subject to surveillance.

The murder of a socialist member of Parliament in 1924 showed the new regime at its worst. Fascism tolerates no difference of opinion. Mussolini was, in theory, the premier of a constitutional sovereign, but in fact he was a dictator.

(2) Fascist Foreign Policy: One of the fundamental articles of the Fascist faith was the raising of Italian prestige in the eyes of foreign nations. The Fascists glorified war as a symbol of national virility. Hence Mussolini aimed at reviving the prestige of ancient Rome and securing for Italy the position of a world power.

At the peace conference, the Allies had neglected Italy in the distribution of mandates and so Mussolini sought to rectify this wrong by adopting a vigorous policy of colonial expansion.

He turned his eyes to Tunisia and Corsica which were French possessions, and maintained that Italy had a better right to them. Besides, the two countries were competing for control of the Western Mediterranean and for superiority in naval armaments. Mussolini’s bellicose utterances put a severe strain on Franco-Italian relations for a time and pretended a crisis.

This was, however, averted and Mussolini turned to Eastern Europe for expansion. He secured for Italy the Dodecanese islands and definitely acquired Fiume in 1924. Italy’s relations with Yugoslavia also became more and more strained as the latter, prompted by irredentist movements, wanted to acquire a large portion of Dalmatia from Italy.

The Italo-Yugoslav quarrel was in essence a struggle for the control of the Adriatic. This struggle was further intensified when Mussolini conquered Albania from King Zogin in 1939.

But the most spectacular of Mussolini‘s achievements was the conquest of Ethiopia. He wanted to wipe off the humiliation of Italian defeat at Adqwa at the hands of the Abyssinians in 1896.

But the real cause was that Italy needed colonies to enhance her prestige and to find more room and more food for her growing population. Hence, Mussolini took advantage of some border “incidents” at Walwal to attack Abyssinia in 1935.

Its king Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations for arbitration, which promptly declared. Italy to be the aggressor. Mussolini, however, defied the League, conquered Abyssinia and proclaimed King Victor Emmanuel as the Emperor of Ethiopia (1936).

After this war Italy drew closer to Germany and became estranged from France and Britain. Mussolini came to an understanding with Hitler and thus arose what was called the Rome-Berlin Axis. When the Second World War broke out and the power of France collapsed, Mussolini joined Germany and declared war on Britain and France (1940).

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 3. Why did Japan join the Second World War?
Answer:

(1) Japan’s pre-war policy: Japan’s attack on Manchuria in 1931 was a serious blow at the League of Nations and also at the system of balance of powers which has been established at the Washington Conference in 1921. Japan’s aggression against China began anew in 1937. This Sino-Japanese war merged into the Second World War in 1941 and came to close with the fall of Japan in 1945.

Japan joined the Anti-Commintern Pact with Germany in 1939. Her main purpose was to keep the Western powers far away from China, which she wanted to bring within her grip, and so she wanted to convince them that she was like Germany a sworn enemy of communism. The relations between Tokyo and Berlin cooled off when Hitler concluded the Non-aggression Pact with Stalin in 1939.

After the fall of France, which Japan took as a spectacular demonstration of Hitler’s power, she joined the Berlin-Rome Axis, thus converting it into the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis (1940). But her real interest lay in Asia where she was afraid of Russian attack. So Japan concluded a Neutrality Pact with the Soviet Union a few months before her own surprise attack on the United States at Pearland! Harbour on December 7, 1941.

(2) Why Japan joined World War II: The outbreak of war in Europe in 1939 provided Japan a fresh opportunity to “carrying her mission and fulfilling her special responsibilities in Eastern Asia”

The resistance of China under Chiang Kai-Shek had spoiled the Japanese plans for the satisfaction of their political, economic and nationalistic aspirations. The fall of France (1940) opened new prospects for Japan’s political and economic expansion in Southeast Asia. The concept of ‘Greater East Asia’ under Japanese hegemony emerged immediately after the fall of France.

By the Tripartite Pact of 1940 (Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis), Germany and Italy “recognised and respected the leadership of Japan in the establishment of a new or in Greater East.Asia.” The treaty was in no way to affect the existing relations between the three contracting parties and the Soviet Union.

Obviously, the alliance was aimed at the United States. This became quite clear when Japan signed its Treaty of Neutrality with the Soviet Union in 1941.

Strengthened her alliance with Germany, Japan secured from the French authorities in Indo-China, who were loyal to the Vichlo Government sponsored by Hitler after the fall of France, important concessions including the occupation of territory and setting up of naval and air bases.

Japan also tried to extend its control to Siam (Thailand). These aggressive measures were inconsistent with the policy of the United States.

It was officially declared by Washington that any Japanese action against Thailand would cause the United States great concern. At the same time, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill issued a joint declaration, known as the Atlantic Charter stating the general principles of post-war political reconstruction.

Despite definite warnings from Washington and London the Japanese continued their military preparations. In Japan, Konoe as Prime Minister (1941) was somewhat moderate towards America, Japan’s principal rival.

Roosevelt was willing to meet with Konoe, but Hull, the U.S. Secretary of State, insisted that any compromise with Japan would sanction aggression, while negotiations for an American-Japanese agreement were going on, the Japanese made a surprise attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbour (Hawaii) where a large portion of the American navy was at anchor (December 7, 1941). Thus Japan struck the first blow, she brought the war to the Far East and dragged the United States into formal war.

(3) Japan’s war aims: Japan’s primary concerns were Asian. From 1938, Japan’s problem was how to settle the mess in China. A second problem was Soviet Russia. A third problem was the United State’s navy in the Pacific, which was a threat to Japan‘s navy. A fourth area of Japanese concern was South-East Asia rich in raw materials.

The key to Japan’s war aim is to be found in her plea that she had a mission as also ‘special responsibilities’ in Eastern Asia. She claimed a special position in China. In the years preceding the Second World War, she had occupied two Chinese provinces— Manchuria and Jehol — and established puppet regimes in inner Mongolia and Hopei. Japan‘s original imperialism centred around China. During the thirties, Japan had spelled out her China programme.

As a small country with an expanding population, she wanted colonial territory. The militarists wanted a forward policy for glory and the nationalists were dazzled by the vision of a great Japan.

As early as 1936, Japan had submitted her terms to China on the basis of Japan’s guardianship. Hitler’s occupation of France and Holland and the isolation of Britain exposed the French Dutch and English colonial possessions in South-East Asia to Japanese ambition. Japan coveted the rubber, oil, tin and rice which this region produced in abundance.

She proposed to create ‘a new order’ and a ‘co-prosperity sphere’, but her triumphal march through Indo-China, Indonesia, Malaya and Burma proved that was a merciless exploiter rather than a generous liberator of Asiatic peoples from Western Colonialism.

The desire to dominate the whole of East Asia—to exploit this vast region politically and economically—was the key to Japanese policy during the Second World War.

Question 4. Briefly narrate the fall of Italy in the World War II.
Answer:

Fall of Italy in the World War II

For many months after the fall of France in June 1940, fighting between the belligerents was confined to North and East Africa. In August 1940 the Italians seized British Somaliland. The Italian attack on Egypt opened in September.

In December 1940, the British in Egypt, under General Wavell, counter-attacked and took 1,30,000 prisoners. Between January and May 1941, the British troops overwhelmed the Italian garrisons in Somaliland, Eritrea and Ethiopia and restored Haile Selassie to the throne.

Meanwhile, in March 1941, the Germans shipped men and materials under an experienced tank commander, General Rommel, to the assistance of the Italians. Within less than a month the Allies were ousted from Libya, except for the garrison in Tobruk, held out until relieved in November by General Sir Claude Auchinleck.

In May 1942 Rommel embarked on a new full-scale offensive. In June he captured Tobruk and advanced to El Alamein, only sixty miles west of Alexandria.

The advance of the Axis forces under Rommel posed a great threat to the Suez Canal. Churchill dismissed Auchinleck and put General Montgomery in command of the Eighth Army. Montgomery re-equipped the troops with new and heavier tanks sent from the United States.

The decisive battle of El Alamein was fought in October 1942. One thousand massed guns opened with an intense barrage. The British armoured tanks advanced. Unable to break through, Rommel ordered a general retreat.

He lost some 60,000 men, 500 tanks and 1000 guns. Within a few weeks, Tobruk and Benghazi were again occupied by the British. In January 1943 Tripoli fell and the Allied forces were within striking distance of Tunis, the gateway to Italy.

Meanwhile, the Anglo-American forces under General Dwight Eisenhower landed in Morocco and Algeria on November 8, 1942. The Allies hoped to close in on Tunis before German reinforcements could be concentrated there.

During January and February 1943 powerful attacks were launched against American forces along the Algeria-Tunisia border. But by early March they had checked the assault and affected a junction with the British forces under Montgomery on April 7.

On May 5, the Allies won a decisive victory. More than 2,50,000 Germans and Italians were taken prisoner. It was a decisive Axis defeat as within a week the entire Axis forces in Africa surrendered. It made possible the next steps — an attack by the Allies upon the Balkans and upon Italy and was the prelude to the collapse of Mussolini’s regime.

The invasion of Italy began in early July. On July 9, 1943, the Allied forces numbering about 13 divisions, landed on the coast of Sicily and quickly overcame the Italian defence. On July 25, 1943, King Victor Emmanuel dismissed Mussolini and took him into custody. The King entrusted the Government to Marshal Badoglio who opened secret negotiations with the Allies.

On September 3, Badoglio signed an armistice, amounting to unconditional surrender. The Allies crossed from Sicily to the Italian mainland. Despite the resistance of the Germans, the Allied forces captured Naples by October 1. Meanwhile, the Nazis had freed Mussolini from prison and the latter set up a puppet Fascist republic. At last on June 4, 1944, the Allied forces entered Rome.

WBBSE Class 9 History And Environment Chapter 6 Solved Exercises

Question 5. What were the political consequences of the Second World War?
Answer:

The political consequences of the Second World War are

The political consequences of the war were immense. The immediate consequence was the disappearance of the German State. In accordance with the decisions reached at Yalta, Germany was divided into four zones, to be occupied and administered by Britain, France, the Soviet Union and the United States.

The Soviet zone would cover the eastern part of the country, while the western part would comprise zones for Britain, the United States and France.

In each zone, authority was vested in the military commander of the occupying power, and the four commanders together constituted a ‘Control Council’ for Germany as a whole. Berlin was divided into four sectors as occupied by four powers.

Each power behaved in its own way in its own zone presaging the division of Germany into the German Democratic and German Federal Republic.

Germany had to suffer great territorial losses, Russia getting the northern part, East Prussia including Konigsberg and Poland obtaining Danzig, Upper and Lower Silesia, eastern Brandenburg, most of Pomerania, and a southern strip of East Prussia.

In addition, Aloace-Lorraine was restored to France; Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium; the Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia Austria was detached and divided into zones for Allied military occupation, and the Saar basin was put under French control.

Russia emerged from the war with enlarged territory. Apart from retaining all the territory – Karelia, the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Polish White Russia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, acquired as a result of the German-Soviet Pact, she added East Prussia and Ruthenia, East Germany, Austria, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Rumania and Bulgaria. In Asia, she added the Kurile Islands, South Sakhalin, Dairen and Port Arthur. Russia showed tremendous resilience after the war.

The Second World War diminished Britain’s strength and crippled her economic resources. France had to suffer much during four years of Nazi occupation and in the difficult months after liberation.

The situation was made worse by unusually severe winters in 1945-46 and 1946-47. The existence of various political groups and activities of the communists weakened France. The difficulty was increased by De Gaulle’s resignation on January 20, 1946.

It was not until the establishment of the second parliament of the Fourth Republic that France could become politically stable. Italy became a Republic (1946) with no overseas colonies, impoverished, but able to recover economically.

The Second World War shifted the balance of power. Out of the war emerged two great world powers the United States and the Soviet Russia. Both had been strong states before the war, but in the years that immediately followed it they became the arbiters of the international events.

In the struggle between two ideologies democracy and communism, the latter emerged with remarkable strength. During 1946-47 the Governments of Poland, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria Albania, Rumania, Flungary, and Czechoslovakia were converted, step by step, into virtual communist dictatorships. Democratic monarchies were restored in Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium.

The divisions of the world into two ideologies led to significant new political alignments. During the war Britain, France, Russia, China and the United States were allied against Germany, Italy and Japan. Not long after the war almost complete reversal of alignment took place.

The United States came to lean heavily on the support of West Germany, Japan and Italy. Conversely, Russia, Communist China, and their allies became another bloc.

Thus, the post-war world saw a growing tension among the Allies, between East and West, and more specifically between Russia and the United States. To counteract communism, the Western responses were the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).

The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet rejoinder. Thus old conflicts subsided into new discords and the result was not peace but a ‘cold war’. After the Second World War, a third force emerged which refused to join either of the two sides in the Cold War. India became one of the two important leaders of the uncommitted or non-aligned powers, most of which were Afro-Asian.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 6. What was Hitler’s contribution to the origin of World War II?
Answer:

Hitler’s Policy Aggression: When Hitler assumed supreme power in 1934, he made no secret of his intentions. He meant to reverse the verdict of Versailles, redeem Germany’s honour and establish her unchallenged dominance in Europe.

At first, he proceeded with caution. In March 1935 he introduced conscription and began to rearm openly on a large scale in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. In March 1936 Hitler occupied the demilitarised Rhineland.

In November 1936 Germany and Japan signed an Anti-Commintern Pact. In 1937 Italy joined the Pact and thus was formed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. In November 7937 Hitler announced that Germany’s basic need was greater living space to be attained only through military conquest.

In March 1938 Hitler marched troops on Austria and annexed it. Thereafter Hitler demanded Sudetenland, a portion of Czechoslovakia where three million Germans lived. The situation seemed ripe for the outbreak of a war.

But Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, was opposed to war. He seemed ready to believe that by permitting Germany to annex Sudetenland Hitler would be appeased and there would be no war. At the Munich Pact (October 1, 1938), Hitler got a free hand to annex the Sudetenland. But it was only six months afterwards, Hitler conquered the whole of Czechoslovakia.

Hitler’s Demand on Poland: On March 27, 1929, Hitler seized Memel, a port of Lithuania. In April, Italy occupied Albania. Simultaneously, Hitler demanded from Poland Danzig and the narrow corridor that separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany.

This was too much for Chamberlain. On March 31, he guaranteed Polish independence and France did likewise. On April 5, Poland accepted the Franco-British guarantee as a mutual obligation.

As the situation worsened, Britain introduced conscription. On May 22, 1939, was signed a ten-year alliance between Italy and Germany, the so-called ‘Pact of Steel’ which provided for immediate military aid in case either signatory became involved in hostilities. Meanwhile, attempts were made, though half-heartedly, by the Western Powers, to draw the Soviet Union with them.

But on August 23, the world was surprised by the news of the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. Events moved swiftly. At dawn, on September 1, 1939, Germany, without declaring war, attacked Poland. Fifty hours later, on September 3, Britain declared war against Germany. France joined the war at once.

Class 9 History The Second World War And Its Aftermath WBBSE Exam Questions

Question 7. Write how democracy was under strain between the two World Wars.
Answer:

Democracy versus Dictatorship: After the end of the First World War the victorious Allies remade Europe under the slogan of ‘self-determination’. It seemed that an age of democracy had dawned.

It was believed that all states were progressing uniformly towards parliamentary politics. In 1920 almost all countries of Europe (except Russia) were under democracy. But surprisingly, after twenty years, prior to the Second World War most European states were dictatorships.

The authoritarian rule of one man and a single party came to be established in those countries. Clearly, democracy was on the back foot. R. J. Overy has said that the apparent decline of progress (democracy) sustained a sense of crisis throughout the inter-war years.

Democracy Under Strain: Before discussing the question of why dictatorship replaced democracy, it is better to know what was meant by the ‘democratic’ state and what were its ideals. The features of democracy include open-minded critical enquiry and ‘mutual regard and compromise’.

The opposition functions as a legitimate partner of the ruling party in the democratic system. Democracy refuses to go by one-party rule and recognizes ‘individual liberty’,

Democracy also envisages the extension of voting rights (suffrage) and stimulating the powers of representative institutions like parliament. Unfortunately, democracy everywhere in Europe soon came under severe strain.

The causes may be described as follows :

(1)Economic crises such as inflation in the post-War Europe. The Great Depression led to tariff barriers and disruption of trade.

(2)Some of the states suffered racial discrimination as a result of conflicting ethnic groups.

(3) Social disruption was caused due to growing hostilities towards the regime of different social classes.

(4) The economic, racial and social crises had a serious impact the political parties in different democracies.

(5) In such a state of affairs what was needed was a stable political framework to restore firm resolve to preserve democracy which was missing.

(6) The trend leading away from democracy was assisted by another defect that existed in some of the new constitutions.

For instance, the Weimar Constitution of Germany gave the President of the Republic emergency powers as and when he needed them. Thus Germany became authoritarian under the Weimar Republic. This made the political atmosphere for the rise of a dictator like Hitler.

(1) It has been pointed out by historian Stephen J. Lee that the weakening of the democracies was also due to the absence of any really popular statesman during the inter-war period. Contrarily, the dictators of the period had tremendous popularity. The masses were tempted by their charisma.

(2) Thus weakness of democracy and the simultaneous emergence of great personalities, who were opposed to democracy, paved the way for the emergence of dictatorship in Europe.

Question 8. What were the causes of the defeat of the Axis Powers in the Second World War?
Answer: In the Second World War (1939-45) the Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) were defeated by the Allied powers (England, France, Russia, U.S.A. and China).

The causes of the defeat of the Axis Powers are as follows: 

(1) The Axis Powers were not equipped for a major world war and could not withstand the combined attack of three advanced nations like Britain, U.S.A. and the Soviet Union.

(2) Germany produced all sorts of wonderful gadgets during World War II—except the one that mattered the atomic bomb. Germany’s nuclear project was disjointed and poorly supported.

(3) Hitler relied on the strength of the German airforce which was outnumbered due to the entry of the U.S.A and the Soviet Union.

(4) The German attackers believed that Soviet Communism was a corrupt and primitive system that would collapse. But the air and tank armies were reorganised and the technology available was hastily modernised to match the GermAnswer

(5) Spain was a member of the Axis Powers during the war, but it never committed troops to the effort. Led by Fascist dictator Francisco Franco, the country steadfastly refused to enter into the thrall.

(6) The Allied Powers who wanted to establish democracy had world sympathy behind them, which the Axis Powers failed to ‘get.

(7) The people of the territories Conquered by the German armies were harshly treated and the Nazis faced opposition from the conquered territories.

(8) Intrigue among the German Generals also contributed to the defeat of Germany.

(9) When U.S.A. joined the war, the power of the Allies exceeded all that Germany, Japan and her allies could summon together and led to the defeat of Germany.

(10) Hitler’s high ambition and dominating nature were also responsible for his failure. He was suspicious and even distrusted his lieutenants like Goering and Himmler, which brought about his downfall.

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist AndMonarchial Ideas Introduction

The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered.

So the leaders who played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met in Vienna (1815) to draw up a new map of Europe. However, the spirit propagated by the French Revolution created problems. The concept of nationalism and nation-state was championed by the people. Thus, a conflict between monarchical and nationalist forces arose.

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The conflict ultimately ended in the triumph of liberalism’s overreaction. The Vienna Settlement (1817) restored the old ruling families to their respective thrones. Moreover, it stood for restoration-revolution conditions but the Vienna Congress completely ignored the will of the common people. The people demanded the right to participate in the government.

Thus the was a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals. In monarchical states like France, Austria, and other countries people launched movements for democratic rights. Suppress nationalities like the Germans, Italians, and Hungarians started movements for the establishment of nation-states. Ultimately democracy was established in France. Italy and Germany emerged as nation-states.

Moreover, the hopes and aspirations of the Christian nationalities in the Balkan region gave rise to complex problems. In 1854, the Crimean War broke out. The Treaty of Paris brought an end to it in 1856 but it failed to resolve the Eastern
Question.

In Russia also revolutionary forces were increasingly activities Czar AlexanderIl passed the Emancipation Statute which generated new socio-political and intellectual forces – this clash with the existing political framework of Czarist
absolutism.

Class 9 English Bliss	Class 9 Life Science
Class 3 English	Class 9 Geography
Class 10 Life Science	Class 9 History
Class 9 History	Class 9 Maths

The nationalist and democratic ideals of the French Revolution influenced the Greeks and they also started ‘their own struggle for freedom. The Greek struggle for independence began with the activities of secret societies. The Greeks ultimately severed themselves from Turkish domination and came to be recognized as an independent state.

Wbbse Solutions For Class 9 History Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century Conflict Of Nationalist And Monarchical Ideas

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas Very Short Answer Type :

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 1. Which countries constituted the Quadruple Alliance?
Answer: The Quadruple Alliance was concluded among England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia.

Question 2. Who was the President and Secretary of the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: Prince Metternich was the President and Von Gentz was the Secretary of the Congress of Vienna.

Question 3. What is the legacy of the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: The Vienna Congress introduced a new epoch and the germs of future development.

Question 4. Who was Polignac?
Answer: Polignac was the ultra-conservative minister of Charles X of France.

5. Who was the king of France when the July Revolution started in 1830?
Answer: Charles X, the younger brother of Louis XVI and Louis XVIII was the King of France when the July Revolution, of 1830 began.

Class 9 English Bliss	Class 9 Life Science
Class 3 English	Class 9 Geography
Class 10 Life Science	Class 9 History
Class 9 History	Class 9 Maths

Question 6. Who wrote ‘Organisation of Labour’?
Answer: Louis Blanc wrote ‘Organisation of Labour’. Its objectives were to organize labor organizations and fight for the right to work.

Question 7. Who popularised in France the maxim of ‘Right Work’?
Answer: Louis Blanc popularised the maxim of ‘Right to work’.

Question 8. Who said, “When France sneezes Europe catches a cold”?
Answer: Prince Metternich, the Prime Minister of Austria.

Question 9. Which year in the history of Europe is known as the Year of Revolutions?
Answer: In Europe, 1848 is known as the Year of Revolutions.

Question 10. Which country of Europe was known as “the Sickman of Europe”?
Answer: Turkey is known as “the Sickman of Europe”.

Question 11. Which was known as the most unnecessary war in the history of Europe?
Answer: Crimean war (1854-1856) is known as the most unnecessary war.

Question 12. “The die is cast and we have made history”- Who said this?
Answer: Count Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, said so. When Austria declared war upon Italy in 1859, Cavour said so because it was his personal triumph to make Austria an aggressor.

Question 13. Name the makers of Italian unification.
Answer: Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel II were the makers of the Italian unification.

Question 14. Name the Pope who helped to unite the Italian unification.
Answer: Pope Pius IX helped to unite Italian unification.

Question 15. What is the name of the Prussian Parliament?
Answer: Diet is the name of the Prussian Parliament.

Question 16. When was Bismarck appointed the Chancellor of Prussia?
Answer: In 1862 Bismarck was appointed the Chancellor of Prussia.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 17. Who said Germany was too narrow for Austria and Prussia?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck said that Germany was too narrow for Austria and Prussia.

Question 18. Which war is known as the Seven Weeks War?
Answer: Austro-Prussian war, of 1866 is known as the Seven Weeks War.

Question 19. With which war the battle of Sadowa or the battle of Koniggratz is associated?
Answer: The battle of Sadowa is associated with the Austro—Prussian war.

Question 20. When did the Franco-Prussian war break out? By which treaty did the war come to an end?
Answer: In 1870 the Franco-Prussian war broke out In 1871. The treaty of Frankfurt, came to an end.

Question 21. When did the Second Empire of France come to an end?
Answer: In 1871 the Second Empire of France came to an end.

Question 22. What were the most important results of the Franco-Prussian war?
Answer: The Franco-Prussian war laid out two important results. In Germany, Italy, and France completely undid the work of the Congress of Vienna.

Class 9 History Europe In The 19th Century Solutions Wbbse

Question 23. With which war the battle of Sedan is associated? What is its importance?
Answer:
Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871) :
The war helped to complete the unification of Germany.

Question 24. Who was the first Emperor of the United German Empire?
Answer: William I was the first Emperor of united Germany.

Question 25. Who was known as the Czar Liberator?
Answer: Czar Alexander II of Russia is known as the Czar Liberator.

Question 26. By which treaty was the Austro-Prussian war concluded?
Answer: Austro-Prussian war was concluded by the Treaty of Prague in 1866.

Question 27. Who wrote the novel ‘Fathers and sons’ which expressly defined the creed of Nihilism?
Answer: Turgenev’s ‘Fathers and sons’ expressly defined the creed of Nihilism.

Question 28. Who said, “Germany is a satiated power”?
Answer: Bismarck said that Germany is a satiating power.

Question 29. What was Bismarck’s attitude towards England?
Answer: Bismarck carefully kept England out of his European system.

Question 30. When was Bismarck, the Pilot of the German Empire, dropped?
Answer: In 1890.

Question 31. Who was known as the ‘Iron Chancellor’?
Answer: Bismarck.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 32. What was the ordained principle of Kaiser William II’s foreign policy?
Answer: Kaizer William II sought to make Germany a world power.

Question 33. Who inaugurated the new era of Welt Politik (World Policy) for Germany?
Answer: Kaiser William II inaugurated the new era of welt-Politik in Germany.

Question 34. What was the name of United Moldavia and Wallachia?
Answer: Rumania.

Question 35. What was the greatest demerit of the Treaty of Berlin of 1878?
Answer: The Treaty of Berlin (1878) ignored the sentiments of the people of Berlin.

Question 36. What are the modern ideals born of the French Revolution?
Answer: The modern ideals born of the French Revolution are nationalism, liberalism, and democracy.

Question 37. Which period is known as the Age of Metternich?
Answer: 1815-1848 is known as the Age of Metternich.

Question 38. Which dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy?
Answer: The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy.

Question 39. Name the King who was restored to the throne of France according to the ‘Principle of Legitimacy’.
Answer: The King who was restored to the throne of France according to the Principle of Legitimacy, was Louis XVIII.

Question 40. Who were the members of the Concert of Europe?
Answer: The members of the Concert of Europe were Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England.

Question 41. What was the objective of the Principle of Legitimacy of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The objective of the Principle of Legitimacy of the Vienna Congress was to bring back the original ruling dynasties which used to rule in different parts of Europe before the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Wbbse Class 9 History Chapter 3 Questions And Answers

Question 42. What was the objective of the Principle of Balance of Powers of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The objective of the Principle of Balance of Powers of the Vienna Congress was to reconstitute the map of Europe in such a way that one state could not beat another in the race for power.

Question 43. What was the objective of the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The objective of the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress was to reward those powers which played an important part in the defeat of Napoleon with
the possession of different territories.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 44. Name the countries which were benefitted from the Principle of Compensation.
Answer:
The countries which were benefitted from the Principle of Compensation were:
(1) Austria
(2) Russia
(3) Prussia and
(4) England.

Question 45. What is the ‘Concert of Europe’?
Answer: The Big Four–Austria, Prussia, England, and Russia devised a system known as the ‘Concert of Europe’ to maintain the political arrangement made in the Vienna
Congress and to ensure peace in Europe.

Question 46. Who were the Big Four at the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: The Big Four at the Congress of Vienna were Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England.

Question 47. When did the July Revolution break out in France?
Answer: The July Revolution broke out in France in 1830.

Question 48. Name the countries where the impact of the July Revolution was felt.
Answer: The impact of the July Revolution was felt in Germany, Belgium, Poland, Spain, Portugal, and England.

Question 49. Name the countries which were inspired by the success of the July Revolution.
Answer: The countries which were inspired by the success of the July Revolution were Belgium, Poland, Portugal, Spain, England, ‘Italy, and Germany.

Question 50. Name two leaders of the July Revolution.
Answer: Two leaders of the July Revolution were Thiers and Lafayette.

Question 51. Who issued the ‘July Ordinance and when?
Answer: The July Ordinance was issued by the French emperor Charles X in 1830 (25th July).

Question 52. Name the Bourbon king who was overthrown by the July Revolution in France.
Answer: The Bourbon king who was overthrown by the July Revolution in France was Charles X.

Question 53. Who was Polignac?
Answer: Polignac was the minister of the French King Charles X, who issued arbitrary ordinances like restricting the freedom of the press, diminishing the number of electors
and curbing the voting rights of the people.

Question 54. Which year is known as the ‘Year of Revolutions’ and why?
Answer: The year 1848 is known as the ‘Year of Revolutions’ because of the revolution which broke out in 1848 in France expedited national movements in 15 European
countries.

Question 55. What was the period of the ‘July Monarchy’?
Answer: The period of the July Monarchy was 1830-1848.

Question 56. Name the countries which were influenced by the February Revolution.
Answer: The countries that were influenced by the February Revolution were Germany, Italy, Austria, Hungary, Denmark, Netherlands, etc.

Question 57. In which year Louis Napoleon declared himself the ‘Emperor of France’?
Answer: In 1852 Louis Napoleon declared himself the Emperor of France.

Question 58. Which country stood in the way of unity and democracy in Italy?
Answer: Austria stood in the way of unity and democracy in Italy.

Question 59. Name the leaders who played the most important part in the unification of Italy.
Answer: The leaders who played the most important part in the unification of Italy were Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 60. Which treaty ended the Battle of Sadowa?
Answer: The Battle of Sadowa ended with the treaty of Prague. 5

Question 61. In which year and by whom was the Battle of Sedan fought?
Answer: The Battle of Sedan was fought in 1870 between Prussia and France.

Question 62. In which year and by whom was the Battle of Sadowa fought?
Answer: The Battle of Sadowa was fought in 1866 between Prussia and Austria.

Question 63. In which year and by whom was the treaty of Villafranca signed?
Answer: The treaty of Villafranca was signed in 1859 between Austria and France.

Question 64. Name the only state which was independent before the unification of Italy.
Answer: The only state which was independent before the unification of Italy was Piedmont-Sardinia.

Question 65. Name one secret society established during the Italian unification movement.
Answer: Carbonari was a secret society established during the Italian unification movement.

Question 66. Who established Young Italy?
Answer: Young Italy was established by Mazzini.

Question 67. What is Carbonari?
Answer: Carbonari was a secret society of Italy that aimed to unite Italy into a single state, achieve liberty and drive the Austrians out of Italy.

Question 68. When was the Italian unification completed?
Answer: The Italian unification was completed in 1870.

Question 69. Name the countries where the impact of the July Revolution was felt.
Answer: The impact of the July Revolution was felt in Belgium, Poland, Spain, Portugal, England, Italy, and Germany.

Question 70. What is ‘Pan-Germanism’?
Answer: ‘Pan-Germanism’ means the idea or sentiment of a united German people which developed in Germany under the influence of poets, philosophers, and historians like Bohmer, Fichte, Hegel, Hausser, etc.

Question 71. Who was the real architect of the unification of Germany?
Answer: The real architect of the unification of Germany was Bismarck.

Question 72. When was the Second Republic established in France?
Answer: Second Republic was established in France in 1848.

Question 73. Who became the emperor or ‘Kaiser’ after German unification?
Answer: The Prussian King William I became the emperor or Kaiser after German Unification.

Question 74. In which year was the treaty of Frankfurt signed?
Answer: The treaty of Frankfurt was signed in 1871.

Question 75. What is the ‘Confederation of the Rhine’?
Answer: Napoleon Bonaparte formed forty-nine states of the former three hundred states in Germany and inaugurated a federal administrative system in Germany known as the Confederation of the Rhine.

Question 76. Who followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’.

Question 77. Who was called the ‘Red Shirts’?
Answer: Garibaldi’s followers were called the Red Shirts.

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 78. Who was Count Benedetti?
Answer: Count Benedetti was the ambassador of the French King Napoleon III to the Prussian emperor William I.

Question 79. Who was the general of the Red Shirt volunteer force?
Answer: The general of the Red Shirt volunteer force was Garibaldi.

Question 80. What is the other name of the ‘Balkan’ region?
Answer: The other name of the Balkan region is Near East.

Question 81. Name some nationalities living in the ‘Balkan’ region.
Answer: Some nationalities living in the Balkan region were Greek, Serb, Romanian, Albanian, Bulgarian, etc.

Question 82. In which year and by whom was the Treaty of San Stephano signed?
Answer: The Treaty of San Stephano was signed in 1878 between Russia and Turkey.

Question 83. In which year and by which treaty did Turkey accept the independence of Greece?
Answer: Turkey accepted the independence of Greece through the Treaty of London in 1832.

Question 84. Why was the war between England, France, and Russia in 1854 known as the Crimean War?
Answer: The war between England, France, and Russia in 1854 was known as the Crimean War because it was fought in the Crimean peninsula in Southern Russia.

Question 85. When was the Crimean War fought?
Answer: The Crimean War was fought during 1854-56.

Question 86. Which region is known as the ‘Balkan’?
Answer: The ‘Balkan’ means the hilly region between the Aegean Sea and the Danube river.

Question 87. Name one socialist leader of Europe.
Answer: One socialist leader was Louis Blanc.

Question 88. What are the modern ideals born of the French Revolution?
Answer: The modern ideals born of the French Revolution are nationalism, liberalism, and democracy.

Question 89. Which period is known as the Age of Metternich?
Answer: 1815-1848 is known as the Age of Metternich.

Question 90. Who was the real architect of the unification of Germany?
Answer: The real architect of the unification of Germany was Bismarck.

Question 91. Name one socialist leader of Europe.
Answer: One socialist leader was Louis Blanc.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas 2 Marks Questions And Answers :

Question 1. Name some of the leading diplomats of Europe who met in Vienna.
Answer:

The leading diplomats who assembled at Vienna were Prince Metternich, the Prime Minister of Austria, Czar Alexander of Russia, Castlereagh, the Foreign Minister of England, and Talleyrand, the clever diplomat of France.

Question 2. What were the three guiding principles of the Congress of Vienna?
Answer:

The guiding principles of the Congress of Vienna were :

(1) Balance of Power
(2) Legitimacy and,
(3) Rewards to the victors at the expense of the vanquished.

Question 3. What arrangements did the Congress of Vienna do for Germany’s political settlement?
Answer: Germany was formed into a loose confederation of thirty-nine States whose affairs were to be conducted by a Federal Diet under the presidentship of Austria.

Question 4. What arrangements were made by the Congress of Vienna for the settlement of the Italian political problems?
Answer: In Italy, Austrian interests determined the territorial arrangements. Austria herself received Lombardy and Venice while rollers connected with the Austrian imperial family were restored to their thrones of Parma Madona and Tuscany. The Papal States were re-established. Naples was restored to the Bourbon king Ferdinand and Genoa was annexed to Sardinia. Thus Italy became a mere geographical expression.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 5. Why has the Congress of Vienna been harshly criticized?
Answer: The Congress of Vienna ignored the principles of nationalism and democracy. By its policy also the interests of the smaller States were sacrificed and the bigger ones benefitted.

Question 6. What arrangements were made to make Vienna Settlement permanent?
Answer: Two different organizations were formed to make the Vienna settlement permanent. The first was the Holy Alliance sponsored by Czar Alexander I of Russia, and the second was the Concert of Europe based upon the Quadruple Alliance of big four powers, viz. Russia, England, Prussia, and Austria.

Question 7. What was the nature of the Holy Alliance?
Answer: The Holy Alliance was not a treaty and so had no building force. It was politically useless because of its vagueness. Charity and love are not capable of being defined in diplomatic terms. The Holy Alliance was a hobby of Alexander and came to an end with his death in 1825.

Question 8. What is the importance of the Holy Alliance in the subsequent history of Europe?
Answer: The importance of the Holy Alliance lies in the fact that it had the germs of the idea of international cooperation for peace, which in future found expression in the international peace movement of the Hague Conference.

Question 9. What is the importance of the Concert of Europe? What was its aim?
Answer: The Concert of Europe was the first experiment in internationalism. Its aim was to maintain peace and order in Europe and check the revolutionary ideas.

Question 10. Whom did the Allies restore on the throne of France after the battle of Waterloo? How long did he rule in France?
Answer: After the battle of Waterloo the victorious Allies restored the rule of the Bourbon dynasty in France in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI. Louis
XVIII ruled in France from 1815 to 1824.

Question 11. How did Louis XVIII, the King of France want to rule his kingdom? What was the result?
Answer: Louis18 clearly realized that the restoration of the royal line did not mean the restoration of the Old Regime and that concessions must be made to the new spirit. He, therefore, granted a Charter to his people, ensuring them a Constitutional Government.

The Charter established a Parliament of two Houses a Chamber of Peers, appointed for life, and a Chamber of Deputies, elected by a very limited body of voters. The Constitution though falling short of the aspirations raised by the Revolution, was a liberal one, indeed more liberal than France had at any time enjoyed.

Question 12. What was the July Ordinance issued by Charles X ? What were its results?
Answer: At the instance of the reactionary Chief Minister, Polignac, Charles X issued four Ordinances on July 26, 1830. This Ordinance suspended the liberty of the press, dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, changed the electoral system, and reduced the number of voters. When the news of the Ordinance reached Paris, the people immediately broke out in revolt.

Question 13. What was the result of the July Revolution in France?
Answer: At the outbreak of the July Revolution Charles X fled and abdicated in favor of his grandson. But the people passed over his claims and set up a provisional Government with Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Louis Phillippe was offered the crown which he accepted under the title of the King of France.

Question 14. Indicate the time span of the July Monarchy. Who ruled during that time?
Answer: The July Monarchy ruled in France from July 1830 to February 1848. Louis Philippe ruled France in that period.

Question 15. To which dynasty did Louis Philippe belong? Why was he called ‘Citizen king’?
Answer: Louis Philippe belonged to the House of Orleans. As Louis Philippe was dependent on the middle class for support, the Orleanist Monarchy became a middle-class monarchy run on a limited franchise for the benefit of the middle class. The angered other parties in derision gave Louis the derisive sobriquet ‘Citizen King’.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 16. When did Socialism begin to appear in the political ideas of France? What was its immediate effect in France?
Answer: ‘Socialism’ bred from industrialism began to make headway in France during the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848). Socialism became a potent factor in the Revolution of 1848 which overthrew the Orlean Monarchy.

Question 17. What was the immediate cause of the French Revolution of 1848?
Answer: The immediate cause of the French Revolution of 1848 was the king’s refusal to allow any further extension of the franchise. Guizot, the Prime Minister of Louis Philippe, denied listening to any proposal of electoral reform. Theirs and his followers organized a series of reform banquets in order to stir up the people in favor of the extension of the franchise.

Guizot was dismissed by the king but the people were not satisfied and a riot broke out in Paris. Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to England and the Revolution was complete.

Question 18. When was the Second Republic of France formed? Who was the head of the Second Republic of France?
Answer: In 1848, after the February Revolution of France, the so-called Second Republic of France was formed. Lamartine headed the Second Republic of France.

Question 19. Name some of the leaders of France who brought a political change to France in 1848.
Answer: The leaders who brought a political change in France in 1848 are Ijunartine, Louis Blanc, Theirs, etc.

Question 20. Name the parties which opposed the Government of Louis Philippe.
Answer: Except for the Party of Constitutionalists, all the other political parties in France were against the accession of Louis Philippe. The Legitimists wanted a Bourbon Prince on the throne and considered Louis as a usurper, who belongs to the Or leans family.

The Bonapartists recalled the glories of Napoleon and had no love for a King whose foreign policy was timid and peaceful. His moderate policy and refusal to allow any further extension of popular influence estranged the Republicans. Moreover, there was another new force hostile to Louis Philippe. This was Socialism. Socialism became a potent factor in the Revolution of 1848.

Question 21. Which Monarchy was known as the July Monarchy? When did it come to an end?
Answer: The Monarchy established by Louis Philippe in France in 1830 was known as the July Monarchy. July Monarchy came to an end by the February Revolution of 1848.

Question 22. What were the repercussions of the July Revolution of France in Europe?
Answer: The July Revolution in Paris found its echo in many of the States of Europe. It was the signal and encouragement for widespread popular movements all over Europe and destroyed the whole structure created by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815.

The success of the Parisians in obtaining a Constitutional Government was a triumph for liberation and the voice of the people was everywhere on behalf of freedom and self—government in Belgium, Germany, Italy, Poland, and England.

Question 23. What was the main cause of the revolt in Belgium in 1830? What was its result?
Answer: The July Revolution in Paris awakened the first responsive echo in Belgium. The Belgians protested against their artificial union with Holland by the Congress of Vienna. As a result of the revolt of the Belgians, Belgium became a separate kingdom with Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as its king in 1831. The independence of Belgium is an important victory of the principle of nationality and was the first breach in the Vienna settlement, the first conspicuous example of the abandonment of the system of Metternich.

Question 24. What was the importance of the July Revolution (1830) in Europe?
Answer: The July Revolution of France (1830) was an event of resounding importance in Europe. It secured the independence of Belgium, established a Constitutional Monarchy in France, and helped the cause of Parliamentary reform in England.

Question 25. What was the result of the February Revolution in 1848?
Answer: The triumph of the democratic revolution in France in 1948 sent a thrill of hope throughout Europe and released the ’ ..tup feelings of liberalism everywhere. It was the signal for the widest -as Ad far-reaching popular movement all over Europe. It was so strong in Central-“Europe that for a time it swept everything before it and Prussia and Austria, bulwarks of absolutism, were shaken to their very foundations.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 26. Which period of Europe is called the “Era of Metternich” and why?
Answer: The period from 1815 to 1848 in the history of Europe is known as the “Era of Metternich” because his reactionary political ideals were predominant in the course of the history of the continent

Question 27. What do you know of the Frankfurt Parliament?
Answer:

Frankfurt Parliament

A National Parliament (Vor Parliament) was elected by universal alignment at Frankfurt in Germany in 1848 to draw up a Constitution for United Germany. Austria was excluded from it and Prussia was given a prominent position which showed the future trend of German politics and German unity of Prussia.

Question 28. Who promised to assume the leadership of the movements of Germany? Why did he refuse it later on?
Answer: Frederick William of Prussia promised to assume the leadership of the movements for a United Germany. The Constitution as framed by the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848 provided for a single hereditary emperor to rule over all of Germany and a Legislature of two Houses.

The Crown was offered to the Prussian King but Frederick William refused it. He refused it for two reasons: firstly, because it might lead to war with Austria which would not submit to the second position in Germany; and secondly, because he disliked the idea of receiving a Crown from a revolutionary assembly that had a doubtful right to make the offer.

Question 29. What is Zollverein? What is its importance?
Answer:

Zollverein

In 1818 on the initiative of Prussia was established the Zollverein or Customs Union by which Prussia and the neighboring States were included under one economic system based upon free trade. The members of the Union established free trade among themselves by removing their respective tariff walls and thus came to have a common fiscal policy.

By 1850 nearly all the States of Germany except Austria joined the Zollverein and Prussia found herself at the head of a comprehensive economic Union. The political value of solidarity of the economic interests of the German States was very great. It turned men’s eyes from Austria to Prussia and constituted a real preparation for German unity under Prussian leadership. The commercial union became a precursor of the political Union.

Question 30. What was the result of the political uprising in 1848 in Austria?
Answer:

Result of the political uprising in 1848 in Austria

The popular insurrection first broke out in Austria’s capital Vienna. There a turbulent mob of students and workingmen clashed with the imperial troops. At first shock, Metternich was compelled to flee to England. Emperor Ferdinand I was forced to grant a liberal Constitution guaranteeing freedom to the press, civil liberty, and Parliament. But when the popular insurrection started all over the Austria-Hungarian Empire, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his nephew Francis.

Question 31. What do you know of ‘Carbonari?
Answer:

Carbonari

Carbonari (‘burning charcoal’) was a secret political organization of Italy that fostered the ideal of nationalism and fomenting insurrections.

Question 32. Who founded Young Italy? What were its ideals?
Answer: In 1831 Mazzini established a society called Young Italy. God, the People, and Italy were the cries of the society; education and literary propaganda and, if necessary, revolution were its methods the conversion of an idea into a popular cause was its achievement.

Question 33. What do you know about Charles Albert?
Answer:

Charles Albert

Charles Albert, the king of Piedmont Sardina, declared war against Austria in 1848. But he was defeated at the battle of Novara in 1849. Sick at heart Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II. The defeat of Novara shattered the hopes of the Italians and marked the beginning of the reaction. Victor Emmanuel II ruled Italy from 1849 to 1878.

Question 34. What was the result of the Revolution of 1848?
Answer:

Result of the Revolution of 1848

The result of the revolutionary movements of 1848 was extremely disappointing to the liberals. Reaction triumphed everywhere, the old Government slipped back into the old grooves. But it should be noted that the revolution was not a total failure. The political earthquake of 1848 had shaken the foundation of autocracy all over Europe, and the succeeding generations were encouraged to strike effective blows at the tottering structure.

Question 35. What was the general nature of the Revolution of 1848?
Answer:

The general nature of the Revolution of 184

The Revolution of 1848 was distinctly a republican movement strongly colored by socialistic ideas. It was the joint product of political and economic causes.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 36. What do you know of Carlsbad Decrees? Who issued them?
Answer:

Carlsbad Decrees

In 1819 Metternich arranged a conference of German princes at Carlsbad where it was agreed to suppress liberal movements. The Conference passed a number of decrees by which the Press was put under strict censorship, the universities were placed under Government control and the student societies were suppressed. It was also forbidden to grant any Constitution inconsistent with the monarchical principle.

Question 37. What do you know of Hetairia Phalke?
Answer:

Hetairia Phalke

In the first quarter of the 19th century the Greeks, under the rule of the Turks, were touched by the new ideas of freedom which awakened their aspiration for national independence. In 1849 they founded a secret society known as the Philke Hetairia with the object of disseminating nationalist doctrines and fostering insurrection against the Turks.

Question 38. Why were Decemberists so-called?
Answer: In Russia, the turning point in relations between the monarchy and the nation came in 1825, with the so-called Decemberist Revolt. Before his death, Czar Alexander I intended that his younger brother Nicholas should succeed him, although Constantine was next in the line of succession. Thus, an absurd situation arose in which Nicholas at St. Petersburg proclaimed him Emperor, and Constantine declared himself Emperor at Warsaw.

For nearly several weeks in December 1825, the throne remained vacant. The secret societies seized the chance to stage a revolt against the army at St. Petersburg with the aim of summoning a national assembly. But the plotters had no clear plan or organization and had made adequate preparations. So, they were crushed with great severity. As the revolt took place in the month of December, it is known as Decemberist Revolt.

Question 39. Why did the Crimean war break out? By which treaty it came to an end?
Answer: The Crimean War broke out in 1854. It came to an end with the treaty of Paris in 1856.

Question 40. Why is the Crimean war called the watershed of European history?
Answer: The Crimean war occupies a peculiar place of importance in the history of ‘Europe. It re-opened the Eastern question and renewed the divergent interest of the powers in the Near East. What was more serious, it was the prelude to the most momentous developments of the nineteenth century.

Its events left a trail of consequences in the unification of Italy and Germany in the estrangement of Russia and Prussia. Hence, it has been remarked that the Crimean war was in a general sense the watershed of European history.

Question 41. Who proposed the partition of Turkey? What was British policy on this point?
Answer: Nicholas, the Czar of Russia, proposed something like a joint Anglo-Russian partition of the Turkish Empire. He suggested that England might have Egypt and Crete while Russia might occupy Constantinople, although not in proprietary right. England declined to fall in with the scheme of partition. The maintenance of the integrity of Turkey was the traditional policy of England and there was no desire to alter it.

Question 42. What was the prelude to the Crimean war?
Answer:

Prelude to the Crimean war

A quarrel broke out between the Latin monks and the monks of the Greek church ever the custody of the Holy places of Jerusalem. France had a traditional right to the guardianship of the Holy places. Czar Nicholas I, as the head of the Greek church, championed the cause of the Greek monks. Turkey attempted a compromise that satisfied neither side and it precipitated a crisis in the Turkish Empire in 1854.

Question 43. Why did Napoleon III, the French Emperor come to champion the cause of the Latin monks?
Answer: Napoleon III wanted to signalize his accession to the French throne with a spectacular foreign policy that was likely to reconcile the French people to his rule. A war with Russia in support of the Latin monks would suit the purpose nicely.

It would please the clerical party in France, whose support Napolean III considered essential to his purpose. Moreover, it would maintain the prestige of France in the East, which had sunk low owing to the timid policy of Louis Philippe. Above all, a victory over Russia would gratify French national pride by avenging the humiliation of Moscow.

Question 44. What were the political ideas of Mazzini?
Answer:

Political ideas of Mazzini

Mazzini was the prophet of Italian unity. Mazzini was an idealist. This belief he communicated to the people with a religious ardor which made its appeal irresistible. Italy united, and republican was the all-absorbing passion and ideal. Mazzini stirred the people and kindled their enthusiasm for greater success.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 45. Name the countries which joined Turkey against Russia in the Crimean war.
Answer: The names of the countries that joined the war for Turkey were England and France. After the outbreak of war Piedmont-Sardinia also joined Turkey.

Question 46. What is ‘Vienna Note’?
Answer:

‘Vienna Note’

When the dispute between France and Russia over the Holy places in Jerusalem precipitated a crisis in the Turkish Empire in 1854, diplomacy made a last attempt to prevent the outbreak of hostilities. England, France, Prussia, and Austria met at Vienna and drew up a declaration known as the Vienna Note. It asserted the need of protecting the Christian subjects in Turkey. The Note was presented both to Russia and Turkey. Russia accepted the Note but Turkey rejected it and war became irresistible.

Question 47. What were the most important results of the Crimean war?
Answer:

The most important results of the Crimean war were:

(1) Liberation of Italy;
(2) Rupture of good feeling between Russia and Austria and,
(3) Good understanding between Prussia and Russia.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 48. What are the effects of the Crimean war in Russia?
Answer:

The effects of the Crimean war in Russia

The Crimean war affected Russia deeply. At home, it led to a series of reforms carried out by Czar Alexander II, the most important of which was the emancipation of the Serfs. Abroad it gave a new turn to Russian expansion. The expansion checked in Europe was transferred to Central Asia where she began to push forward with great strides.

Question 49. What do you know of the Compact of Plombieres?
Answer:

The Compact of Plombieres

In 1858 Napoleon III of France and Count Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia met at Plorilbieres, wherein a secret meeting the fate of Italy was decided. By the compact of Plombieres, it was agreed that Napoleon III would join Sardinia in the event of war with Austria and make her free from the Alps to the Adriatic. But at the price of his aid Napoleon III was to receive Savoy and Nice.

Question 50. What do you know of the treaty of Villafranca?
Answer:

Treaty of Villafranca

Amid the Austro-Italian War (1859) Napoleon 3 suddenly called a halt and without consulting his allies, arranged the terms of treaties with Austria at Villafranca (1859). Their terms were ratified by the Treaty of Zurich. By the terms of the treaty of Villafranca, it was settled that Austria was to cede Lombardy to Sardinia but retain Venetia.

The rulers of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena who have been expelled by their subjects on the outbreak of war were to be restored and an Italian Federation was to be formed under the Presidency of the Pope.

Question 51. What do you know of the March of the Thousand?
Answer:

March of the Thousand

In 1960 Garibaldi mailed to Sicily, leading his famous expedition of the Thousand. Within three months Garibaldi was the master of the island and proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emanuel II. Never had such a rapid conquest by such a handful of men been known in the pages of history.

Question 52. Whom do you regard as mainly responsible for the unification of Italy?
Answer: Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, fathomed clearly the political situation of Europe, and by three diplomatic masters strokes he completed his mission; first by sending 17000 soldiers to the Crimean war, second by signing the Treaty of Plombieres with Napoleon III and third by assisting secretly Garilbaldi’s venture.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 53. When did United Italy occupy Rome?
Answer: During the Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871), after the defeat of France in the battle of Sedan, French troops withdrew from Rome and Victor Emmanuel II seized the opportunity to occupy Rome which became the capital of united Italy. Before the occupation of Rome by united Italy Turin was the capital of united Italy.

Question 54. How was the Italian unification completed?
Answer: Italy’s unification was completed by Mazzini’s moral enthusiasm, Garibaldi’s sword, Cavour’s diplomacy, and Victor Emmanuel II’s tact and good sense.

Question 55. Who was known as the ‘Man of Blood and Iron’ and why?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, was known as the ‘Man of Blood and Iron’ because he believed that not by speeches and resolutions of the majority are the great questions of the day were to be decided but by the policy of ‘blood and iron’, which means the use of arms. For this, his policy is known as the blood and iron policy.

Question 56. Name the war after which Italy got Venetia and Rome. What were the effects of the Austro-Prussian War on Italy?
Answer: By the terms of the Treaty of Prague after the battle of Sadowa in 1866, Italy had acquired Venetia and thereby advanced one step further towards her complete union. Thus she got rid of her greatest enemy and was within sight of the national goal—the acquisition of Rome which she occupied after the battle of Sedan.

Question 58. In which year, they enacted the Edict of emancipation?
Answer: In 1861 Tsar Alexander II of Russia, better known as the Czar Liberator, promulgated the Edict of Emancipation. By it, serfdom was abolished throughout the Russian empire. This ended the legal jurisdiction of the lords over the serfs who became personally free.

Question 59. What were the main reforms of Alexander II of Russia?
Answer:

The major reforms of Alexander II were:

(1) Emancipation of the serfs,
(2) Creation of local councils or Zemstvos and
(3) Radical reorganization of the law courts.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 60. Why was the Czar Liberator Alexander II a target of the attack of Nihilists?
Answer: The Nihilists expected much more liberal reforms from Czar Alexander II of Russia. But he failed to satisfy them and, therefore, he became their target.

Question 61. What were Zemstvos? How were they formed?
Answer:

Zemstvos

District Local Councils of Russia created by the reforms of Czar Alexander II were known as the Zemstvos. These were formed by the representatives elected by the people representing all classes of the community.

Question 62. What is Mir? What were its functions?
Answer:

Mir

Mir is a village community that, according to the Edict of Emancipation promulgated by Czar Alexander II of Russia, was to parcel the lands of the village among its resident peasants.

Question 63. What is Nihilism? What were the motives of Nihilism?
Answer:

Nihilism

The followers of Nihilism are called Nihilists. Nihilism is a spirit of absolute negation and of barren criticism. In short, Nihilism would not bow before any authority and would not accept any principle unproved. They wanted to find a state of reason.

Question 64. Who wrote ‘Napoleonic Ideas’? What were its contents?
Answer: In 1839 Louis Napoleon, (Napoleonic II] of France) wrote and published‘Napoleonic Ideas’ Napoleonic Ideas maintained that the great Napoleon stood for order, authority, religion, the welfare of the people at home, and national glory abroad. Napoleonic Ideas proved a very useful agency of propaganda and served to discredit the dull mediocrity of the Orleanist regime of Louis Philippe.

Question 65. When was the battle of Sedan fought? What was its result?
Answer: The battle of Sedan was fought in 1870-1871. In this battle, France was totally defeated and as a result, the unification of Germany was completed. The Prussian King became the Emperor of the United German Empire.

Question 66. What is Kultur kampf ?
Answer:

Kultur kampf

Within a short time after the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck became involved in a protracted struggle with the Catholic church. This conflict has been dignified by the name of Kultur Kampf, which meant struggle for civilization. It arose from the almost inevitable opposition of the Catholic church to the German empire in which Protestant Prussia was supreme.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 67. What is the May Laws? What were its repercussions?
Answer:

May Laws

In 1873, Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany passed the May Laws which enjoined compulsory civil marriage and declared that all candidates for the priesthood should be German citizens educated in German public schools and universities and that no bishop or priest might be appointed without notification to the Government which reserved the right to veto the appointment Pope Pius IX declared the laws null and void and the Catholics offered an obstinate resistance to this policy of persecution.

Question 68. How did Bismarck intend to improve the social condition of working men? What was its importance?
Answer: By slow and gradual degrees Bismarck instituted a comprehensive scheme of insurance against the vicissitudes of life, such as compulsory insurance against accidents, sickness, old age, etc. The policy is known as State socialism and it was Bismarck’s chief contribution to the solution of the social question of the time. In this respect, he was a pioneer.

Question 69. What were the main objectives of the foreign policy of Bismarck?
Answer: Bismarck sought to maintain peace in order to consolidate his newly created empire. So he tried to isolate France and maintain a friendship with Austria and Russia.

Question 70. What do you know of Dreikaiserbund or Three Emperors’ League? When did Russia withdraw from the League?
Answer: Bismarck arranged a meeting in 1872 between the Emperors of Austria, Russia, and Germany in Berlin. The meeting of the three Emperors resulted in the entente known as the Dreikaiserbund or the Three Emperors’ League. It was not a treaty of the alliance but an announcement to the world of the intimate and cordial relations between the three powers.

Though not a treaty, the political significance of the Dreikaiserbund was important. It meant that Austria had forgiven Sadowa and accepted the exclusion from Germany and she no longer mediated revenge. At the time of the Berlin Treaty (1878), Germany showed special care for the interest of Austria and Russia left Dreikaiserbund in disgust.

Question 71. What was the cause of conflict between Kaiser William II and Bismarck?
Answer:

The cause of conflict between Kaiser William II and Bismarck

The cause of conflict between Kaiser William II and Bismarck was really one for power, the question being whether the Hoheuzollem dynasty or Bismarck should rule. As Bismarck declined to accede to the Emperor’s order, he was forced out of office in 1890. Thus fell the ‘Iron Chancellor’, undoubtedly one of the greatest but one of the least attractive men of the century.

Question 72. Could Bismarck, a believer in the policy of “blood and iron”, maintain it all through?
Answer: After the unification of Germany in 1871, Bismarck abandoned the policy of blood and iron and mainly followed a policy of peace and appeasement to maintain the change in the political system of Europe already made.

Question 73. What do you know of the Treaty of San Stefano, 1871?
Answer:

Treaty of San Stefano, 1871

The Treaty of San Stefano, which Russia forced upon Turkey, practically decreed the dissolution of the Turkish Empire. According to the treaty, the Sultan of Turkey was to recognize the independence of Serbia and Montenegro. But the most striking feature of the treaty was the creation of Big Bulgaria which was to be an autonomous State tributary to Turkey and was to extend from the Danube to the Aegean and from the Black sea to Albania. It was revised by the treaty of Berlin, in 1878.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 74. What do you know of the Treaty of Berlin?
Answer:

Treaty of Berlin

The extension of Russian influence in the Balkans was prejudicial to England’s interest and so she demanded a revision of the Treaty of San Stefano by a Congress of European powers.

The Congress met at Berlin in 1878 by which the following arrangements were made :

(1) Montenegro, Serbia, and Rumania were declared independent of Turkey
(2) The Big Bulgaria of the Treaty of San Stefano was divided into two parts
(3) Austria was allowed to administer Bosnia and Herzegovina
(4) England secured the control of Cyprus and,
(5) The Sultan of Turkey in his turn, promised to protect his Asiatic subjects.

Question 75. Who played the role of ‘honest broker’ in the time of the Berlin Treaty?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck played the role of the honest broker at the time of the conclusion of the Berlin Treaty.

Question 76. What did Napoleon do to unify Italy?
Answer: Before the conquest of Napoleon Italy was divided into small petty kingdoms, mostly ruled by foreign rulers. When Napoleon conquered Italy he united the different provinces of Italy and enforced his laws known as Code Napoleon. He drove away the feudal lords and built roads to unite different parts of Italy.

Question 77. What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Legitimacy?
Answer: According to the Principle of Legitimacy, the new king Louis XVIII of the Bourbon dynasty ascended the French throne and the House of Orange was restored to the throne of Holland. The House of Savoy was restored to the kingdom of Piedmont in Italy and the Pope was restored to his papal kingdom. The rulers of small kingdoms overthrown by Napoleon were also brought back to their respective territories.

Question 78. What were the main weaknesses of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The system built at Vienna Congress (1815) did not last long.

Its main weaknesses were :

(1) It completely ignored the will of the people. The people did not forget the lessons of the French Revolution and demanded that the Government should be formed so as to derive its right from the will of the governed.

(2) Moreover, in some countries like Germany and Italy, people who spoke the same language and were members of the same nationality were compelled to live in separate states into which the countries were artificially divided.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 79. What led to the summoning of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor, in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered. So, the leaders who had played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met in Vienna (1815) to reconstruct the political map of Europe devastated by Napoleonic warfare.

Question 80. Who first protested against the system of 1815 and why?
Answer: The first protest against the system of 1815 came from the youths and students of Germany. They wanted to overthrow the system, according to which the country was divided into a number of separate states. They also resented the cruel laws under which they suffered.

Question 81. What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Balance of Powers?
Answer: In order to ensure that peace prevailed in all of Europe, it was decided at the Vienna Congress that the power of different countries of Europe should be balanced so that no country could become powerful enough to threaten another country. France was responsible for disturbing the peace of Europe.

Therefore, it was necessary to control her power. Keeping in view the idea of permanent peace in Europe, the power of Bavaria, Holland, Saxony, Sardinia, and Prussia was increased.

Question 82. What was the ‘Metternich System’?
Answer:

‘Metternich System’

From the year 1815 to 1848, the Austrian Minister Metternich was the most commanding personality in Europe. He was the central figure of European diplomacy. He represented reaction in its extreme form and was the enemy of both democracy and nationalism. His policy was the maintenance of the status quo keeping things as they were.

Hence he set himself to resist all demands for reforms, all struggles for national independence, and all aspirations for self-government. He aimed at making Europe go back to the condition prevailing before 1789.

Question 83. What were the four ordinances issued by Charles X in 1830?
Answer:

The four ordinances issued by Charles X in 1830 were:

(1) Suspending the liberty of the press
(2) Dissolving the Chamber of Deputies
(3) Changing the electoral system
(4) Ordering fresh elections.

Question 84. What do you mean by ‘July Monarchy’?
Answer:

‘July Monarchy’

Louis Philippe was nominated by the French Parliament to be the constitutional monarch of France in 1830. His monarchy is also known as the ‘July Monarchy’ because of its installation as a result of the Revolution that took place in the month of July.

Question 85. Why is the period between 1815 to 1848 known as the ‘Era of Metternich’?
Answer: Metternich was the most influential man in Europe from 1815 to 1848. After the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte in the Battle of Waterloo, Metternich became the central figure not only in the politics of Austria but in the politics of the whole of Europe. Owing to his unlimited influence, the period of 34 years (1815-1848) is called the ‘Age of Mettermich’ in the history of Europe.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 86. What was the condition of Italy before unification?
Answer:

Italy, before unification, was a divided country.

(1) Besides Piedmont and the island of Sardinia, which were ruled by an Italian king in the north, the different parts of Italy were occupied by one or the other country.
2) Central Italy was ruled by the Pope, who was the head of the Church as well as of the Roman empire.
(3) Austria occupied the northern part of Italy.
(4) The southern part of Italy which included Naples and the island of Sicily was under the rule of the King of Naples.
(5) Besides, many smaller parts of Italy were ruled by the princes of Austria.

Question 87. What was ‘Young Italy’?
Answer:

‘Young Italy’

Joseph Mazzini was an inspiring leader of Italy. He founded a party known as Young Italy in 1832. He had immense faith in the power and strength of the Italian youths. Young men up to the age of forty could be its members.

Question 88. What were the wars waged by Bismarck for the unification of Germany?
Answer: Bismarck waged three wars for the unification of Germany. These were the Danish war (1864); Austro-Prussian War (1866) and Franco-Prussian War (1870).

Question 89. What was the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’?
Answer:

Policy of ‘Blood and Iron’

According to Bismarck, the greatest obstacle to German unity was Austria. He used to say that the greatest question of the day would be decided not by speeches and majority resolutions but by a policy of ‘blood and iron’. His motto was to oust Austria from Germany if possible by diplomacy, if necessary by ‘blood and iron’ or war.

Question 90. What is Phalke Hetaira?
Answer:

Phalke Hetaira

The Greeks were under the subjugation of Turkey and they fought for independence. The struggle of the Greeks originated in the activities of the Phalke Hetaira (a secret society for friendly brotherhood) formed in Odesa (now in Ukraine) in 1814. Its main object was to spread the doctrine of liberty and expel the Turks from Europe. They aimed to revive the old Greek empire of the east.

Question 91. Why was the Ottoman empire so named?
Answer: During the period between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries Turkey was a dominating power. The Turkish empire included vast areas of Europe and Africa and was known as the Ottoman empire after the name of one of her Amirs, Othman.

Question 92. What were the provisions of the Treaty of Adrianople?
Answer: Russia defeated Turkey in the Battle of Navarino and forced the Treaty of Adrianople on Turkey in 1829. According to the terms of this treaty, Turkey recognized the independence of Greece. Russia got Wallachia and Moldavia. Russia also acquired commercial and political rights in some territories in Asia.

Question 93. Did Czar Alexander II really liberate the serfs?
Answer: Czar Alexander 2 passed the ‘Emancipation Statute’ in 1861 which abolished serfdom in Russia and came to be known as ‘Czar the liberator’. However, in practice, the peasants were not liberated. The ownership of land was denied to them and was vested in the hands of ‘mirs’. The serfs were subjected to the village mirs instead of the lords who exploited them in various ways.

Question 94. Which period is known as the ‘Age of Conferences’? What were the conferences held during this period?
Answer: The period between 1815-1825 is called the ‘Age of Conferences’ in the history of Europe.

Five Conferences were held during this period. These were :

(1) Aix-Ia-Chapelle (1818)
(2) Troppau (1820)
(3) Laibach (1822)
(4) Verona (1822)
(5) St. Petersburg (1825)

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 95. What is the importance of the July Revolution of 1830?
Answer:

Importance of the July Revolution of 1830

The July Revolution of 1830 is one of the most important events in the history of France. From the following facts, it can be proved that the July

Revolution was an event of utmost importance :
(1)After -the July Revolution, a constitutional monarchy was established in France under Louis Philippe in place of the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons.
(2) Before the July Revolution, the aristocracy and the clergy of France used to enjoy unlimited rights and privileges. However, after the July Revolution, all these classes were deprived of their privileges.

Question 96. How was Rammohan Roy influenced by the July Revolution?
Answer: The July Revolution of 1830 in France bore a rich legacy for the people of the world during the 19th and 20th centuries. This was because the ideals of liberty, equality, liberalism, and democracy became popular among the people. These ideals spread rapidly from France to other countries of the world. Rammohan Roy, the ‘first modern man of India’ was greatly influenced by the July Revolution. He took an intense interest in the July Revolution which he viewed as a triumph of liberty.

He celebrated the success of the July Revolution in France. He was an internationalist and supported the cause of freedom everywhere. Deeply influenced by the ideals of the Revolution Rammohan Roy thought of monarchy and its absolutism as great evils.

Question 97. What was the Frankfurt Parliament?
Answer:

Frankfurt Parliament

The national leaders of German established a Parliament at frankfurt in Germany in 1815 whose members when elected on the basis of a universal adult franchise. The main function of this Parliament was to frame a constitution for Germany to achieve political unity and liberty and establish a popular government in place of the government of absolute monarchy.

According to the decisions of the Frankfurt Parliament, the crown of a united Germany was offered to Frederick William. But he refused this offer. His view was that he should not receive the crown as a gift from the representatives of the people. He believed in the unification of Germany through sheer force.

Question 98. Which treaty was concluded after the Crimean War? What were the provisions of the treaty?
Answer: The Treaty of Paris (1856) was concluded after the Crimean War (1854).

According to the provisions of the treaty

(1) England, France, and Austria admitted Turkey to the European family of states.
(2) The Sultan of Turkey promised to improve the condition of the Christians living in Turkey.
(3) Russia and Turkey returned the conquered provinces to each other.
(4) Russia promised not to interfere in the internal affairs of Turkey.

Question 99. How did the Crimean War lay the foundation for the unification of Italy?
Answer: The Crimean War (1854) laid the foundation for the unification of Italy. Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont, was a great diplomat. He wanted to unify Italy but, at the same time, he knew that Italy could not be unified without driving out Austria from Italy and that was quite impossible without foreign help.

He wanted to put the Italian question on an international platform. He, therefore, sent his soldiers to the Crimean War in support of the Allies. He soon achieved success in his object when he was invited to the Treaty of Paris. He succeeded in gaining the sympathy of the Allies.

Question 100. What is the significance of the Greek War of Independence?
Answer:

The Greek war of Independence is a landmark in the history of Europe.

(1) It showed that the resolutions of the Congress of Vienna were impractical and that national forces could not be checked by reactionary guiding principles.
(2) The Greek War of Independence was a great blow to the Metternich system.
(3) The European powers were attracted to the near east for the first time.
(4) They felt that each had a common interest in the region. They also felt the need to free the Christian states from oppressive Turkish rule.

Question 101. How would you criticize the Emancipation Statute of 1861?
Answer:

The Emancipation Statute of 1861 passed by Alexander II, the Czar of Russia, was criticized on the following grounds :

(1) The nobles resented the loss of land. The Act also deprived them of the services of the serfs.
(2) The edict did not fulfill the expectations of the serfs. The ownership of land was denied to them and was vested in the hands of ‘mirs’.
(3) The serfs were subjected to the village mirs instead of the lords.
(4) The annual installment of redemption money payable to the Government by the serfs in addition to other taxes put a heavy burden on them.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas 4 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Why was there a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals after 1815?
Answer: The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor, in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered. So the leaders who played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met at Vienna (1815) which completely ignored the will of the people.

The people did not forget the lessons of the French Revolution and demanded that the Government should be formed so as to derive its right from the will of the governed. Moreover, in some countries like Italy and Germany, people who spoke the same language and were members of the same nationality were compelled to live in separate states into which these countries were artificially divided.

Thus the aspirations of the people were twofold :
(1) democratic or liberal which aimed at winning the people the right to participate in the Government, and
(2) nationalist which was the outcome of the people’s desire to form themselves into a unified state. As a result, there was a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals after 1815.

Question 2. What do you know as ‘Ems Telegram’?
Answer:

Ems Telegram: The French King sent his ambassador Count Benedetti to the Prussian Emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohen Colle. the dynasty would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain the Prussian Emperor William. I was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refuses to make such a promise to Benedetti. A repo no the whole matter Was sent to Bismarck by telegram (13th July 1870). Known as 5my Telegram in European history.

Change in a telegram by Bismarck: Bismarck immediately found an opportunity to read his ‘Ems Telegram’, Shortening the text of the telegram on Purpose, Bismarck public the same in the next day’s paper. As a result of the change of words effected by Bismarck, the whole meaning of the telegram stood changed beyond recognition. The published matter appeared to indicate that the French ambassador, Benedetti had been insulted by the Prussian Emperor.

Consequence: This infuriated the Frenchmen and a strong public opinion was created in France Fora a war with Prussia. When France declared war against Prussia on 15th July 1870, it was Bismarck’s diplomacy that carried the day. Bismarck was always ready for the fray, he was just seeking an opportunity. As an aggressor, again France could not secure the support of any European power. But Prussia with the help and cooperation of Italy and Austria was able to resist the French attack. The battle that followed between France and Prussia in 1870 is known in history as the Battle of Sedan.

Question 3. “The Vienna Treaty was a reasonable and statesmanlike settlement.” Write in support of the Vienna settlement. Or, In what ways was the Vienna Congress successful?
Answer:

“The Vienna Treaty was a reasonable and statesmanlike settlement.”

It is generally said that “The Congress of Vienna made mistakes both of omission and commission”.In spite of the mistakes,

This conference proved very useful in the following ways:

(1) It was the first occasion when the representatives of almost all the countries of Europe gathered to solve international problems.
(2) It saved Europe from the continental wars for a period of about forty years. No war was fought for about 40 years, i.e., 1815-1856.
(3) It abolished the inhuman system of slavery. The diplomats passed a resolution and made an appeal to abolish slavery.
(4) Thus it may be concluded that although the Vienna Congress committed many mistakes yet it is true that it was “an honest attempt to prevent future war and the best that could have been derived in 1815.”

Question 4. What decisions were taken regarding France at the Vienna Congress (1815)?
Answer:

The following decisions were taken regarding France at the Vienna Congress (1815).

(1) The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy. Louis XVIII of the Bourbon dynasty was placed on the throne of France.
(2) France was asked to pay the war expenses amounting to seventy million francs.
(3) 150,000 soldiers of the allied countries would stay in France till the full payment of the war expenses had been made.
(4) France was to go back to her boundaries as in 1789 and sacrifice all lands conquered by Napoleon.
(5) States like Holland, Piedmont, Prussia, and Austria bordering France were strengthened so that France would moe be able to disturb the European order in future years.
(6) France was required to restore all the historical artifacts and works of art which Napoleon had brought to France from different parts of Europe.

Question 5. What was the contribution of Mazzini to the Italian unification movement?
Answer:

The contribution of Mazzini to the Italian unification movement

Mazzini was considered the prophet of the Italian movement for unification. He was the founder of the Young Italy movement. He founded a party known as Young Italy in 1832. He had immense faith in the power and strength of the Italian youths. Young men up to the age of forty could be its members.

The objectives of Young Italy were as follows :

(1) Italy should be unified as one nation.
(2) Austria should be driven out of Italy.
(3) Republic should be established in Italy.
(4) In the war against Austria foreign help. was not necessary.
(5) Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only. The mass uprising organized by the Young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure due to a lack of organization and a plan of action among the rebels. His greatest contribution was that he could make the Italians realize that it was possible to have the dream of the unification of Italy materialized.

Question 6. What were the main objectives of the Quadruple Alliance?
Answer:

The Allied powers — Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia signed a document in 1815 which was called the ‘Quadruple Alliance’.

Their main objectives were :

(1) To unitedly oppose the attempts of Napoleon and his descendants to grab the throne of France
(2) To take united action, if necessary, in order to prevent the growth of the spirit of revolution in the European countries.
(3) To strictly implement the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in all countries of Europe.
(4) To make united attempts to maintain peace and order in Europe.

Question 7. Give an account of ‘the February Revolution in France (1848).
Answer:

The February Revolution in France

Louis Philippe. came to the throne of France on 30th July 1830. After coming to the throne of France, Louis Philippe introduced some liberal reforms. He introduced the freedom of the press and declared France to be a secular state. He could not satisfy the different political parties of France and failed to keep pace with their ideals and aspirations.

Popular discontent gradually increased and a movement under the leadership of Thiers started. People demanded the end of the monarchy in France. Guizot, the Prime Minister was not in favor of any administrative reforms. As the popular agitation took a serious turn, Guizot was dismissed from office. An armed Clash took place on 23rd February in front of the house of the deposed Minister Guizot in which many agitators were killed. This happened in the month of February and came to be known as the February Revolution. Louis Philippe abdicated and France was declared a ‘Republic’.

Question 8. Explain the concept of the nation-state.
Answer:

The concept of the nation-state

The emergence of nation-states brought in a new life force.in the political life of the world. It had its beginning in Europe in the modern period. Nationalism, however, was a consequence of the French Revolution and Napoleonic warfare in Europe.

Nation-State: When a group of people living in a particular geographical area, speaking the same language combine together as ‘one people’, distinct from others, under a powerful: king, a nation-state may be said to have developed. Various factors account for the growth of nation-states.

(1) In the middle ages the powerful feudal lords weakened the kings by limiting their powers. Some of the contemporary monarchs tried to control the feudal lords but they failed miserably. Due to the decay of feudalism towards the end of the middle ages, the feudal lords were no longer able to oppose the power of the kings. Thus was possible the emergence of nation-states.

(2) The Christian church which earlier opposed royal power now became a supporter of a powerful monarchy. By defending the royal power the church helped the growth of nation-states.

(3) Support of the middle class to the kings was another important factor in the growth of nation-states. The financial support of the wealthy middle class made the kings more and more powerful.

(4) The aforesaid causes jointly helped in giving rise to a number of nation-states under powerful kings.

(5) By uprooting feudalism and weakening the power of the church politically independent nation-states paved the way for a new modern political system. The beginning of nationalism and the Divine Right of kingship (or absolute monarchy) dates from such times.

(6) The first two nation-states under strong monarchies were England and France.

Class 9 History Chapter 3 Important Questions With Answers Wbbse

Question 9. Explain the term nationalism and its development in modern Europe.
Answer:

Nationalism: All over the world political life is commonly taking place in the form of nationalism. Yet historians on nationalism like C.J.H. Hayes and Hans Kohn admit that no satisfactory single definition of nationalism is possible. Generally speaking, nationalism is the sense of unity felt by people who share the same history, language, and culture.

Nationalism was the root cause behind it and provided fuel to many of the struggles for unification as also as independence. In the nineteenth century, nationalism became more intense for the people who had already become united like the British, French, Spaniards, and others.

(1) Factors Helping Nationalism: The development of national consciousness or nationalism took place mainly due to absolute monarchy. The monarch became the symbol of national unity and independence. It was around the institution of monarchy that nationalism accumulated. Besides, the rise of national patriotism was also reflected in the rise of vernacular literature.

(2) Emergence of Modern Nationalism: The period of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars was particularly fruitful for the evolution of modern nationalism in Europe. The French Revolution united all classes of people and inspired loyalty in them toward the country.

Hayes has pointed out that a sudden spurt of nationalism was one of the most impressive features of the French Revolution. During that time new symbols of nationalism were created in France. The Frenchmen wore liberty caps and, equipped with primitive weapons, rushed to the war front. Troops from different parts of the country sang a new hymn of freedom, La Marseillaise that later on became the national anthem of France. ,

(3) Napoleon Bonaparte and Nationalism: In the process of empire building, the French troops led by Napoleon invaded the different countries of Europe. The people whose countries had been defeated and annexed started to feel the emotion of nationalism. Napoleon was not a believer in nationalism. Yet he had raised the banner of nationalism and so he led the French army to conquer countries one after another.

In fact, the Napoleonic Empire was built by extinguishing the liberties of many peoples. Not only that, by creating a new unified state for the Italians, Poles, and some of the Germans, Napoleon unintentionally inspired nationalism amongst them. After the downfall of Napoleon, the reorganization of Europe under the Vienna Settlement didn’t give much emphasis on the newborn idea of nationalism.

Question 10. What were the aspirations of the people of Europe after 1815?
Answer:

Aspirations of the Peoples of Europe After 1815: The French Revolution and Napoleon had a tremendous influence on the minds of the people of Europe. People cherished the ideas of democracy and nationalism. But both nationalism and democracy were given a setback due to the arrangements made in the Vienna Congress. The people landed in a world of repressive autocrats. In the years following 1815, the aspirations of the people were mainly twofold—nationalist and democratic. The people who were yet to achieve unity were enthusiasts and felt happiness by the very hope of it.

The popular aspirations turned towards unity or independence. Germany and Italy are two such examples. In countries where national unity and independence had already been achieved, the people’s struggles were directed toward the achievement of democratic principles and institutions. France, Spain, Russia, and England are the countries that belonged to the second type.

Question 11. What were the objectives of the Metternich system?
Answer:

The Metternich System: As the Vienna Congress had vanquished the principle of nationalism, its effect was bound to be temporary. Yet Metternich, the Chancellor of Austria, through his ‘system’ or arrangement, commonly known as the Metternich System sought to give permanence to the settlement made in the Vienna Congress.

The objectives of the ‘system’ were:

Preservation of the arrangements made in the Vienna Congress; Refrainment from Liberalism and Nationalism; and Preservation of the monarchy.

(1) As a believer in monarchy, Metternich considered monarchy as the only natural form of Government. According to him, only the presence of a king ruling at the length of the society could guarantee social order. Alongside preserving the system of monarchy Metternich also took steps to prevent the growth of the liberal and nationalist ideas released by the French Revolution.

(2) Metternich devised the Vienna Congress to convince the big powers that there was a revolutionary conspiracy in Europe against the monarchical system and he succeeded in it. This amounted to a threat to the existence of monarchical supremacy.

(3) Metternich formed a Quadruple Alliance of the big powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England) at the Vienna Congress. Thus, he virtually built up a ‘police system’. The intention was to oversee the preservation of the monarchical predominance and prevention of the spread of the ideas of liberalism and nationalism.

Question 12. What was the importance of the February Revolution?
Answer:

Importance of the February Revolution: The February Revolution was successful in the same matters. Its most important consequence was that it was finally successful in overthrowing the reactionary Metternich System. The System had been silencing the waves of nationalism all over Europe since 1815.

The Revolution of 1848 also proved that ideas couldn’t be destroyed easily. The forces of liberalism and nationalism released by the French Revolution worked their way through the artificial iron shell with which the conservative diplomats kept it covered for a time.

In Germany and Italy, the Revolution of 1848 unified the people and deepened nationalist sentiments. In Germany, the liberals summoned a national assembly at Frankfurt, elected on the basis of adult suffrage. The Foundation of the Frankfurt Parliament was just the beginning of the greater goal of German unification.

The nationalist struggle in Italy revealed that Piedmont-Sardinia should be the center wherefrom the movement for Italian unification should begin. Italy was previously divided and weakened but the feeling of nationalism revived it as a result of the Revolution of 1848. In Hungary, the liberals affected a revolution in their country. Press was freed and the vestiges of feudalism were abolished. A liberal Government was established. Hungary emerged as a free national state.

Question 13. What were the contributions of the Young Italy movement?
Answer:

Young Italy: In 1848 when the tidal wave of the Revolution in France swept over Europe Young Italy, under the leadership of Mazzini, organized a mass uprising in many parts of Italy, But the Young Italy movement fizzled out for lack of organization and coordination among the rebels.

Role of Mazzin: Giuseppe Mazzini founded a youth organization called Young Italy in 1831. He created the mental climate that was so necessary for building a new united Italy and it is for this that he is remembered rightly as the pioneer in the movement for a united independent Italy. The mass uprising organized by young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure.

The objectives and program of Young Italy were as follows:-

(1) Italy should be unified as one nation.
(2) Austria should be driven out of Italy.
(3) Republic should be established in Italy.
(4) In the war against Answertria foreign help was not taken.
(5) Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only.

Role of Cavour: After the failure of the Young Italy movement, the leadership of the Italian unification passed on to Count Camillo Cavour.

His objectives were as follows:

(1) Cavour wanted to make the problem of the unification of Italy a European question.
(2) Cavour decided to drive out Austria from Italian soil with the help of foreign powers.
(3) He believed that Italian unity was possible only under the leadership of Piedmont – Sardinia. Thus, when Victor Immanuel II, king of Piedmont Sardinia, appointed Cavour as the prime to his dream of a united Italy following principal stated above.

Contributions: Young Italy’s uprising of 1848 showed the unpractical nature of Mazzini/s program. Yet the movement expressed the nationalist aspirations of the Italian people. The frustrated people rose from a slough of despair. The disunited people of Italy realized that their independence was not merely an elusive dream. Mental strength was created among the Italians which was so necessary for building a new united Italy.

Question 14. Write about the spurt of nationalism in Serbia.
Answer:

The spurt of nationalism in Serbia

Serbia lost her independence a long time back. They remei’.ed under Turkish rule until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Though King Alexander 1889 granted a liberal constitution, yet failed to win the support of the people to his side, and political unrest went on unabated. The rebels in 1903 placed one Peter on the throne and restored the Constitution of 1889.

Under Peter, the Serbians concentrated on a nationalistic policy that would bring all the Serbs of the Balkans. into one large state. But the dream of a larger Serbia could not be realized without a conflict with Austria-Hungary. The movement, therefore, turned revolutionary and directed against the integrity of Austria-Hungary. Thus it became the most dangerous ‘irredentist’ (advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity) problem in Europe.

Question 15. “The real purpose of the Congress of Vienna was to divide among the conquerors the spoils taken from the vanquished.” – Discuss
Answer:

“The real purpose of the Congress of Vienna was to divide among the conquerors the spoils taken from the vanquished.”

According to the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress (1815), the old ruling families were brought back to their respective thrones. The Congress generally followed the rule of restoring to everyone, prince or duke, the territory which had been his before 1789. Care wag, however, was taken so that each of the big four powers Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England got additional territories.

(1) England: England got Malta, the Ionian Island in the eastern Mediterranean, Heligoland, Trinidad and Mauritius, Ceylon, and the Cape of Good Hope.

(2) Austria: Austria was compensated for the loss of Belgium by getting the Italian possessions of Lombardy and Venetia and, she also received Tyrol, Salsbury, and Illyria

(3) Prussia: Prussia got the northern part of Saxony, Posen, Thorn, Danzig, the Rhine area, and West Pomerania.

(4) Russia: Russia got one-fourth part of Poland and also got compensation in Finland and in the Turkish province of Bessarabia.

Question 16. Discuss the basic principles of the Vienna Congress.
Answer:

After the downfall of Napoleon, a conference of the heads of the European countries was held at Vienna, the capital of Austria in 1815.

The basic principles of the Vienna Congress were:

(1) The Principle of Legitimacy
(2) The Principle of Balance of Powers and
(3) The Principle of Compensation.

The Principle of Legitimacy: According to this principle, it was decided that those rulers who had been driven from their states and had been deprived of their thrones should be reinstated. In other words, the diplomats of the Vienna Congress did not recognize any political: change that had occurred in Europe after 1789. They were determined to bring back the Europe that existed before the French Revolution.

The Principle of Balance of Powers: The diplomats of the Vienna Congress decided that the powers of the different countries should be balanced so that no country could threaten another. It indicated balancing the neighboring kingdom of France with the latter in such a way that France would not be able to disturb the European order of 1815 in the coming years.

The Principle of Compensation: According to this principle, it was decided that those states which had helped the allies against Napoleon were to be rewarded, but those which had supported Napoleon were to be punished. Moreover, it was also decided that those kingdoms should be compensated that had either been destroyed or had suffered losses because of Napoleon. Since the allies had taken an active ” part in the downfall of Napoleon, it was also decided to compensate them by giving them some new territories.

Question 17. Criticism of the work of the Vienna Congress.
Answer:

The Vienna Cc ingress (1815) was convened with the declaration of high morals and principles. It was expected that the settlement of the Vienna Congress would
prove valuable for the establishment of peace based upon a just division of power. But it has been remarked that it was a symbol of the reaction, conservatism, and selfishness of big powers.

It was criticized on the following grounds :

(1) The principles adopted at the Vienna Congress were overlooked by the diplomats. The Principle of Legitimacy was not applied in many states like Naples, Saxony, and Genoa. Each representative was eager to grab as many provinces as he could.

(2) The representatives of the Vienna Congress did not represent the common people. Congress ignored the feelings of the common people and did not respect their rights of the people.

(3) Congress ignored the feelings of nationality. They divided many states and annexed them to one another without keeping in their minds the idea of nationality. The rulers rearranged Europe according to their own desires; disposing of it as if it was their own personal property.

(4) The Congress ignored the feelings of the revolution. The feelings of liberty, equality, and fraternity were ignored while undertaking the great work of the reconstruction of Europe.

Question 18. What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Compensation?
Answer:

According to the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress, it was decided that those states which had helped the Allies against Napoleon, were to be rewarded. But those states which had supported Napoleon were to be punished.

(1) As England played the most important role in bringing about the defeat of Napoleon, England received the lion’s share of compensation. England got Malta, the Ionian Islands in the eastern Mediterranean, Heligoland, Ceylon, Trinidad, Mauritius, and the Cape Colony in Africa.

(2) Russia got most of the Polish territory, Finland and Bessarabia, and the Turks and a major part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

(3) Prussia got Swedish Pomerania, some Polish territory, about two-fifth of Saxony, and large districts of the Rhine.

(4) Austria was given Venetia and Lombardy in Italy as compensation for the loss of Belgium. It got Tyros from Bavaria and Illyrian provinces along the Eastern coast of the Adriatic.

(5)It was also decided that those states which had supported Napoleon were to be punished. Poland was punished. This big country was divided into three parts and given to Russia, Prussia, and Austria respectively.

(6)As the King of Denmark had helped Napoleon against the Allies, Denmark was punished. Norway was snatched away from her and given to, Sweden.

Wbbse Class 9 History Europe In The 19th Century Mcq With Answers

Question 19. What were the main features of Czar Alexander II’s Emancipation Statute?
Answer:

There were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising 50% of the total population. The condition of the serfs was miserable. They were treated like animals by their masters. Czar Alexander II passed the ‘Emancipation Statute’ in 1861 and abolished serfdom.

The main features of the ‘Emancipation Statute were as follows:

(1) The Russian serfs were declared free. They were granted civ rights equal to that of the free peasants.
(2) All the rights of the lords on the serfs ceased to exist.
(3) The serfs were granted full freedom. The liberated serfs could own property, engage in business, and were free to marry at their will.
(4) The landed estates of the lord were to be divided into two parts. The serfs would get 50 of the land they used to cultivate under the lords.
(5) The serfs must pay the landlord for the land received from him. Since the serfs had no money to pay, the Government would advance the money to the lords on behalf of the serfs. The serfs were to pay back to the Government in 49 installments.
(6) The land was not vested with individual serfs, but the village mirs got the land and controlled it.

Question 20. What was the contribution of Garibaldi to the unification of Italy?
Answer:

The contribution of Garibaldi to the unification of Italy

Garibaldi was a famous patriot of Italy. He was influenced by the ideas of Mazzini and he joined Young Italy. In 1860 the people of Sicily rose in revolt against their King Francis II of Naples. The rebels requested Garibaldi to help them. Garibaldi decided to come ahead to help the Sicilians. An army of volunteers was organized at Genoa with one thousand of them wearing red shirts.

Therefore, they were called the ‘Red Shirts’. On 5 May 1860, the Red Shirts under the leadership of Garibaldi went to Sicily. It was called ‘Expedition of the thousands’. It seemed that the campaign would fail, for the King of Naples had 24,000 troops in Sicily and about 100,000 in Naples.

But fortune favored Garibaldi. The army of Sicily was badly defeated by the soldiers of Garibaldi. Now he decided to take Naples also. In spite of a big army, the King of Naples could not fight with Garibaldi and fled. Garibaldi took possession of Naples. After freeing Sicily and Naples from the autocracy of Francis II, Garibaldi decided to attack Rome in order to complete the unification of Italy.

But Cavour did not allow this because he apprehended that Garibaldi’s increased strength would be an impediment to Italian unification under the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia. Garibaldi accepted the proposal and gave up all the conquered provinces in favor of Victor Emmanuel II.

Question 21. What is Ems Telegram?
Answer:

Ems Telegram

In 1869 the Spanish throne became vacant. Leopold of the Prussian Hohenzollern family was invited by the Spaniards to become the King of Spain. With the possibility of both Prussia and Spain coming under the rule of the Hohenzollern family, the balance of power in Europe was threatened. In these circumstances, France put tremendous pressure on Spain, as a result of which Leopold declined the offer.

Not satisfied with this, Napoleon III, the French king, sent his ambassador Count Benedetti to the Prussian emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohenzollern dynasties would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain. The Prussian emperor William was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refused to make such a promise to Benedetti. A report on the whole matter was sent to Bismarck by telegram (13th July 1870). Bismarck immediately found an opportunity after reading this famous ‘Ems Telegram’.

Bismarck abridged the telegram in such a way that it appeared to the French that their ambassador Benedetti was insulted and it appeared to the Prussians that their King was insulted. Bismarck had the abridged telegram published in the newspaper. This infuriated the French. An outcry for a war against Prussia grew and the war was declared by France on 19th July 1870.

Consequence: This infuriated the Frenchmen and a strong public opinion was created in France for war with Prussia. When France declared war against Prussia on 15th July 1870, it was Bismarck’s diplomacy that carried the day. Bismarck was always ready for the fray, he was just seeking an opportunity. As an aggressor, again, France could not secure the support of any European power. But Prussia with the help and cooperation of Italy and Austria was able to resist the French attack. The battle that followed between France and Prussia in 1870 is known in history as the Battle of Sedan.

Question 22. What do you know as ‘Ems Telegram’?
Answer:

‘Ems Telegram’

The French King sent his ambassador Count Benedetti to the Prussian Emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohenzollern dynasties would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain. The Prussian Emperor William I was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refused to make such a promise to Benedetti. A report on the whole matter was sent to Bismarck by telegram (13th July 1870), known as Ems Telegram in European history.

Change in a telegram by Bismarck: Bismarck immediately found an opportunity after reading this ‘Ems Telegram’, Shortening the text of the telegram on purpose, Bismarck published the same in the next day’s paper. As a result of the change of words effected by Bismarck, the whole meaning of the telegram stood changed beyond recognition. The published matter appeared to indicate that the French ambassador, Benedetti had been insulted by the Prussian Emperor.

Consequence: This infuriated the Frenchmen and a strong public opinion was created in France for war with Prussia. When France declared war against Prussia on 15th July 1870, it was Bismarck’s diplomacy that carried the day. Bismarck was always ready for the fray, he was just seeking an opportunity. As an aggressor, again, France could not secure the support of any European power. But Prussia with the help and cooperation of Italy and Austria was able to resist the French attack. The battle that followed between France and Prussia in 1870 is known in history as the Battle of Sedan.

Question 23. Give a pen picture of the life of the serfs in Russia. Who was known as ‘Czar the Liberator’ and why?
Answer:

There were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising 50% of the total population. The condition of the serfs was miserable. They were treated like animals by their masters. They could be auctioned. They were subjected to physical punishment. The serfs were tied to the lords for everything and had no freedom. The law did not recognize or protect their rights. Czar Alexander II abolished serfdom and came to be known as ‘Czar the Liberator’.

The serf system was detrimental to Russia’s progress. The unskilled, illiterate serfs were unfit to work in the factories or in modern agricultural farms. The Serf system lost its utility and became a barrier to the economic progress of Russia. By the Emancipation Statute of 1861, the Russian serfs were declared free. They were granted civil rights equal to those of the free peasants.

All the rights of the lords on the serfs ceased to exist. They were granted full freedom. The liberated serfs could Own property, engage in business, and were free to marry at their will. The land to be received by the serfs was to be fixed by magistrates called Arbiters of peace.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Why was the Vienna Settlement formed?
Answer: After the fall of Napoleon in 1814, it was decided that a Congress should be held in Vienna to undertake the task of territorial reconstruction. The territorial settlement made at Vienna was signed in June 1815 before the battle of Waterloo. It was in effect made by the representatives of the five Great Powers.

There was the Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Metternich, the Chancellor of Austria, King Frederick William III of Prussia, Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Secretary, and Talleyrand, the skillful representative of France. All the powers were represented in Congress except Turkey. After much bargaining, the treaty was signed on 9 June 1815.

One great principle underlying the Vienna Settlement was the restoration, as far as possible, of the boundaries and reigning families of Europe, as they had been before 1789. It was this principle of legitimacy which Talleyrand urged in order to preserve France.

In line with this principle, the Bourbons were reinstated in Spain and in the Two Sicilies, the House of Orange in Holland, the House of Savoy in Sardinia, the Pope in the Papal State, and a number of German princes in their former possessions. The Swiss Confederation was restored. In the name of legitimacy, Austria recovered Tyrol and most of the territories she had lost.

The second principle involved compensation to those who had played major roles in defeating Napoleon. Prussia was strengthened. She was given a large slice of Saxony, Westphalia, and more territory along the Rhine. The strengthening of Prussia on the Rhine made her ultimately the national champion of Germany against France. Germany was reconstituted as a loose confederation of thirty-nine states with a Diet consisting of delegates of various rulers. Austria presided over the Diet and dominated the Confederation.

Austria recovered certain Polish lands and received Northern Italy, henceforth known as the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom. She also recovered the Illyrian provinces along the eastern coast of the Adriatic which she had lost in 1809. She also got Tyrol and other valleys of the eastern Alps.

Moreover, the restored rulers of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany in north-central Italy belonged to the Habsburg family. Britain, the most persistent enemy of Napoleon and the pay-mistress of the allies, took her reward in the form of colonies and naval bases. She occupied Heligoland in the North Sea, Malta and Ionian Islands in the Mediterranean, Cape colony in South Africa, and Ceylon in the Indian Ocean.

The third principle which guided the Congress of Vienna was to provide a guarantee for the future peace of Europe by weakening France. She was reduced to the boundaries that she possessed before the outbreak of the Revolution. Steps were taken to surround France with strong states as bulwarks against future aggressions. Thus north Belgium, previously an Austrian province, was joined to Holland as one kingdom under the House of Orange.

In the southeast the kingdom of Sardinia—Piedmont was strengthened by the acquisition of Genoa. Among other important changes, Norway was taken from Denmark and joined Sweden. Switzerland was strengthened by the addition of three Cantons which had previously been incorporated in France.

Question 2. Narrate how France became a republic for the second time in 1848.
Answer:

France became a republic for the second time in 1848 

Louis Philippe’s legal title to the throne of France was very weak. He was invited to ascend the throne by only 219 members of the Chamber of Deputies out of 430, a bare majority. Though the franchise was slightly extended, it was still open only to the wealthy. Louis Philippe’s Government rested, therefore, on the support of the bourgeois, the well-to-do trading, and manufacturing classes.

As Louis Philippe’s rule lacked any popular sanction, it had many enemies from the start Legitimists, Bonapartists, and Republicans. The Legitimists defended the rights of Charles X and his descendants. The Bonapartists recalled the glorious days of Napoleon and looked with contempt upon a king whose foreign policy was timid. The Republicans were opposed to any form of monarchy.

In June 1832, an insurrection broke out in Paris. It was important as being the first republican outbreak since 1815. The Government passed a law restricting the right of association. Hardly had the new law been passed than new insurrections broke out in several cities.

The most important was that in Lyons in April 1834 which grew out of labor troubles. Determined to strike hard at all opponents, the Government secured the passage in 1835 of new laws–September Laws- concerning the special (assize) courts, the jury system, and the press. Special courts were established to judge summarily all those attacking the security of the state. Press censorship. was re-established. These laws greatly weakened the July Monarchy.

The parliamentary history of France during the ten years from 1830 to 1840 was marked by instability. There were ten ministers within ten years. Yet there was a fairly continuous policy. The main work was to consolidate the July Monarchy, put down its enemies, and keep peace with foreign countries. In.1840 Guizot, the reactionary became the Prime Minister .who remained in power till the monarchy collapsed in 1848.

The three things that combined to overthrow the Orleans foreign policy were the growing tide of socialism and Guizot’s reactionary measures. In the thirties, Louis Philippe determined all costs to avoid war. Despite the sympathy of The French people gave no support to the insurrection in Poland and Italy. In the crisis of the East in which Mehmet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, declared war against Turkey, France alone sided with the former. The diplomatic isolation of France was clear when the Powers Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain—met in London in 1840. They made a treaty with Turkey, pledging themselves to force

Mehmet Ali to terms. Finally, Louis Philippe estranged England through a diplomatic conflict over the affairs of the Spanish Marriage. In that country, Queen Isabella and her sister Louisa were both unmarried. It was arranged that they should marry the two sons of Louis Philippe.

Because of opposition, Isabella married her cousin, the Duke of Cadiz and Louisa married the Duke of Montpensier, son of Louis Philippe. The two marriages were celebrated on 10th October 1846 though the French Government had promised the British that Louisa should not marry a French prince until Isabella was married and had children. The result was that Louis Philippe had lost the friendship of Britain, his best ally in Europe.

The July Monarchy was a Government of the bourgeoisie, of the capitalists. Under Louis Philippe, France was passing from the old industrial system to the new factory system. This transition was in every country painful. The number of paupers doubled during the July Monarchy.

The doctrines of Socialism, advocated by Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Louis Blanc spread far and wide among the workers. Saint-Simon preached the gospel of work, ‘man must work’, He believed that the State should own the means of production and should organize industry on the principle of ‘Labour according to capacity and reward according to services’.

Fourier advocated that each worker must share in its products and be guaranteed a sufficient minimum to free him from anxiety. But the eloquent champion of Socialism was Louis Blanc, who in 1839 published the Organisation of Labour. The State must acknowledge and implement the ‘right to work’ and must protect the poor and the weak.

Guizot refused to recognize that France needed any change in her political institutions. He opposed any extension of suffrage and any legislation for the laboring classes. The amount of discontent with the Government of France was steadily growing. Yet it could do nothing because the ministry was steadily supported by the Chamber of Deputies. Deputies were bribed directly or indirectly to support the Government. About 200 of the 430 deputies were at the same time office-holders. The revolutionary movement began in 1847 when the opposition organized the ‘reform banquet’.

On 28 December 1847, in a speech from the throne, Louis Philippe denounced agitations. The opposition arranged a great banquet in Paris on 22 February 1848. Eighty-seven prominent deputies promised to attend. In alarm, the Government prohibited the banquet. This prohibition led to the French Revolution of 1848. On 22 February the populace crowded the streets shouting for reform. Students and workers clashed with the police.

The National Guard was called out but refused to fire. The King dismissed Guizot and prepared for gram reforms. Now the Republicans entered the scene. On 23rd February a Paris mob attacked Guizot’s residence. On the 24th morning, the streets of Paris were barricaded by workmen. Louis Philippe, after vainly trying to win over the populace, abdicated in favor of his ten-year-old grandson, the Count of Paris, and fled to England. Thus in 1848, France became a Republic for the second time.

Question 3. Write an essay on Mazzini and Young Italy.
Answer:

Mazzini and Young Italy

In 1831, a young Genoan, Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) founded a new society ‘Young Italy’. As a student, Mazzini loved the works of the romantic writers of Italy, France, Britain, and Germany. Young Italy was to be a people’s movement dedicated to the establishment of a free, independent, and republican Italian nation. Mazzini’s methods differed from those of the Carbonari in two main respects.

First, he placed less emphasis on plots and secrecy, and more on, propaganda. Secondly, he addressed himself not to the educated classes only, but to the people as a whole. Mazzini had a religious, almost mystic enthusiasm for his work, for he loved Italy above everything else. Italy had a third life to lead. This noble dream was bound to have a limited appeal. The rural masses were generally unmoved by it and the middle classes were not attracted toward a revolution that threatened the social as well as political structure.

Nevertheless, Mazzini must be regarded as one of the pioneers in forging national unity. His ceaseless propaganda created a vigorous public opinion in favor of national independence without which the great plans of unification could not have succeeded. He had all the faith of a prophet and the courage of a crusader.

It was the kind of spirit that produced a Garibaldi. Even after his influence had begun to wane, it was strong enough to act as a spur to Cavour. His faith in liberation by popular insurrection had its greatest triumph in southern Italy in 1860. Among the makers of modern Italy, Mazzini holds an imperishable place as she laid the moral foundations of Italian unification.

The next step in the movement of revolution was taken by the Neo-Guelfs whose leader Gioberti wanted to evolve a federation of Italian states under the Pope. But the greatest drawback of Gioberti was that he did not offer any program for freeing Italy from the Austrians. In 1846 with the election of Piux 9 as Pope, the Italian question entered a new phase.

He championed the cause of nationality and introduced reforms in the Government of the Papal States. In 1847 occurred the Milanese ‘tobacco riots’. Then in January 1848 a revolution broke out in Sicily followed by that of Sardinia. Finally came the news of the March Revolution in Vienna, and all of Italy took fire. The leadership was grasped by Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, who declared war against Austria.

But in 1849, the Austrians won a decisive victory at Novara over the King of Sardinia. The threatening intervention of Louis Napoleon saved the Kingdom of Sardinia from total extinction. Thus ended in failure the first attempt of Italy to win unity and liberty. Charles Albert had declared that Italy could save itself without foreign allies.

Now the Italians had learned that with all their zeal they could not hope to contend against Austria unaided. There must be one Italian state around which the others might rally. Sardinia was the obvious choice which had now a new King, Victor Emmanuel II, and a minister of exceptional talent in the person of Cavour.

Europe In The 19th Century Class 9 Wbbse Notes

Question 4. What was the Eastern Question? What were the factors in the Eastern Question?
Answer:

Eastern Question

The term Eastern Question came into use at the time of the Greek War of Independence. But the problem had existed ever since the middle of the fourteenth century when the Ottoman Turks had set foot on European soil. The Turks conquered the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, Serbs, Bulgars, Greeks, and Romans. The upper class was the Turks, most of whom were feudal lords and government officials. The Rumanians and Bulgarians were peasants, while the Greeks were sea-faring people.

The great majority of the inhabitants were Christians, members of the Greek Church, which in belief and ritual, was almost identical to the Orthodox Church in Russia. At its head was the Patriarch in Constantinople, who was always a Greek; but he was appointed by the Sultan, the head of the Mohammedan faith and the oppressor of the Christians.

In the 19th century, the Eastern Question developed three distinctive features. First, the growing weakness of Turkey made it impossible for her to resist the aggressions of her neighbors. Turkey had her period of greatness but her decline had already set in. Secondly, the rivalries of European powers created tension in Eastern Europe. While Britain and France became protectors of Turkey, Russia and Austria were interested in the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire.

Thirdly, the ideas of democracy and nationalism propagated by the French Revolution encouraged the Christian nationalities to throw off the Turkish yoke. In 1804 the Serbs revolted and waged a determined struggle until in 1817 they obtained substantial concessions from the Turks. In the first half of the nineteenth century, Russia was eager to annex Constantinople and her territories as well.

During the period 1830-41, France was equally interested in dismembering Turkey and she favored the revolt of Egypt against Turkey. England, on the other hand, was as anxious as ever to preserve the Turkish Empire. Though Russia wanted to break the Ottoman Empire, Britain believed that the existence of Turkey in Europe as a barrier against Russia was necessary to safeguard her Empire in India and her position in the Mediterranean Ever since 1815 British statesmen had been obsessed with the thought that if France ceased to dominate Europe, Russia would take her place.

British policy, therefore, revolved around France by strengthening the latter against Russia’s domination, yet keeping France harmless. Apart from this element, British policy was to develop the independence of Central Europe so that it could hold its own against both Russia and France. Britain’s natural allies, therefore, were Austria and Prussia.

Russian ambition to control Turkey was to a certain extent checked by the Treaty of Adrianople (1829). It laid down that there should be freedom of trade and navigation in the Black Sea, and that the Bosphorus and Dardanelles should be open to all Russian merchant ships and to the merchant ships of all other powers with which Turkey was at peace. In 1833, Russia. secured her unrivaled influence over Turkey as a price of protection against Egypt with which the former had been involved in a war.

By the treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi (1833) Russia obtained complete control over the Black Sea and free passage of her warships through the. Straits of Dardanelles and Bosphorus. But in 1840 Palmerston insisted that the affairs of Turkey were of general European concern. By the Treaty of London in July 1841, the Five Great Powers—England, Russia, France, Austria, and Prussia—agreed that the Straits be closed to all foreign ships of war so long as Turkey was at peace.

Question 5. Write an essay on the Crimean War.
Answer:

Crimean War

The Crimean War occupies a chief place in the history of Europe in the nineteenth century. The war arose out of a petty quarrel between Roman Catholic and Greek or Orthodox Christians in Palestine which ignited the latent conflict between Russia and France. The Tsar had long been interested in the Ottoman Empire, whose Sultan Nicholas was described as the sick man of the East.

In January 1853, Tsar Nicholas proposed to England to partition Turkish territories between them leaving France out of the deal. England did not accept this proposal. Then arose the question of the holy place. The Greek or Orthodox claims were pressed upon Turkey by the Tsar, who also demanded that Russia be allowed to protect the Christians in the Ottoman Empire. The acceptance of the Russian claims by Turkey would have virtually placed Turkey under  Russian control.

The cause of the Roman Catholics was championed by France whose Emperor Napoleon III wished to strengthen his position at home by winning the support of the Catholic party. The Russian ambassador at Constantinople, Menshikoff, opposed the French demand but Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, the British ambassador, supported it. Britain had already been committed to preventing Russia. expansion in the Balkans at any cost.

In July 1853, Russian troops occupied Moldavia and Wallachia (modern Roumania). In October Turkey declared war. An attempt was made by the European powers when they met in Vienna to settle the question by peaceful means. The meeting ended in failure. in March 1854, Britain and France declared war on Russia. Sardinia, eager to curry Franco-British favor, provided an expeditionary force in 1855. British and French fleets came to the Black Sea and attacked Crimea. Since military operations were confined mostly to this peninsula, the conflict is known as the Crimean War.

Before long Russia, fearing that Austria should join with other powers, withdrew from Moldavia and Wallachia. The allies decided to besiege the Russian naval base of Sebastopol on the southern side of the Crimean peninsula. The siege of Sebastopol was a mad venture and the methods employed were tragic. Battles occurred at Balaclava and Inkerman—remarkable for the bravery of the troops and the incapacity of their leaders. The siege continued till September 1855. The besieging forces, harassed by Russian winter and sickness, suffered great losses.

The British made a desperate attempt to storm the Redan, one of the strongest forts around Sebastopol, while the French succeeded in capturing the Malakoff. In September the Russians under Gortschakoff evacuated Sebastopol. This was practically the end of the war. Russia was exhausted by the war and peace must be made. Although Palmerston, on behalf of Britain, was in favor of continuing the war to crush Russia, Napoleon saw that he had nothing to gain by continuing it. The Treaty of Paris signed on 30 March 1856 brought the war to a conclusion.

The Treaty of Paris guaranteed the independence of Turkey. It was laid down that no power had the right to interfere between the Sultan and his Christian subjects. Turkey was admitted to the concert of Europe. The Black Sea was neutralized, its waters and ports being thrown open to merchant ships of all nations.

The navigation of the Danube was declared to be free. Greater independence was granted to the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. The independence of Serbia was guaranteed. To Modavia Russia gave up a part of Bessarabia. The Russian right to the guardianship of Christian peoples was thus abandoned. A treaty of peace can only define the conditions of the present; it cannot bind the future. Thus the Russians, fifteen years later, repudiated the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris.

In 1872 Russia completely wiped away the humiliation of Crimea by recovering Bessarabia. The peace conference of Paris settled certain questions of maritime law. Privateering was declared abolished; enemy goods, except contraband of war, were not to be seized in neutral ships.

For a blockade to be effective must be maintained by an adequate naval force. The improvement of nursing and medical services affected by the work of Florence Nightingale and others was another lasting benefit of the war. The significance of the Crimean War lay in the fact that it shattered the peace in Europe and ushered in a succession of wars. It removed the shadow of Russian power from Central European affairs.

The war was a personal triumph of NapoleonIII and he had covered France with glory. By participating in the war Sardinia got the opportunity to champion the cause of Italian liberation. The Crimean war was an important chapter in the Eastern Question and the prelude to the most important political development of the nineteenth century.

The Peace of Paris reaffirmed the principle of collective responsibility by the Great Powers which believed that the European Concert would be effective in the years that followed. The Peace Treaty gave the powers acting in concert a general right to intervene in international disputes. Thus, the Crimean War was a fumbling war, probably unnecessary, largely futile, yet rich in unintended consequences.

Question 6. How did the Ottoman Empire decay due to the attitude of the European powers?
Answer: Until the twentieth century Turkey was known as the Ottoman which denoted a dynasty. In the Ottoman Empire, Islam was the established religion. Christians were regarded with contempt and had to suffer from various disabilities. The Government of Turkey was an absolute monarchy, with all power vested in the Sultan.

The Ulemas and the Janissaries, the Sultan’s picked bodyguards, resisted western ideas. The Sultan, Selim III (1789-1807), felt the necessity of introducing radical military reform, only to be impeded by a reaction that led to his deposition. Mahmud II (1808-39) had to wait until he felt strong enough to suppress the Janissaries (1826) and revive a reform of the army. But this came too late and the Greek revolt could not be averted.

The Empire still had a medieval and feudal structure, capped by a top-heavy bureaucracy. Apart from inflation which hindered the economic growth of the country, agriculture and industry was crippled by taxes. The ‘Eastern Question’ has always been an international question. The question took different shapes at different times. While the Ottoman Empire posed a serious threat to Europe and Asia, European statesmen no longer feared the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. They feared its dismemberment and tried to take advantage of its weakness.

Russia was bound to the Balkan peoples by ties of religion and race and beneath the intention of protecting them from Turkish misrule lay the ostensible object of securing access to the Mediterranean. Russian policy in the Near East had been to seize Constantinople as an ultimate goal.

Between the years 1788 and 1791, Austria and Russia attacked Turkey in concert. On the plea of protecting the Christians in the Turkish Empire, Russia advanced as far as the port of Oczakov on the Black Sea. Younger Pitt of Britain was quick enough to realize the portents of the Russian advance and the menace to Turkey’s integrity. Though Parliament did not support him over the incident, Britain with varying degrees followed a pro-Turkish and anti-Russian policy.

At the dawn of the nineteenth century, Russia began to look covetously on Constantinople. In the eyes of Austria, Russian ascendancy in the Balkans foreshadowed a great Slav Empire. The growth of the Pan-Slavic movement in the Balkans encouraged by the Russians was a menace to the integrity of the Austrian Empire.

After the expulsion of Austria from Italy and Germany, she sought to find compensation in the southeast at the expense of Turkey. British policy in the Near East had not been consistently anti-Russian before the Crimean War. Until the beginning of 1853, British suspicions were turned against France both at Constantinople and in Egypt; and Britain and Russia often pitted themselves against French encroachment.

In 1871 it appeared that the whole Eastern Question was ready to burst into flames. The failure of reforms in Turkey and the weakening of Turkish rule foreshadowed a fast-approaching upheaval. But events in Western and Central Europe absorbed the attention of the Great Powers.

Austria and Russia made every effort to outbid’ each other in their expansionist plans. France and Italy were embroiled in the consolidation of new regimés. Britain still clung to the idea of maintaining the integrity of Turkey as a bulwark against Russian expansionism. Bismarck was so preoccupied with completing the work of unifying the new German Reich that he treated the Eastern Question as of negligible importance.

Yet from this time onward the Eastern Question assumed a new dimension to demand the attention of the Great Powers. The last quarter of the nineteenth century which was filled with frequent crises and wars owed not a little to this Eastern Question.

Question 7. Write an essay on the Treaty of Berlin.
Answer:

Treaty of Berlin

Balkan affairs formed the chief event that brought the imperial powers into bloody conflict in 1914. Until about 1830 the Balkan peoples were subjects of the Sultan of Turkey. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, they increased their agitation for unity and independence. In 1830 Greece won its independence and Serbs and parts of Romania were granted autonomy. But Balkan nationalities were determined to continue their struggle for independence.

In 1875 the oppressed peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted against their Turkish masters. The revolt rapidly spread to Serbia and Montenegro. For several months in the summer of 1875, the Turks busied themselves with savage reprisals against the rebel provinces. In December 1875 the Austrian Chancellor, Count Andrassy, with the approval of Russia and Germany, drew up a note which was presented to Turkey. The note demanded various kinds of reforms in the disaffected regions. But the Turkish Government had no intention of carrying out the proposed reforms.

Meanwhile, Bulgaria broke out into revolt in April 1876, and in Constantinople, Sultan Abdul Aziz was deposed and replaced by Murad V. He occupied the throne for a few weeks and was deposed by his unscrupulous brother, Abdul Hamid II. On 11 May 1876, the Austrian and Russian Chancellors met Bismarck at Berlin and proposed to impose an armistice upon Turkey. Though France and Italy agreed to the measure, Britain refused her assent. Hence the proposed intervention was given up. During May 1876 the Turks adopted severe repressive measures and cruelly massacred twelve thousand Bulgars.

Britain could not maintain her support of the Sultan in the face of such inhuman misdeeds. Serbia and Montenegro declared war against the Sultan in June and July respectively. An international conference that met at Constantinople during the winter of 1876-77, proposed terms for pacification. But the Sultan rejected these proposals. There- Russia, having secured the friendly neutrality of Austria, declared war in April 1877. By the beginning of 1878 Russian forces had taken Sofia and were advancing to the gates of Constantinople. At this point, Turkey asked for an armistice in March.1878 signed the treaty of San Stefano.

The Sultan recognized the independence of Rumania, Serbia, Montenegro, and a greatly enlarged Bulgaria. Russia was to gain Bessarabia and the Dobruja in exchange for other territories granted to Rumania. The treaty was extremely unpopular to Britain and Austria who feared that Russia would dominate the new Bulgaria.

Moreover, Romania, Serbia, and Greece disliked the rise of Bulgaria. Britain and Austria threatened war unless the settlement was submitted to a Congress of the powers. Accordingly, in June 1878, the Congress met in Berlin under the presidency of Bismarck, attended by Russia, France, Britain, Austria, Italy, and Turkey.

The Treaty of Berlin recognized the complete independence of Romania, Serbia “and Montenegro. The enlarged state of Bulgaria was reduced in size by the exclusion of Rumelia and Macedonia, the latter being placed under direct Turkish rule. Austria-Hungary was allowed to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina. Britain gained the island of Cyprus.

Thessaly was promised to Greece, but only given up three years later. Russia was obliged to be content only with Bessarabia. Rumania received the province called Dobruja. France was promised a free hand in Turkey’s North African territory of Tunisia. Only Germany and Italy left the Congress without territorial gains.

This comprehensive settlement was to be strengthened by reforms in European Turkey. The Turkish Government was to uphold religious liberty and equality. The Treaty of Berlin formed an important landmark in the history of the Eastern Question. Russia’s ambition in south-eastern Europe had been checked much to the satisfaction of England who occupied the island of Cyprus.

The treatment accorded to Russia by the Treaty of Berlin eventually strained her relations with Germany and she formed an alliance with France. Bismarck was founded in Austria-Hungary. A valuable friend as the latter’s interests were more closely interlinked with Balkan Peninsula. Thus the Congress of Berlin recreated the alliance system of pre- 1815 and emphasized the play of power politics. If it prevented a localized European war in 1878, the Congress of Berlin sowed many of the seeds of a far greater conflict to come.

Question 8. Write an essay on the Balkan Wars.
Answer:

Balkan Wars

In 1912 an unprecedented development had taken place. Owing largely to the statesmanship of Venizelos of Greece, a league had been formed between Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. There were a number of factors that helped to bring about the unity of the Balkans against Turkey.

The success of Austria in annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina created a sense of panic among the Balkan States. Their object was now to prevent any further increase in the threatening Austro-German. control of the Peninsula. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, Macedonia had been the storm center of the Balkan peninsula in which a large number of Christians were inhumanly prosecuted.

On the triumph of the ‘Young Turks’ in Turkey (1908), the lot of the Christians in Greece grew worse. These events inflamed the people of the Balkan States with the desire to liberate their brothers in Macedonia.

For some years Russia had been active in bringing about a league of the Balkan states under her auspices a weapon that might be used not only. against Turkey and Austria as well. After Turkey’s defeat by Italy in a brief war (1910-11), the Balkan States believed that their hour had come. Russia and Austria, not yet ready for a showdown between themselves, warned the Balkan states not to attack Turkey.

First Balkan War: On 8 October 1912, Montenegro declared war on Turkey and very soon was joined by Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia. To everyone’s surprise, the Balkan allies overwhelmed the Turkish resistance and captured Salonica and Monastir. By March 1913, the Bulgarians were in possession of Adrianople, while the Serbs took Scutari in April. Thus the Balkan League had practically destroyed all of European Turkey outside Constantinople.

This alarmed both Austria and Russia. A conference was summoned to London to settle a new map of the Balkans. On 30 May 1913, the Treaty of London was signed. By this Treaty, Turkey lost all its European territory save Constantinople and a narrow strip along the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Albania was set up as an autonomous state.

Crete was allowed to unite with Greece. The danger that the great powers might be dragged into a general war had been averted because both Russian and Austrian interests had been safeguarded. Britain and Germany were satisfied with the improvement of their own relations in the process.

Second Balkan War: No sooner was peace concluded than the Balkan allies began to quarrel over the division of the spoils. The Great Powers were no less responsible for the Second Balkan War. Austria was determined to prevent Serbia from gaining Albania. In this determination, Austria was backed by Germany and Italy.

Albania had been created as an independent state. Thus the hostile attitude of the Powers checked Serbia from gaining an outlet on the Adriatic. In her disappointment, Serbia demanded a part of Macedonia which had been assigned to Bulgaria. Greece was also at odds with Bulgaria over the division of Thrace. Russia sought to intervene with offers of arbitration. The situation seemed to be saved.

But Austria had made up her mind to smash the Balkan League and she deliberately incited Bulgaria against her allies. On 29 June 1913, a war broke out between Bulgaria on one side. and Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Romania on the other.

The Turks, hopeful of regaining some of their losses, fought against Bulgaria. In July the Turks recaptured Adrianople, while the Greeks, Serbs, and Rumanians threatened the Bulgarian capital, Sofia. King Ferdinand of Bulgaria had to make peace and the Treaty of Bucharest (10 August 1913) imposed a new settlement on the Balkans.

By this treaty, Romania gained the Silistrian plateau at the expense of Bulgaria. Serbia annexed northern and central Macedonia. Greece secured Crete, southern Epirus, southern Macedonia (including Salonica), and part of western Thrace.

Turks wrested from Bulgaria, the town of Adrianople, and a larger part of Thrace. Bulgaria received a part of Thrace and Eastern Macedonia, with a few miles of the Aegean Coast. It was estimated that as a result of the Treaty of Bucharest, over a million Bulgarian people passed under foreign rule. Thus ended the Balkan Wars and seldom in history have any wars changed their character so rapidly.

Question 9. Write in brief about Balkan nationalism.
Answer:

Rise of Balkan Nationalism: The Sultan of Turkey, Abdul Macid I (1839-1861) couldn’t gain from the Treaty of Paris. He failed to introduce necessary reforms for ensuring the territorial integrity of the empire. The main events of the next few years after the Crimean War concerned the small Balkan States.

(1) Greece: In 1862 the Greek King Otto had to abdicate after a long period of misgovernment. The new King George I brought in a system of parliamentary Government. The Greeks were prosperous. This encouraged their nationalist desires for the annexation of the Greeks in Crete, Salonica, and the Aegean Islands. With the help of Serbia and Bulgaria in the Balkan War (1912-1913) the Greeks received the desired territories and became unified forming a whole and complete nation.

Greek Nationalism and Hetairia Philike: The Greeks of the Ottoman Empire began a national revival at the time of the French Revolution and Napoleon. The propounders of Greek nationalism were Adamantios Korais and Constantine Rigas. They founded secret societies and in a secret and illicit manner circulated newspapers for the cause of Greek independence.

In 1814 a Greek revolutionary. the society named Hetairia Philike was founded in the. The Russian city of Odessa in Russia. The society soon was stuffed with thousands of members. Prince Alexander Ypsilanti was the president of the society. Ypsilanti entered Rumania, a province of the Ottoman – Empire, and organized a national Greek revolt. But the Turkish troops captured the Greek leader and sent him to an Austrian prison.

(2) Serbia: Serbia lost her independence a long time ago. She remained under Turkish rule until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Though King Alexander 1889 granted a liberal constitution, yet failed to win the support of the people to his side, and political unrest was carried on unrestricted. The rebels in 1903 placed one named Peter on the throne and restored the constitution of 1889.

Under Peter, the Serbians formulated a nationalistic policy that would bring all the Serbs of the Balkans into one large state. But the dream of a larger Serbia could not be realized without a conflict with Austria-Hungary. The movement, therefore, turned revolutionary and directed against the territorial integrity of Austria-Hungary. Thus it became the most dangerous ‘irredentist’ (advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity) problem in Europe and created great havoc.

(3) Moldavia and Wallachia: The two districts of Moldavia and Wallachia, at the mouth of the Danube River, consequently became independent at the end of the Crimean War. But these two had been occupied by the Russian forces at any time there had been a war between Turkey and Russia.

The people of Moldavia and Wallachia, however, had always shown a strong sense of nationalism. Little progress was made until 1856 when the powers recognized the two provinces’ independence with two separate assemblies. But nevertheless, this was overcome by the two assemblies, each choosing the same prince. Thus the two provinces were united to form the new state of Romania in 1861. But this name, however, was not given till 1866.

(4) Montenegro: Of the other Balkan states the independence of Montenegro under a separate Prince was recognized in 1878. It prospered under Prince Nicholas, who also advanced political democracy in the state. A constitution was adopted to provide for a Parliament elected by universal manhood suffrage in 1905.

(5) Insurrections in Other Balkan States: The oppressions of the Turkish Officials ultimately compelled the peasants of Herzegovina to rise in insurrection. Very soon they were joined by the fellow Slavs of Bosnia in 1875. The next year the people of Bulgaria bust out in rebellion against the Turkish officials. The Bulgarians were tortured by the Turkish soldiers with utmost brutality. The mass killing in Bulgaria enthralled and engrossed all of Europe. Meanwhile, Serbia and Montenegro declared war against Turkey in 1876. The Balkan issues were finally settled at a European Congress held in Berlin (Berlin Congress) in 1878.

Wbbse Class 9 History Chapter 3 Long Questions With Answers

Question 10. Describe the settlement effected by the Congres of Vienna. What were its defects? Or, Discuss the three principles of the Vienna settlement. Was the settlement a reactionary one?
Answer:

(1) Introduction: The destruction of the Napoleonic regime necessitated the reconstruction of Europe. The work of reconstruction that was undertaken by the Congress of Vienna, was one of the most important diplomatic gatherings in the history of Europe. At the Austrian capital Vienna, in the autumn of 1814, assembled the most illustrious personages in Europe.

There were the Emperors of Austria and Russia and the kings of Prussia, and Bavaria. Wurtumburg and Denmark, Louis, 18 of France were represented by Talleyrand and Great Britain by the Duke of Wellington and Lord Castlereagh. Foremost in the assemblage was Prince Metternich, Chief Minister of Austria. The Congress of Vienna set itself to undo the work of the revolution and Napoleon.

(2) Principles underlying the Vienna Congress :

The Congress of Vienna was based on the following three principles:

(1) Legitimacy and Restoration: Legitimacy and Restoration were the watchwords of the Congress of Vienna. Metternich insisted upon the restoration of the boundaries of States as they had been before the Revolution. Talleyrand championed the cause of legitimate dynasties who had been dethroned by the revolution.
(2) Compensation: Territorial compensations were to be awarded to those who played major roles in defeating Napoleon at the expense of States that had supported Napoleon.
(3) Balance of Power: The Congress attempted to restore the balance of power in Europe which had been upset by the sudden damage to peace on the part of France, the Congress undertook to build strong States around France.
(3) The settlement: The so-called Congress of Vienna was hardly a congress in the usual sense. The delegates met only to sign a general treaty that had been largely determined beforehand by the ‘Big Four’, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. The main work of the Congress was the distribution of the territories that France had been forced to give up.

This Congress of aristocrats hated the ideas of nationality and democracy proclaimed by the revolution. They rearranged Europe according to their desires, ignoring the national sentiments or the historical traditions of the people

(4) Legitimacy and Restoration :

(1) France was reduced to its original boundaries.
(2) The Bourbons were reinstated in France, Spain, and the two Sicilies.
(3) The House of Orange in Holland, the House of Savoy in Sardinia, and the Pope in the Papal States were reinstated.
(4) Several German princes were restored to their former possessions.
(5) In the name of legitimacy, Austria recovered Tyrol and most of the other lands she had lost.
(6) The Swiss Confederation was restored under a guarantee of neutrality.

(5) Compensation and Balance of Powers :

The application of these principles led to the following changes :

(1) Great Britain was awarded most of the French and Spanish colonies.
(2) The Dutch were given the Austrian Netherlands. This transfer of Belgium to Holland compensated the Dutch and also created a strong country on the border of France.
(3) Austria was given a commanding position in Italy and allowed to take Venice, Milan, and Tyrol. Members of the Austrian Hapsburg family were seated on the throne of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena.
(4) Russia was compensated with Finland, Polish territory, and Bessarabia.
(5) Sardinia was strengthened by the addition of Savoy, Piedmont, and Genoa.
(6) Prussia made notable gains by receiving Swedish Pomerania, all of Westphalia, most of the Rhineland, and two-fifths of Saxony.
(7) Sweden was compensated for ceding Finland to Russia and Pomerania to Prussia by being awarded Norway.
(8) In Germany, no attempt was made to resurrect the Holy Roman Empire. The remaining 38 States were into a loose organization known as the German Confederation with a Diet consisting of delegates of various rulers. Austria presided over the Diet and dominated the confederation.

(6) Criticism: In the work of the Congress of Vienna, there was little that was permanent and much that was temporary. The policy of the Vienna Congress was extremely reactionary. The arbitrary settlements made by Congress illustrate the total disregard for national aspirations. Peoples and provinces were bartered away like pawns in a game. The Catholic and Celtic people of Belgium were joined with Calvinistic and Teutonic Holland. Norway, which had been close to Denmark, was added to Sweden. The demands of Italians and Germans for unification were set aside. The aspirations of Poland for freedom were suppressed.

(7) Significance: The German Confederation simplified the political geography of Germany and the strengthening of Prussia made a rival to Austria for hegemony in Germany. The enlargement of Sardinia inspired her to aspire to Italian leadership. By the acquisition of Bessarabia, Russia was drawn into the Eastern Question. Finally, the Congress of Vienna marked the disappearance of the Holy Roman Empire. The greatest achievement of the Vienna Congress was that in spite of its defects, it gave Europe forty years of peace.

Question 11. What were the aims and objects of the Holy Alliance and the Concert of Europe between 1815 and 1825? How far were they realized? Why did the Concert of Europe fail?
Answer:

(1) Introduction: ‘The Holy Alliance’ and ‘The Concert of Europe’ were the first attempts in modern times at international organizations. The wars of Napoleon left Europe satiated with blood. The Statesmen of the age were painfully anxious to devise a form of international Government as a security against the menace of future wars. This experiment was the Concert of Europe which lasted for eight years. Its history and causes of failure convey a profound lesson to future times when the world is put in a similar situation.

(2) The Holy Alliance: The Holy Alliance was sponsored in 1815 by the Czar Alexander I of Russia who was a man of noble ideas. Alexander proposed that the sovereign of Europe should enter into a ‘Holy Alliance’ pledging themselves to govern their people and conduct their relations with one another according to the principle of the Christian religion. They were to regard each other as brothers, and their subjects as children whom they were to rule ‘as fathers of families’.

(3) Criticism: The Holy Alliance was greatly misunderstood. It was regarded at that time as a symbol of reaction, a conspiracy against ‘liberalism’, a league of Princes against their peoples. None of the statesmen of the age took it seriously.

Though it had no practical value, it disclosed the difference of opinion among the powers, which was the cause of the failure of the Concert of Europe. The Holy Alliance failed to draw together the powers because of its vagueness. They were proposed to cooperate for a brief span through the formation of the Quadruple Alliance, which was practical.

(4) Concert of Europe: In November 1815, a quadruple Alliance was signed by Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England for the maintenance of the treaties signed with France and for the consolidation of the intimate relations then uniting the four sovereigns for the welfare of the world.

They agreed to hold periodical meetings of the four signatory powers, either under the immediate auspices of the sovereigns or through their respective ministers, meetings devoted to the grand interest they have in common and to the discussion of measures which shall be judged to the most salutary for the repose and prosperity of the nations and for the maintenance of the peace of Europe.

(5) Congress and Conference: The first congress was held at Aix-la-Chapelle to consider the position of France which had paid the war indemnity by the year 1818. It was decided to withdraw the Allied army of occupation from French soil and to admit her representatives to the Concert of Europe.

At the same time, it set itself to a strict observance of the right of peoples; to give an example of justice, concord, and moderation, to project the art of peace, to increase the prosperity of states, and to awaken those sentiments of religion and morality which had been so much weakened by the misfortune of the time.

But before the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle was dissolved, signs had already appeared of the divergent interests and mutual jealousies, which were to paralyze action and break up the Concert of Europe. First was the question of the rebellious South American Colonies of Spain and second was the Barbary pirates in North Africa. Of the selfishness of the great powers, joint action was not possible.

The second Congress of the Powers held significantly in Austrian territory, first at Troppau in 1820 and then by the adjournment at Libach in 1821, revealed already, the fatal anomalies of the European situation and vital differences of views and interests between the allied States.

But the Congress of Troppau was called practically for the purpose of sanctioning the suppression of the Italian rebellion. Ignoring the opposition of France. and Great Britain, the Troppau Protocol was issued and signed by three eastern powers.

States that had changed Government due to revolution, the result of which threatened other States, ipso facto, to cease to be members of the European alliance and remain excluded from it until their situation gave a guarantee for legal order and stability. If owing to such alteration immediate danger threatens other States, the powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if needed by arms to bring back the guilty State into the bosom of the great alliance. Castlereagh, the foreign minister of England, therefore, strongly demurred and although there was as yet no actual breach of the Alliance, there was the considerable widening of the rift within it.

(6) Causes of failure: The alliance was thus sundered and with the Spanish manifesto, the Congress separated. But one more feeble tribute to the idea of European cooperation was paid in 1825 when Czar Alexander I summoned two conferences at St. Petersburg to consider the eastern question. Yet the Concert of Europe could not be saved. It had gone to pieces on many rocks, chiefly on Great Britain’s withdrawal and on the mutual jealousies of the powers.

But the British assertion of the principle of non-intervention was more than a claim for natural isolation and national liberty; it was a stand against the autocracy of Europe and a protest against the dictatorship and system of Metternich. For the attempted concert of Europe was based upon no league of democratic nations, it was an alliance of monarchs, three at least of whom were autocrats, and an acceptance of the principle of intervention might easily have resulted in the establishment of an intolerable despotism.

Question 12. “Metternich was the champion of reaction’-Discuss. Does Metternich deserve the title ‘Prime Minister of Europe’?
Answer:

“Metternich was the champion of reaction’

(1) Introduction: The period from 1815 to 1848 has been usually called the ‘Era of Metternich’. Metternich was the most famous statesman Austria produced in the 19th century. He was the central figure not only in Austria and German politics but also in European diplomacy.

He became the Austrian Chancellor in 1809 and played a leading part in the formation of the Fourth Coalition against Napoleon and in the Battle of Nations. Metternich was the guiding angel of the Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe. The politics of Europe at this time was so thoroughly dominated by him that his importance is shown in the phrase ‘System of Metternich’.

(2) Metternich as a diplomat: Metternich, the prince of diplomatists, was born into a family of diplomats. He married the granddaughter of Prince Kaunitz, the famous minister of Maria Theresa who engineered the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756. His self-esteem was very great.

(3) The policy of Metternich: The policies of Metternich were frankly conservative. He detested the Revolution and believed in an absolute monarchy. He was the opponent of all struggles for national independence and self-government. He was especially anxious to prevent the recurrence of revolutionary violence and international war. Metternich clearly saw the division of Europe into revolutionary West and reactionary East.

Himself a reactionary, Metternich desired to create a strong reactionary Austrian Empire as a bulwark against the disturbing forces of revolution, and to this end, he championed the principles of Legitimacy and Restoration and re-established old regimes as a man of the status quo. Through his efforts, Metternich succeeded in transferring the leadership of Europe from revolutionary France to reactionary Austria.

(4) His role in the Congress of Vienna: It was due to the recognition of the commanding personality of Metternich that Vienna was chosen as the meeting place of the International Congress. Metternich was the central figure of the Congress and the general principles underlying the settlement were his. It was the restoration of the boundaries and the reigning families of several European countries as they had been before the Revolution of 1789. Metternich secured Austria, Tyrol, and other lands which she had earlier lost.

(5) Metternich and the Concert of Europe: Metternich was anxious to make Vienna Settlement permanent He was anxious to maintain international peace and prevent the outbreak of revolution in the future. For this purpose, the Quadruple Alliance of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain was transformed into an organization for the preservation of the peace and of the status quo by the Treaty of Paris in 1815. This Concert of Europe was sufficient for Metternich who made it an instrument in his duty to stamp out revolution even to the extent of interfering in the domestic affairs of friendly States.

(6) Metternich as the Prime Minister of Europe: During the years 1815 to 1848, Metternich, by direct interference in Germany and Italy and by the pressure of his influence on the sovereigns of Europe, dominated the continent. Thus he can be rightly called the ‘Prime Minister of Europe’.

(7) Metternich and Germany :

(1) In 1817 a liberal movement broke out in Germany. In 1819 Metternich was summoned. a meeting of German statesmen at Carlsbad and secured the promulgation of the ‘Carlsbad Decrees’. Accordingly, university professors and students, and the press were subjected to close supervision. It provided for the establishment of a committee to investigate revolutionary plots.
(2) Revolts in the German States of Brunswick, Saxony, and Hesse Cassel were put down in 1830.

(8) In Italy :

(1) Metternich helped Ferdinand to restore the old regime in Naples
(2) In 1821 he crushed a revolt in Piedmont.
(3) In 1830 revolts of Modena, Parma, and in parts of the Papal States were easily put down.

(9) In Spain:

(1) In 1823 with the approval of Metternich, Louis XVIII of France sent military aid to Spain to suppress a popular rising.
(2) In Russia:(1) Alexander I, Czar of Russia, was a patron of liberal ideas for a few years and attempted to introduce reforms but later, under the influence of Metternich, he withdrew the reforms.

(10) Domestic policy: Within Austria, Metternich mercilessly suppressed the activities of nationalists and liberals. He maintained a strong army and an efficient police system. The press and the Theatre were censored, and education was entrusted to conservative religious orders. He erected a protective wall of tariffs around Austria as a check against the inroads of revolutionary ideas. This, however, proved ruinous to her trade and industry.

(11) Failure of Metternich :

The success of Metternich was only short-lived and his failure was the outcome of the following factors :

(1) The forces of nationalism and liberalism proved to be too strong.
(2) The Concert of Europe broke down with the withdrawal of England.
(3) Great Britain did not subscribe to the idea of interfering in the internal affairs of European States.
(4) The Monroe Doctrine, announced by President James Monroe of the U.S.A., checked Metternich, from restoring to Spain, her colonies in America which had revolted.
(5) Russia defied his policy of non-intervention in the Balkans and actively supported
a resolution in Greece.
(6) In 1830, revolutions broke out in France and Belgium which once and for all, destroyed the system of Metternich.

Question 13. Would you consider the reign of Nicholas I an important chapter in the history of Russia?
Answer:

(1) Czar Nicholas: The Crimean War (1854-1856) was in a sense the watershed of European history—the statement may be with particular force may be applied to Russia. The Russian defeat discredited wholly the system of Nicholas I and set a movement toward democracy which in one form or another has been the principal theme of her internal history from the day to this.

(2) The reign of Nicholas: The thirty-year reign of Czar Nicholas 1(1825-1855) was spent in the defense of autocracy. His training was not in politics or administration but in the army. His mind was practical, narrow, rigid, and exceedingly conservative. He sought to eradicate abuses wherever he discovered them, but in so vast an Empire it was impossible for the Emperor to control efficiently and effectively the detail of the administration. His policy was uncompromisingly absolutistic, both at home and abroad, at home, all kinds of measures were adopted to exclude or suppress liberal ideas.

A stringent intellectual quarantine was maintained upon the western frontiers, foreign literature excluded. Russian subjects were prevented from traveling abroad, the native, press was censored and the writers who did not show themselves “well-intentioned” were silenced. The university was circumscribed with their personnel and curricula, the number of military schools was increased and the police, the third section of Tsar’s chancellory were given arbitrary powers of arresting, imprisoning, deploring, and making away with anyone, whom the chief of the department selected.

Nicholas I’s foreign policy was marked by the same characteristics and made him hated throughout Europe. Nicholas, I suppressed the Polish insurrection of 1830-1831, abolished the Constitution granted by Alexander I, and incorporated Poland into Russia.

He waged two wars against Turkey and interfered decisively to suppress the revolution of the Hungarians in 1848-1849, and in German politics, he was a great factor of importance. His prestige was great after 1849. But the Crimean war in which Nicholas I became involved in 1854 proved the hollowness of his power and prestige. The prestige of Russia was so overwhelming since Napoleon’s flight from Moscow was completely shattered.

Czar Nicholas, I expired on March 2, 1855, and with him fell in ruins the system of. which his personality was everywhere regarded as the incarnation. The European predominance of St. Petersburg, built up by Catherine II and strengthened by Alexander I, had come to an end, but Russia, in some measure at least, was to become Russia of the Russian people. But in this great national humiliation lay the best hope of the future. As Prussia arose and reformed her institutions after Jena, so did Russia after the Crimean war.

That war is a landmark in her history, as it inaugurated a period of extensive reorganization and improvement. The smoldering discontent of the people flared up into open protests against the existing regime and the people demanded radical changes in the social and political organization.

Alexander II, who succeeded his father Nicholas I, tried earnestly to satisfy the aspirations of the people. On the other side, foreign literature of a liberal nature was rigorously excluded. Nicholas encouraged Russian literature in a form that seemed harmless. While his reign was called “the Augustan Age of Russia” rendered notable by the poetry.

Pushkin, the novels of Turgeniff, Dostoievsky, and Gogol. He encouraged research in lines that he considered legitimate and showed his humanitarianism by abolishing capital punishment, except for treason, at a time when the English penal code was barbarous in its severity.

But on the whole the reign of Nicholas I was one of repression and stagnation, and after the fall of Sebastopol, liberal propaganda was circulated by hand in manuscript literature, and satire and appeals were drawn into its service against the Government. Russian society was stirred by as violent a movement and optimism as was France on the eve of the French Revolution.

Question 14. Give an account of the Greek war of Independence.
Answer:

(1) Revival of the National Spirit in Greece: The Greeks of the early 19th century were the degenerate descendants of the noble race of ancient times. But they were the first among the Balkan people to throw off the Turkish yoke and achieve independence. Although the Greeks were permitted to practice their religion, they suffered from Turkish oppression, being subjected to heavy taxation and brutal treatment.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries, there was a revival of the Greek national spirit consequent upon the decline of Ottoman power. Ancient Greek literature was read with an interest in the intellectual glories of their ancestors. It stimulated the national consciousness of the Greeks and they longed for freedom. In 1814, a secret society called the Hetairia Philike was formed at Odessa which aimed at ending Turkish rule in Greece and expelling the Turks from Europe.

(2) The First Rising in 1921: The Hetairia Philike became widespread and powerful and in 1921 the first outburst of the Greeks occurred in Wallachia and Moldavia. The revolt was led by Prince Alexander Ypsilanti. The Greeks failed to receive the Russian and Rumanian help on which they had counted and the revolt was easily crushed by the Turkish armies in Wallachia.

(3) The Greek War of Independence: In 1821, war broke out in the Morea islands. The war of Greek Independence was fought with great ferocity on both sides and was marked by horrible atrocities on each side. The Greeks massacred the Turkish peasantry and the Turks took revenge by hanging the patriarch of Constantinople the head of the Greek Church on Easter Day, 1821. For some, years, both sides carried on the struggle with utmost barbarity.

The European nations sympathized with the Greeks and many of them formed societies for the purpose of assisting the Greeks with men and money. Thousands of volunteers fought for the Greeks and put up an equal first with the Turks in Morea for three years. Further, the Greeks possessed the advantage of being superior to the Turks on the sea. The fireships of the Greeks prevented the Turks from landing reinforcement.

(4) Egyptian Intervention: The whole situation suddenly changed with the intervention of Mahamat Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, on the side of the Porte. At first, the Egyptian intervention seemed to be an omen of utter ruin to the Greeks. The army of Egypt under Ibrahim, the son of the Pasha, overrun Morea and the navy of Egypt dominated the Aegean Sea. The whole population of the Greek mainland stood in danger of destruction.

(5) European Intervention: Western nations could not stand Greece, the most illustrious corner of Europe and the original home of civilization, being subjected to the cruelties of Ibrahim. But the principles of the Holy Alliance could not be applied to Greece, for the reactionary powers under the leadership of Metternich feared that the Greek success would encourage rebellions elsewhere in Europe. Canning, the British Foreign Minister felt that if the Czar intervened on behalf of the Greeks, it would extend Russian influence in the Balkan peninsula. For this reason, he did not wish to see the Ottoman Empire weakened.

As for Russia, Czar Alexander, although he had no sympathy for the rebellion, wished to interfere on grounds of religion, for the Greeks professed the same form of Christianity as the Russians. Canning realized that on the ground of humanity it would not be possible to object to Russia, taking up arms. So, he agreed to a Joint Anglo-Russian action in the Balkans. France approved the Anglo-Russian policy out of sentiment. In 1827, by the Treaty of London, the three Powers agreed to compel the Sultan, by the peaceful naval blockade to grant autonomy to the Greeks. The Treaty of London was the real foundation of Greek independence.

(6) Battle of Navarillo, 1827: The Sultan refused to recognize the autonomy of the Greeks and the members of the Triple Alliance sent their fleets into Turkish waters. A chance shot brought about a battle to the Bay of Navarino and the Turko-Egyptian fleet was destroyed. The battle of Navarino was accidental, but it was decisive. Greek independence, though not achieved yet, was no longer in doubt.

(7) Treaty of Adrianople, 1829: After the battle of Navarino, Great Britain withdrew from participation in Near Eastern affairs. In 1828 Russia declared war on Turkey and a Russian army marched toward Constantinople. The Sultan gave way and signed the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. Greece was recognized as a self-governing State under Turkish overlordship. The provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy and put under Russian protection.

The treaty of Adrianople is a diplomatic triumph for Russia. The Greeks felt that their independence was, in the main, the result of Russian intervention. Russian prestige and influence increased in the Balkan peninsula. Moldavia and Wallachia too felt grateful to Russia.

(8) The Kingdom of Greece: Greece refused to accept the solution to her problem offered by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. Russia preferred the arrangement, for as long as Greece was only an autonomous state, it gave her scope for future interference in the Balkans. But the way was cleared for the recognition of a new Greek State completely independent of Turkey in 1810 when Palmerston who was a liberal came to the Foreign Office in England. A series of conferences were held in London between France, Britain, and Russia. Finally, in 1832, Greece was recognized as fully independent. A constitutional monarchy was set up in Greece in 1833, with Otto, the Bavarian Prince, as king.

(1) Significance of the Greek War of Independence: The tiny kingdom of Greece had in no way altered the balance of power in Europe. Yet the resurrection of Greece was the most significant fact. Greece dealt the first successful blow to the Concert of Europe and took the best step in the dissolution of the Turkish Empire in Europe. Finally, Greece gave the impetus to the modern spirit of nationalism which brought the Austrian Empire to the ground.

Class 9 History Europe In The 19th Century Short Questions And Answers Wbbse

Question 15. Examine briefly the rule of the restored Bourbons in France and account for the July Revolution of 1830.
Answer:

The rule of the restored Bourbons in France and account for the July Revolution of 1830

It is hard to be expected that the history of France, after the violent alternations of the last 25 years from monarchy to regicide, Terror to Empire, victory to defeat, and Bonaparte to Bourbon should be free from oscillation. There was the heritage of the Revolution to be reconciled with the restoration of royalism, the lilies with the tricolor, the natural desire of the returned exiles for restitution with the irrevocable march of time, and the growth of new vested interests.

Louis 18, the uninspired but not vindictive brother of Louis 16, had returned to France with a Constitutional charter granting an elective chamber, personal equality, freedom of religion, and the Press. But he was, however, unable to control the ultraroyalist forces that pressed upon the ministry and the country.

Immediately after the Hundred Days, a popular outburst in the south of France against the Republicans and Bonapartists recalled in the white Terror, the worst excesses of the French Revolution, while a Royalist chamber of Deputies demanded the proscription of the ‘traitors’ of the Hundred Days, even putting to death the indomitable Ney. The reaction was strengthened by the unfortunate murder in 1820 of the Duke of Berrison

Of Comte of Artois. Laurel, the assassin, a Bonapartist soldier, swore that he had no accomplices, but his act was made to recoil upon the liberal party, the King allowed. the country to drift upon the tide of a clerical and anti-liberal reaction, headed by the emigre party which had “learned nothing and forgotten nothing” during its exile.

Opposition began to form and the Napoleonic legend was beginning to hallow the name of the dead Emperor. But Louis 18 died peacefully in his bed. It was the Comte de Artois, raised to the throne in 1824 as Charles X, who drove the opposition to rebellion.

A Government based on the pretensions of the divine right, conducted in the interests of the emigres and Jesuits, carried on by the repression of criticism and free election and at the expense of popular liberty and equality, provoked a furious discontent which not even the participation in the Battle of Navarins and the conquest of Algiers could assuage. Matters came to a crisis when Charles appointed a most reactionary ministry headed by Polignac. In 1830 he attempted what was virtually a royalist coup defeat; the charter was superseded by a series of ordinances issued from St. Cloud.

Under the cover of this provision, Charles issued, on July 25th, three ordinances

(1) Setting aside the recent elections as null and void, and summoning a new Chamber
(2) Narrowing the franchise and,
(3) Silencing the Press. Polignac also announced his determination “to reorganize the society to give back the clergy their weight in State affairs, they create a powerful aristocracy, and to surround it with privileges.” The next day Paris, at to instigation of the journalists, broke out in revolt and erected barricades. While the signal for insurrection was given by journalists, the movement itself was organized by republicans, who had prepared for the day of revolution by establishing secret societies among the population of Paris.

As the significance of the ordinances came to be more clearly seen, popular anger began to manifest itself. Fuel was added to the rising flame by the appointment of Marmont Odious as a traitor to France in 1814, to the command of the troops in Paris. The workmen of the printing establishments, thrown out of employment, began agitating and other workmen joined them. On Wednesday, July 28, civil war broke out. The war lasted three days.

It was the July Revolution, the glorious three days. The ministry, taken by complete surprise, was unable to coerce the capital into submission and a provisional Government was set up at the Hotel de Ville, under the famous revolutionary leader Lafayette. The king now sought to revoke the ordinances, but it was too late, and after a futile attempt to save his dynasty by abdicating in favor of his grandson, he passed into exile.

Question 16. Describe the Revolution of 1830 in France and point out its effects on Europe.
Answer:

The Revolution of 1830 in France and point out its effects on Europe

(1) Introduction: The Bourbons of France had learned nothing from the Revolution of 1789. The Revolution of 1830 in France was the result of an attempt by Charles X to restore royal absolutism and the privileges of the nobility. In July 1830, he dissolved the Chambers and issued the Ordinance of St Cloud breaking his promises to rule Constitutionally.

Paris rose in revolt, and the King capitulated to his people and abdicated his throne. The crown was offered to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Despite the change of dynasty, the monarchy itself was not overthrown. The French established a constitutional monarchy which was a middle course, between the evils of the absolute monarchy on the one hand and mob rule on the other.

(2) Effects of the Revolution on Europe: The French Revolution of 1830 had far-reaching consequences. It looked as such the system of Metternich was giving way and the forces of the reaction were breaking down. Another wave of liberalism and nationalism once again swept over Europe. Revolts broke out in Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Germany. In Italy and Germany, however, the revolts were quickly stamped out by the members of the Quadruple Alliance.

(3) Belgian Revolt: The Belgian Revolution was the first successful revolution in Western Europe in 1830. The Congress of Vienna had arbitrarily joined Belgium with Holland. The Belgians differed from the Dutch in all ways language, religion, and economic life. The Belgians spoke a language similar to French.

They were Catholic while the Dutch were Protestants. The Dutch were agricultural and commercial people, but the Belgians were only manufacturers. So, the Belgians resented the union with the Dutch. Under these circumstances, the King of Holland attempted to force the Dutch language on Belgium. The French Revolution of 1830 aroused in the Belgians the spirit of nationalism. Revolution spread rapidly on October 4, 1830. Belgium declared its independence. They elected king Leopold of Coburg as their King and he was crowned in 1831.

The reactionary powers were prevented from intervening by the warning of Louis Philippe of France. In 1831, at a conference in London, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England recognized the independence of Belgium. This was the first setback to the forces of reaction.

(4) Poland: The Congress of Vienna had made Czar Alexander of Russia, the King of Poland. Alexander granted the Poles very liberal institutions. However, the Poles were dissatisfied with their limited powers and aspired for an independent and united Poland. The spirit of unrest in Poland was strong.

When the July Revolution broke out, Czar Nicholas I, the successor of Alexander, ordered the Polish army to prepare a campaign for the suppression of the Belgian revolt. The Poles rose in revolt and fought desperately to throw off Russian rule. The revolt was crushed by the Czar who recaptured Warsaw and annexed Poland to Russia. Poland ceased to exist as a separate kingdom. It became merely a province of the Russian Empire.

(5) Italy: Italy also felt the revolutionary wave of 1830. Revolution broke out in the Duchies of Parma and Modena and in parts of the Papal States. The rulers of Modena and Parma were forced to flee. The Italians hoped for the support of Louis Philippe which did not come forth. Austrian troops suppressed the revolts and restored the exiled rulers. Reaction again held sway in Italy.

(6) Germany: In 1830, revolts broke out in Germany, in Brunswick, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, and Hanover. The people of these States secured new constitutions. However, Metternich succeeded in carrying the reaction further and passed new regulations which reduced the freedoms won to the minimum.

(7) Significance of the July Revolution: Except for the birth of Belgium as a new State, the Revolution of 1830 had no achievement to its credit in Europe. Even in France, the Revolution failed to establish a Republic, although it was planned and carried out by democrats. Nonetheless, it would be a mistake to minimize the importance of the Revolution. The significance of the July Revolution, like that of the English Revolution of 1688, was negative rather than positive. No advance was made in the direction of democracy. Thus the Revolution of 1830 was the complement of the Revolution of 1789.

Question 17. Discuss the events leading to the downfall of Louis Philippe. Or, What were the causes of the February Revolution (1848) in France? Or, What were the causes of the downfall of the July monarchy?
Answer:

Causes of the July Revolution: The Bourbons of France had learned nothing from the Revolution of 1789. The Revolution of France was the result of an attempt by Charles X to restore royal absolutism and the privileges of the nobility. In July 1830 he dissolved the chambers and issued the ordinance of St Cloud, breaking his promises to rule constitutionally. Paris rose in revolt, and the King capitulated to his people and abdicated his throne.

The crown was offered to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Despite the change of dynasty, the monarchy itself was not overthrown. The French established a constitutional monarchy which was a middle course between the ‘evils of absolute monarchy on the one hand and mob rule on the other. As the rule of the Orleans began in July (1830), it was known as the July Monarchy.

But the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848), the ‘citizen king’ of France, in due course proved unsuccessful and unpopular. The fundamental cause of Louis Philippe’s unpopularity was his refusal to accommodate himself to the prejudices of the French people and to shape his diplomacy on lines acceptable to the nation at large.

On two occasions it was furnished with an opportunity to satisfy the French yearning for glory, it was the unpardonable offense of the King, that on each occasion and stood between the nation and the satisfaction of its desires. The first Opportunity came at the moment of his accession to the throne. The French Revolution of 1830 convulsed every State and rocked every throne on the continent. The French people demanded that the monarchy should intervene on behalf of the oppressed nationalities.

In 1840 the international situation afforded a second Opportunity to the Orleans monarchy to abandon its pacific policy and identify itself unreservedly with the national aspirations. The military achievements of Mehamet Ali, the Party of Egypt, had aroused the unbounded enthusiasm of the French people, who were carried away by the idea that upon his shoulders had fallen the mantle of Napoleon. France

“became the patron of Mehamet. But she stood alone. The treaty of London (1840) was signed among the great powers excluding France. France became politically isolated. Her Prime Minister Thiers urged the adoption of warlike measures but the King vigorously opposed such proposals which would involve the French of the July monarchy in the greatest danger.

France adopted a policy of peace and the danger of war passed. Thiers resigned and Guizot now became the chief minister. Thus France’s popular approval was withheld from the Government owing to its foreign policy of ‘resistance’ only served to strengthen the opposition.

The July monarchy was a Government of the bourgeoisie, of the well-to-do, of the capitalists. They alone possessed suffrage. They had wrested the fruits of victory out of the hands of the populace which had borne the heat of the struggle and had established the Citizen King on the throne to consolidate their position in the community as the governing class.

The grievances of the working class alone attracted the attention of republicans and accordingly, they began to concentrate upon social and parliamentary reforms, as the starting point of the new order. Year after year the two demands were brought forward in the Chamber; year after year they were voted down by the majority.

Prime Minister Guizot was vehemently criticized for his action. The people of France exceedingly dissatisfied with the existing order, converged in 1848, though unintentionally and unsympathetically, toward the most violent of reckless upheavals France has known since 1789 a movement initiated by the Moderate monarchists rapidly furthered by the Republicans, in the end partly dominated by the socialists. Guizot believed that the demands of the reform were the cry of a few for political gain, and people as a whole were entirely indifferent.

But in 1847 a series of reform bouquets were published by the people with the help of the reformers. They wanted to change the policy of the Government But the king, advised by Guizot, refused to yield.

On the other hand, the leaders of the opposition party demanded the legal right of the people to hold public meetings, to test the right before the courts of law. The opposition arranged a great meeting on Feb 22, 1848. The Government called out the National Guard. It referred to a march against the insurgents. Finally, on February 24, the King abdicated and another French King took the road to England to enter a life of exile.

Question 18. Describe the February Revolution of 1848 in France. What were its effects on Europe?
Answer:

(1) French Revolution of 1848: The reign of Louis Philippe, the ‘citizen king’ of France in due course proved unsuccessful. The Royalists treated him as a usurper, for he was not the legitimate king. He was equally a usurper to the common people because he belied their hopes of a republic. The overthrow of Louis Philippe was precipitated by two questions, viz. foreign policy, and reform. The French people demanded that he should intervene on behalf of the oppressed nationalities of Europe.

Louis refused to involve himself in wars. Louis Blanc began to preach socialism and the opponents of the Government demanded electoral reform. Louis Philippe made no attempt to overcome the movement. He gave way at once and took refuge in England. This was the February Revolution of 1848. The Second Republic was set up in France headed by Lamartine.

(2) Effects of the Revolution in Europe: The French Revolution of 1848 caused the most widespread disturbances in Europe. Revolution broke out from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, from France to the Russian frontier. The system of Metternich crushed in confusion. Revolt broke out in the very heart of Austria, at Vienna, which was the bulwark of reaction. It looked as if the monarchy was coming to an end all over Europe.

Revolts broke out in every part of the Austrian Empire. Austrian Empire seemed to be on the eve of dissolution. But at every point reaction set in and revolution was defeated. All these revolutions aimed at national independence and free constitutions. They were not much concerned with social reconstruction.

(3) Revolution in Austrian Empire :

(1) Vienna: In 1848, Vienna rose in revolt. The immediate impetus came from Hungary. The rising in Vienna was largely organized by students and the working class. Metternich was forced to resign and he fled away to England. A Constituent Assembly met which abolished all feudal abuses and began to draw up a new Constitution.

(2) Hungary: Serious troubles broke out in Hungary led by Louis Kossuth, one of Hungary’s greatest heroes. The revolt in Vienna reacted upon Hungary. In 1848, the Hungarian Diet passed the March Laws, which swept away the old aristocratic political machinery and substituted a modern democratic Government. Feudal dues -were abolished and freedoms of the press religion and trial by jury were established.

(3) Bohemia: The example of Hungary was followed by Bohemia. There were two faces in Bohemia-the Germans, wealthy and educated, and the Czechs, poorer but the majority. The Czechs claimed equality with the Germans and the same things that the Hungarians had demanded. The Emperor conceded them.

(4) Italy: The Italians seized the opportunity created by the general unrest everywhere and. attempted to overthrow Austrian influence in Italy. Lombardy and Venice rose against Austria and they were supported by Piedmont and Sardinia. Revolts also broke out in Tuscany, the Papal States, and Napoleon. Several of these States gained liberal constitutions, Mazzini organized a revolt in Rome and the Pope was driven out. Italy had thus practically declared her independence.

(5) Suppression of the Revolts in Austrian Dominions: By the end of March 1848, the revolution was successful everywhere. But the period of triumph was brief. Prague was occupied and a dictatorship was established in Bohemia. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, was defeated by the Austrians at Custozza and Novara. Venice and Lombardy were crushed.

The Catholics of France swept away the Mazzini’s Republic of Rome. In Hungary, racial rivalries broke out between the Magyars on one hand and the Serbs, Croatians, and Rumanians and the other. Austria exploited the situation and fanned a civil war. At last in 1849, Austria with Russian aid, defeated the Magyars at Vilagos, Kossuth fled to Turkey and the Hungarian War of Independence was over.

(6) Germany: In 1848 not satisfied with the powers granted by Frederick William IV of Prussia, the people of Berlin revolted. William IV pacified the revolt by granting a Constitution and liberal reforms. But the news of the suppression of the revolt in Vienna encouraged the King of Prussia to undo the reforms he had introduced.

With the aid of his army, he dissolved the assembly. Next under the presidency of Prussia, a federal Constitution was drawn up for North Germany. Austria opposed it by re-establishing the Federal Assembly of Frankfurt. Prussia humiliated itself by surrendering her claim to Austria at Olmutz. Thus Austria seemed to dominate Germany.

(7) Significance of the Revolt of 1848: The Revolution of 1848 was another great leap forward on the path of nationalism and liberalism in Europe. Another striking feature was that it constituted an epoch in political democracy and economic democracy.

The Revolution of 1789 was directed against the arbitrary monarchy, the Revolution of 1830 against aristocratic privilege, and the Revolution of 1848 against middle-class Government. In other words, legal equality was established in 1789, social equality in 1830, and political equality in 1848. The Revolution of 1848 introduced manhood suffrage in France which destroyed the political power of the bourgeoisie. Political power was now extended to the people.

The Revolution was also remarkable for an experiment in socialism which was exhibited in the national workshops and ended in failure. The watchword of the Revolution was ‘the right to work’. A new and potent force was brought to life—the Proletariat.

Question 19. Compare and contrast the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848.
Answer:

The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848: The French Revolution of 1830 was a constitutional movement. The French Revolution of 1830 was a protest against the reactionary policy followed by Charles X of France. It was the outcome of the growing liberal tendencies of the time and it aimed at securing a constitutional form of Government. It was not republican in spirit; it was not directed against the monarchy. It sought to put an end to autocracy.

The expulsion of Charles X was not followed by the establishment of a republic but by the accession of another king who professed more liberal views. The result was that a despotic monarchy was supplanted by a constitutional monarchy. The Revolution of 1848 was, on the other hand, a distinctly republican movement, strongly colored by socialistic ideas. It was the joint product of political and economic causes. The people demanded an enlargement of the franchise. Side by side with this demand arose the demands of the socialists who aimed not merely at the.

Extension of political power, but at the reconstruction of satiety in the interest of the working classes. Socialism and republicanism would not brook monarchy and so the expulsion of Louis was followed by the establishment of a republic. Thus the aims and objects of the two Revolutions were different.

Both revolutions found their echo in almost all the countries of Europe. However, the movements that followed the July Revolution of 1830 were democratic. They aimed at securing constitutional governments. The only exception was the case of Belgium where the movement was distinctly nationalist.

However, the outbreaks that followed the French Revolution of 1848 were in most cases national movements. They aimed at securing merely a constitutional Government but a Government that should represent the nation’s will., This was especially the case in Germany, Italy, and Hungary.

As regards results, the two Revolutions were somewhat alike. Both ended in failure. The only success which attended the Revolution of 1830 was the independence of Belgium. But that was largely due to the intervention of foreign powers who were actuated more by considerations of self-interest than by a desire to support liberalism. The Revolution of 1848 was likewise attended with scanty success.

Only two states, Prussia and Sardinia, obtained constitutions. But one point should be noted, i.e., that these constitutions were the free gifts of rulers and not extorted from them. This shows that not merely the people but some of the rulers had realized the necessity of a constitutional form of Government. In this respect, the Revolution of 1848 marks a distinct advance in the direction of liberalism and so may be looked upon as more successful than that of 1830.

Question 20. Explain the characteristics of the period from 1815 to 1850 in the history of Europe.
Answer:

(1) A period of struggle between liberalism and conservatism: The period 1815-1848 was one of a struggle between the antagonistic forces of liberalism and conservatism. It opens with the meeting of a Congress in Vienna where the diplomats of Europe sought to bridle the new forces unleashed by the French Revolution.

The diplomats assumed that the storm which had recently raged over Europe for nearly a quarter of a century was only a passing event that had temporarily disorganized Europe. So they ignored its challenge and sob to work to restore pre-revolutionary conditions so far as practicable.

The revolution, however, had left behind its heritage of ideas and influences–the unsettling forces of democracy and nationalism. These forces, though impalpable, were strong and intoxicating enough to take a firm hold on the minds of the people.

They became the creed of a new political group! and the people clung to them with almost religious ardor. Hence the attempt of the diplomats of Vienna to put back the hands of the clock clashed with the newly awakened aspirations of the people. As the result, the period witnessed several popular outbreaks, which on two occasions became epidemics in 1830 and in 1848.

(2) A new experiment in international government: At the beginning of this period an interesting experiment, the first of its kind, in international or congressional government was made. The settlement of Vienna was placed under the collective guarantee of four great powers, viz. Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain bound themselves in a Quadruple Alliance to maintain the territorial arrangements as made by Congress.

At the same time, they proposed to meet in periodical Congresses to discuss common interests and such measures as would contribute to the maintenance of peace in Europe. It was this proposal for periodical meetings that gave birth to the so-called Concert of Europe. Four such meetings were held, at Aix-Ia-Chapelle in 1818, at Troppau in 1820, at Laibach in 1921, and at Verona in 1822. Under the guidance of Metternich, the Concert increasingly became an instrument for the suppression of liberalism and revolution.

Castlereagh, although an ardent promoter of the congressional Government, protested against its policy of intervention in the internal affairs of other states. His successor in the British Foreign Office, Canning, went further and ended this hazardous experiment by taking a firm stand against the policy of binding Europe in chains.

(3) Dominance of Metternich: During this period Mettemich was the central figure of European diplomacy. So strong was his influence that the King of Prussia and Czar Alexander of Russia followed his lead. He was, however, the reactionary genius of Europe, an implacable enemy of liberalism. His policy was to preserve the peace of Europe and to maintain its status quo. But to him, the preservation of peace meant the preservation of autocracy.

He was responsible for the Carlsbad decrees which laid Germany under the iron heels of reaction. In Italy, his influence was successfully exerted to suppress all liberal and nationalist aspirations. At a time when the heroic struggle of the Greeks for freedom aroused sympathy all over Europe.

Metternich stood for his principle of legitimacy and looked upon the Greeks as rebels against established authority and held back the Czar from coming to their help. For Europe tired and timid after the onslaughts of the French Revolution, he was a necessary man but he became an anachronist when he was growing old and the whole world was renewing its youth.

(4) Results of the revolutions: In the struggle of the people to realize their liberal and national aspirations, the victory was for a time on the side of the autocratic powers. The revolutions were suppressed and the reaction was triumphant. Thus the period was one of aspiration rather than solid achievement Only two states, Sardinia and Prussia, were, by the pressure of events, compelled to grant constitutions. As regards nationalism, it scored only two victories, one in Greece and the other in Belgium. Thus, judged by tangible results, the achievement so far was very meager.

Nevertheless, it should be noted that autocracy everywhere had received a staggering blow and significant breaches had been made in Metternich’s system. The rulers began to realize that it was not safe to disregard the wishes of the people.

Besides, the strength and force of the passionate efforts of the people, the enthusiasm evoked by their devotion and heroism, did not perish altogether. The revolutions of 1848, though crushed, left their marks everywhere to inspire future generations. The sense of national unity in Germany and Italy was checked, but in no sense destroyed. In no distant future, both countries achieve national unity under better auspices and abler guidance.

Class 9 History Europe In The 19th Century Short Questions And Answers Wbbse

Question 21. Assess the role of Metternich in the history of Europe from 1815 to 1848. Or, Explain the principal features of the system of Metternich and discuss the causes of its final overthrow. Or, What is understood by the term Metternich system? Or, Form an estimate of the role played by Metternich in the history of Europe from 1815 to 1848.
Answer:

(1) Prince Metternich (1773-1859): Prince Metternich was the most important and the most outstanding personality in Europe between 1815 and 1848. The European diplomacy during this period centered around his person and so great was his importance that this period in European history is often called the Metternich Era or the System of Metternich. Autocratic European monarchs sought his advice, and revolutions trembled at his sight. He was a Prince among diplomats. At the age of thirty-six, he became the Chancellor of Austria.

For forty years he ruled the country with a stern hand. Metternich had an inborn hatred for democratic institutions. He was an avowed enemy of the French Revolution. He struck Napoleon at the right time. Austria joined the campaign of 1814 and brought about the fall of the great conqueror.

(2 Metternich at the Congress of Vienna: Metternich presided over the Congress of Vienna and as such he was the main architect of the new Europe, carved out in Vienna. He succeeded to a great extent in bringing back to their former glories the absolute Princes of Europe, who had earlier fled before the tide of popular revolutions.

He gave up the distant and risky provinces of the Austrian Netherlands and got in exchange the nearer Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. Germany was left divided under the Austrian grip. Thus, at the Congress of Vienna, Metternich proved to be the embodiment of reaction.

(3) Metternich and the Concert of Europe: To hold his system intact, and to preserve peace and order in Europe, Metternich proposed periodic conferences of the great powers, and thus signed the Quadruple Alliance in November 1815, between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain. France was allowed to join this brotherhood in 1818. Metternich’s idea was to have an international police force to help maintain law and order in Europe.

The Quadruple Alliance powers agreed to meet from time to time to discuss the problems facing them and thereby maintain the peace of Europe. These periodic conferences of the powers were to be the beginning of the Concert of Europe. The first of a series of Conferences took place at Aix-La-Chapelle in 1818. France was admitted to the Alliance and agreed to the use of force by the rest of the four powers in case of a revolution within her territory.

Two years later, the Alliance powers met at Troppau in 1820 to take stock of the situation created by the disorders in Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, and Greece. Austria, Russia, and Prussia signed a protocol and declared their intention not to recognize any change in the status quo of Europe and to meet any revolutionary changes by force. This conference was a great triumph for Metternich. Another conference took place at Laibach in 1821.

Austria was chosen to be the executioner in Italy and France was to help to restore the autocratic rule of Ferdinand in Spain. The fourth and last conference was held at Verona in 1822. It dealt exclusively with the problem of Spain. Ferdinand VII was restored to his absolutism with the help of French bayonets. Thus Metternich had succeeded in keeping the European States tied up to his order and system. His name had become a terror in European Capitals.

(4) Metternich and Austria-Hungary: The suppression of all liberal ideas and free thinking was the keynote of the policy of Metternich. He did not want to take any risks in matters of law and order. The preservation of the status quo was his greatest aim. He believed that the circumstances demanded a very strict and extreme reactionary policy. The racial admixture in Austria—Hungary did not allow any loosening of the grip, or else the empire would be in danger of dismemberment. To avoid any complications for the administration, prevention at an earlier stage was better than a cure later. Thus a reign of tyranny and repression was let loose in Austria.

Strict censorship was imposed on the press of the country. Universities were brought under strict control of the Government and no liberal thinking and teaching were allowed therein. A regular spy ring was established at these educational institutions. No foreign literature of liberal views was allowed to be imported into the country. Foreign travel was not encouraged. In fact, an attempt was made to shut out and segregate Austria from the rest of the world.

The Government did not bother and care for the economic development of the country. The result was that trade sickened and commerce lagged. Emperor Francis I of Austria was in complete agreement with the policy of his Chancellor and backed him up in his methods of dealing with the people. In short, Austria-Hungary from 1815 to 1848 was in the iron grip of Metternich and the people had to wait patiently for any relief for this monster to meet his doom.

(5) Metternich and Germany: Germany had come out of the Vienna settlement with thirty-eight sovereign states, loosely united together in the German confederation under the leadership of Austria. This again was a triumph for Metternich. Prussia remained weak—unable to do anything for German unity. The small states of Germany were jealous of one another and Metternich took full advantage of this mutual jealousy.

He established his system in the Germanies as well, where freedom of any kind for liberal thinking was not allowed, The German Diet was persuaded in 1819 to enact the famous Carlsbad decrees. According to those laws, liberty of any Kind ceased to exist in most of the German States. A commission was appointed for the purpose of tracing out the secret organizations and conspiracies. Such unsocial activities were to be vigorously crushed. An elaborate spy system was established. Liberal teaching was forbidden at the universities.

(6) The Metternich System in Italy :

Metternich had succeeded in keeping. Italy was a “geographical expression” at the Vienna settlement. His greatest aim after 1815 was to preserve what he had achieved in Italy. The Habsburg rulers of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, who had run away, were restored to their thrones with all the evils of their despotism. Further, he guaranteed the rulers of Naples and Sicily a despotic rule and Austrian help in the name of a revolution. Other rulers of Italy too were encouraged to be despotic and curb liberals. Thinking in their dominions. True to his word, the Austrian Chancellor despatched Austrian troops to the aid of the King of Naples, when there was a popular uprising there in 1820. A similar revolt was crushed in Piedmont in 1821. Insurrections broke out again in Italy in 1831 and 1832 against the despotic regimes there. But once again these revolts were suppressed with Austrian assistance. Lombardy and Venetia were ruled directly by Austria as her provinces, and the rest of the Italian States were subject to the tyranny of Metternich.

(7) Metternich and Spain :

Spanish people had forced their King Ferdinand VII to grant them a constitution. This was, however, not to the liking of Metternich. When Ferdinand appealed to him for help against his own people, Metternich at once decided to come to the rescue of the Spanish King in restoring his autocracy over his dominions. Consequently, the Congress of Verona (1822) commissioned France to lead an army into Spain. The French armies invaded Spain and the absolutism of Ferdinand was restored. Thus Metternich succeeded in establishing his system in Spain too.

(8) Metternich and Tzar Alexander of Russia :

The young Tzar Alexander I of Russia was an idealist and a liberal. He disliked Metternich at the Congress of Vienna and regarded him as a hypocrite and a liar. Later events changed his views and made him rather a disciple of Metternich. The revolt of the Polish people against him had been the most disgusting thing to him. In his own country, the liberals were out to trouble him. He could not remain an idle spectator to these developments under his very nose. Thus he was convinced of the efficiency of his methods of Metternich in dealing with these problems.

(9) An estimate of Metternich :

There is not much that could be said in praise of Metternich except that he preserved the peace of Europe for a sufficiently long time with his system of restraint. He was at the same time the most detestable personality on the continent and if the suffering multitudes of Europe prayed and asked for anything, it was for his exit.

Question 22. Briefly explain the Italian war of liberation from 1815-1848.
Answer:
(1) Secret societies instigate plots and revolts :

The political arrangement of Italy as made by the Congress of Vienna left her prey to disunion, despotism, and foreign domination. Austria was allowed a predominant influence in Italy. She directly controlled the two richest provinces, Lombardy and Venice, while the Duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany were well within the orbit of her influence as their rulers were connected with her imperial House. Naples was also a satellite as its ruler Ferdinand II had undertaken not to introduce a form of government inconsistent with the Austrian system. Thus to all intents and purposes, Austria was for a space the arbiter of Italian destiny.

The country was parcelled out into a number of petty states whose rulers were all petty despots hostile to the forces of liberalism and nationalism. But the impulse towards liberalism and unification given by the Napoleonic regime in Italy could not be wiped out. The autocratic rulers indeed banned all public manifestations of liberalism, but the movements were kept alive by secret societies, of which the most important was the Carbonari. These societies spread all over Italy, fostering the ideals of nationalism and tormenting insurrections. It was owing to their activity that in 1820 a revolution broke out in Naples, and another in Piedmont in 1821, but both were suppressed by Austrian troops. Liberalism was cowed. In 1830 a few small outbreaks occurred in the Papal States and in Parma and Modena. Austria again intervened and extinguished the flames of insurrection. The risings were local and spasmodic and were rather protests against the existing conditions than signs of a new age.

(2) Mazzini, the prophet of Italian nationalism :

With the appearance of Mazzini, an ardent idealist, in the field of Italian politics, there came a great change in the outlook of the people. Mazzini was caught by the vision of a free and united Italy and became the most eloquent prophet of her regeneration. In 1831 he founded a society called “Young Italy” with the motto “God and the People.” It was to be an educative body seeking to found the new Italian nation on the gospel of duty. He infused into the Italian movement a moral fervor that it so long lacked, kindled the enthusiasm of the people, and kept alive the spirit of insurrection. Mazzini’s great achievement was in the realm of ideas. He held up before the people the ideal of national unity and liberation and made it into a popular movement. As a consequence, what was before? only the passionate cry of a few became the creed of the masses.

(3) Pope Pius IX gives an impulse to reform :

Thus in the forties of the century, there was a great ferment of thought in Italy. The people received a fresh impulse in 1846 when Pius IX, a man of liberal views, was elected to the Papal chair. His first act was to issue an amnesty for political prisoners, and this was followed by other liberal reforms such as the relaxation of the censorship of the press, admission of laymen to certain posts in the Papal states, and the modification of the ecclesiastical character of the Government. These measures were received with unbounded enthusiasm ‘and Pius IX became immensely popular. The hopes of the people ran high and liberalism raised its head everywhere in Italy, especially in Tuscany and Piedmont. Metternich was, however, much alarmed and sought to coerce the Pope by occupying Ferrara. This measure caused a wave of indignation to sweep all over Italy. It intensified the demand for reform and at the same time produced a strong current of anti-Austrian feelings in 1847. The next year was the year of revolution in Europe and it also broke out in Italy.

The first outbreak of the people occurred at Palermo in Sicily. They demanded Sicilian autonomy and constitutional reforms. The movement spread to the mainland of Naples. Ferdinand II was frightened into granting a constitution both to Naples and to his island kingdom of Sicily. The success scored by the people in the south of Italy was a signal for democratic risings all over the country even before the outbreak of the revolution in France. Demands for reform were made everywhere and demonstrations in favor of a constitution occurred in Piedmont, Tuscany, and the Papal States. In all these principalities the rulers had to grant constitutions and parliamentary Governments. So far the movement was a democratic one and it met with temporary success.

(5) The revolt develops into a struggle for Italian liberation :

But the democratic movement soon developed into a struggle for national independence. The news of the rising in Paris, followed by the news of the revolution in Vienna and the flight of Metternich, sent a thrill of hope throughout Italy. Milan rose against the bated rule of Austria and after five days of street-fighting, the Austrian troops were compelled to withdraw from the city. A similar movement followed in Venice where the people, led by a liberal patriot named Manin, drove out the Austrian troops and proclaimed a republic. A universal impulse stirred all of Italy. Volunteers poured into Lombardy all quarters to strike a blow against Austria.

There arose wide demand for war to terminate Austrian domination, and Cavour, the young editor of Risorgimento, wrote a stirring appeal to Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont to lead the national war against Austria. Urged on by his own subjects and the Lombards alike, Charles Albert declared war against the Austrians in 1848. King Leopold of Tuscany followed his example, while the Pope and Ferdinand of Naples were forced by their subjects to lend support. The struggle was no longer a revolutionary insurrection, it assumed

The aspect of a national war led by an Italian Prince and supported by contingents from all of Italy. But the impulse to unity was shortlived. The Pope, torn by conflicting sentiments, declared his opposition to a war with a Catholic power, while Ferdinand of Naples recalled his army to put down a revolt in his capital. The defection of the Pope and Ferdinand sealed the fate of the war. Charles Albert was defeated by the Austrian commander Redetzky at Custozza and was forced to sign an armistice and withdraw from Lombardy (1848). The Italian revolution had received a decisive check.

(6) Republic set up in Rome by Mazzini :

The withdrawal of the Sardinian King and Pope Pius IX from the national struggle gave a new turn to the Italian movement. Hitherto it was a constitutional and monarchical movement; it now took on a republican character. Serious disturbances occurred in Rome and the people there overthrew the temporal power of the Papacy and proclaimed a republic under Mazzini’s leadership. The Pope in fear fled from Rome. Tuscany followed Rome’s example and set up a republic. The fate of Italy hung upon the attitude of Charles Albert of Piedmont. Yielding to popular pressure he once more braced himself for the task of liberating Italy. He denounced the armistice with Austria and crossed the frontier for a fresh dash at Milan. But at Novara, he was completely defeated by the Austrians (1849). Sick at heart, Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II. The defeat at Novara shattered the hopes of the Italians and marked the beginning of the reaction.

(7) Fall of the Roman Republic:

The flight of the Pope from Rome caused a stir in the Roman Catholic world. Louis Napoleon, the newly elected President of the French Republic, desired to make a counter-demonstration against the power of Austria in Italy, and so took up the cause of the Pope. He desired to please the powerful Catholic party in France, which viewed the overthrew of the Papal Government with horror. So he sent an army against Mazzini’s republic in Rome. After a brilliant defense conducted by Garibaldi for over two months, Rome surrendered to the French troops. Louis Napoleon thus won the prestige of restoring Papal supremacy in Rome. Pins IX returned to the Vatican, cured of any suspicion of liberalism.

(8) Collapse of the struggle:

Thus collapsed the premature struggle for Italian independence. Austria regained her position in Lombardy and Venetia. Absolutism was restored in the collapse of all the States except Piedmont were Victor Emmanuel II remained loyal to the constitution which his father had granted. The failure of the nationalist movement, was due in part to the confusion of aims, in part to a lack of sound leadership. No great leader arose to guide the movement into the right channel. Mazzini could inspire, and Garibaldi could fight but neither of them had that sound statesmanship that alone could utilize the forces of the time to its own advantage.

(9) Significance of the Italian revolution of 1848:
But though a failure, the struggle of the Italians was not altogether fruitless. For the first time, they had combined for a common cause, and in the name of nationalism.

Question 23. Write a note on the story of the unification of Italy.
Answer:

The story of the unification of Italy

The unification of Italy in the 19th century is an important landmark in the history, of Europe. Italy was divided into a number of small kingdoms. Taking advantage of this, big powers like France, Austria, and Spain dominated Italy.

’ Risorginena literary, meaning resurgence or re-birth, was the term used to give a call to the Italians for their unity and liberty. The Risorgimento was successful in achieving of unification of Italy.

Role of Carbonari :

The Italian terrorists, known as the Carbonaries, fired the first shot in the Italian movement for unity and liberty. The Carbonaries were so-called .as they used to burn charcoal Carbonari, the secret society sprang up in Naples and spread throughout Italy.

The risings were organized by the Austrian troops. Its chief value lay in its keeping the revolutionary spirit alive among the common people. It was the only organization of the patriots of Italy which was composed of people of all classes. They expressed their discontent through acts of violence. Thus, though Carbonari failed, their contribution to Italian unification can’t be ignored.

Role of Mazzin :

Giuseppe Mazzini founded a youth organization called Young Italy in 1831. He created the mental climate that was so necessary for building a new united Italy and it is for this that he is remembered rightly as the pioneer in the movement for a united independent Italy. The mass uprising organized by young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure.

The objectives and program of Young Italy were as follows:-
(1) Italy should be unified as one nation.
(2) Austria should be driven out of Italy.
(3) Republic should be established in Italy.
(4) In the war against Answertria foreign help was not taken.
(5) Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only.

Role of Cavour :

After the failure of the Young Italy movement, the leadership of the Italian unification passed on to us. Camillo Cavour.

His objectives were as follows:-
(1) Cavour wanted to make the problem of the unification of Italy a European question.
(2) Cavour decided to drive out Austria from Italian soil with the help of foreign powers.
(3) He believed that-the Italian unity was possible only under the leadership of Piedmont – Sardinia. Thus, when Victor Immanuel II, king of Piedmont Sardinia, appointed Cavour as the prime to his dream of a united Italy following principal stated above.

Role of Garibaldi :

Garibaldi was a famous patriot of Italy. He played a vital role in the unification of Italy. He was highly influenced by the ideas of Mazzini and he joined Young Italy. Meanwhile, with the outbreak of a mass uprising in 1860 in Sicily against their king Francis. Garibaldi appeared there with his one thousand volunteers called red shirts. As the volunteers used to wear red shirts, they were called the ‘red shirts’ On 5th May 1860, the Redshirts under the leadership of Garibaldi went to Sicily. It was called ‘Expedition of the thousands’. It seemed that the campaign would fail, for the king of Naples had 24,000 troops in Sicily and about 1,00,000 in Naples. But fortune favored Garibaldi.

Italy united :

Defeated at the Battle of Sadowa (1866) Austria had to leave Venice for Italy. Again, in 1870 after the defeat of France in the Battle of Sedan (1870), she was compelled to pull her forces out of Rome. Thus, if finally a united Italy was born out of the battle of Sedan.

Question 24. Give an account of the unification of Germany. Or, Estimate the contribution of Bismark to the unification of Germany.
Answer:

Unification of Germany

(1) Introduction :

In Germany as in Italy, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 had torn into pieces Napoleon’s work of stitching Germany together. Germany once more became a collection of patches. Nevertheless, the seeds of democratic and national ideals were stirring in their beds.

(2) Earlier attempts at unification :

(1) Carlsbad Decrees :
In 1817, the students of Jena University held the patriotic demonstration of the Wartburg Festival to celebrate the battle of Leipzig. This created panic in the Governments of Germany. Metternich successfully worked upon their fears. The Federal Diet passed the famous Carlsbad Decrees which inaugurated an era of repression and despotism in Germany for 30 years.

(2) French Revolution of 1830 :
When the success of the Paris Revolution of 1830 reached Germany, it had repercussions. In Bavaria, a monster meeting was held to celebrate the Dawn of Liberty and of German Unity. Metternich, the Policeman of Europe, summoned a Diet of the princes and rulers of Germany and rushed through a number of repressive decrees to silence public opinion.

(3) French Revolution of 1848 :
It was Paris again that gave the signal in 1848 and everywhere in Germany, the people shouted for a ‘German National Parliament’.

(4) The Frankfurt Parliament :

The rulers and Princes of Germany gave way and a Parliament was summoned in 1848 at Frankfurt The Frankfurt Parliament formally offered the crown of ‘United Germarfy’ to King Frederick William IV of Prussia. The King of Prussia refused it because it was offered to him by the people.

(5) Convention of Olmutz, 1850 :

Having refused the crown from the revolutionary assembly, Frederick William IV proposed the formation of a confederation united under the hegemony of Prussia and he was forced to accept the humiliating Convention of Olmutz in 1850. By this, the Union was dissolved and the old Bund was established with a Diet at Frankfurt to control it

(6) Bismarck appears on the scene :

In 1861, Frederick William IV was succeeded by his brother king William I. This was a turning point in the history of Germany. He believed that Prussia’s destiny depended upon the army. Prussia’s army needed strengthening, but the Prussian Parliament would not grant the necessary money. A deadlock ensued. As a last experiment, he called Otto Von Bismarck who was appointed Minister-president or Chancellor of Prussia in 1862. He boldly denied Parliament the control of the purse and the army reforms were carried through. The Prussian army was made the strongest military engine in Europe.

(7) The views of Bismarck :

Bismarck was distinguished for his strong monarchical sentiments. He believed that it was Prussian kings, nor the Prussian people who made Prussia great. He realized that one great obstacle to German unification was Austria and Austria was to be driven out by the strength of Prussian arms. Germany was to be united, with Prussia at the head of it He would effect the union of Germany not by ‘speeches’ but by the sword, ‘blood and iron’ as he called it To this end, he would follow any means however unscrupulous. Bismarck was a man of action and the most successful statesman of his age.

(8) War with Denmark :

Bismarck achieved the unification of Germany in three wars. The first of these was the war with Denmark which was precipitated by the question of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. They belonged to the King of Denmark. The people of these Duchies were predominantly German and desired a union with Germany. In 1853, against their wish, King Charles IX of Denmark incorporated Schleswig in Denmark. Bismarck saw the situation as an opportunity for a quarrel with Austria. He induced Austria to cooperate and the two powers, Austria and Prussia easily defeated Denmark which was forced to cede the Duchies to them jointly.

(9) The Austro-Prussian War :

As expected and desired by Bismarck, Austria picked up a quarrel about the future of the Duchies. Bismarck did not want any compromise and Austria played into his hands by not yielding. He isolated Austria by winning over Russia, Italy, and Napoleon III of France. War broke out in 1866. The Austro-Prussian War or the Seven Weeks’ War was short and decisive. Austrian forces were routed at Sadowa and Austria was expelled from German Confederation. By the treaty of Prague, she was to cede Venetia to Italy but to lose no other territory. France gained nothing and was dissatisfied. Thus the Austro-Prussian war led to the Franco – Prussian War. In other words, Sadowa led to Sedan.

(10) Franco-Prussian War :

Prussian victory over Austria was regarded by the French as the defeat of France. The opposition press in France attacked the Government. Napoleon III hoped to avoid the situation by getting compensation from Germany for neutrality in the Austro-Prussian War. No expectation could be more futile. Compensation could be obtained in one way only—at the point of the sword. Bismarck on his part desired war with France and manipulated public opinion in both countries to fever heat. But the famous Ems Telegram on the question of Spanish crown France, through her ambassador Benedict, demanded that Prussia should never revive the claims of.

Leopold was a relative of King William 1 of Prussia to the Spanish throne. William, I refused. When this news reached Bismarck he sent out a telegram to the press in such as to indicate that the French ambassador was insulted by the Prussian Emperor. Bismarck intended Ems Telegram to be a red rag to the French. But Napoleon III declared war on Prussia. Bismarck defeated him at Metz and at Sedan he was taken captive in 1870. Bismarck wrested Alsace-Loraine from France by the Treaty of Frankfurt.

(11) The German Empire :

The King of Prussia was made the President of the North German Confederation in 1867 by Bismarck. After the battle of Sedan and before the capture of Paris in 1871, Bismarck arranged the ceremony of inaugurating the German Empire. The King of Prussia has crowned German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors in the grand palace of Louis XIV at Versailles.

Question 25. Analyze the main features of the foreign policy of Bismarck up to 1878.
Answer:

The main features of the foreign policy of Bismarck up to 1878

(1) Introduction :

The Frankfurt fiasco of 1848 was a triumph for Austria, but to no one did it give greater satisfaction than to a Prussian subject. The man destined to fame as the cheater of German unity, Count Otto Von Bismarck. In 1862, William, the Emperor of Prussia appointed Bismarck as his minister. In the meantime, Bismarck had not only gained much experience of German affairs at Frankfurt but as ambassador at St. Petersburg from 1859 to 1862 and for a few months at Paris had acquired first-hand knowledge of the main lines of European diplomacy.

At Paris he had taken the measure of Emperor Napoleon III, his experience at Frankfurt had made him realize Austria’s bitter hostility to Prussia, his sojourn at St. Petersburg had convinced him that “Prussia must never let Russia’s friendship grow cold”, and that as Russia’s interest was concentrated on the east, she was naturally of Prussia. The Polish insurrection in 1863 gave him the opportunity at once. manifesting his friendship with Russia and frustrating the attempt of the poles to regain independence. Bismarck was a hater of democracy, he believed in the principle of “blood and iron” and he was a royalist to the core.

(2) Bismarck’s Policy :

The German empire is the result of the policy of blood and iron as carried out by Prussia through three wars which crowded in the brief period of six years the war with Denmark in 1864, with Austria in 1866, and with France in 1870-1871, the last two of which were the result of Bismarck’s will and diplomatic ingenuity and unscrupulousness and the first of which he exploited consummately, for the advantage of Prussia.

The first of these grew out of one of the complicated issues that have ever perplexed diplomatists and statesmen about the future of Schleswig and Holstein after the death of Frederick II, King of Denmark in 1863. Moreover, Bismarck saw in the situation a chance for the eventual aggrandizement of Prussia and a possible future quarrel with Austria. Denmark could not resist the combined attacks of Austria and Prussia, and soon a war broke out between the two German powers over the future of the two Duchies Schleswig and Holstein. In the meantime, Bismarck came to terms with Napoleon III at Biarritz (1865) and promised Venetia Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (1866).

In 1866 war broke out between Austria and Prussia and within six weeks Austria was defeated. The Germanic Confederation was dissolved, Austria was expelled from the Germanic body and gave Venetia to Italy, and in 1867 the German States north of Maine were virtually annexed by Prussia. After Austria, it was the turn of France. Moreover, Napoleon III had fallen on troublous days. From a successful war with France, Bismarck might not only expect a restoration of Alsace-Lorrain but the completion of the Imperial edifice of Germany and the transference of European hegemony from Paris to Berlin.

With the victory at Sedan (1870), Bismarck consummates his life’s work. Terms of union between north and south Germany had already been arranged and on January 18, 1871, King William I of Prussia accepted the Imperial Crown from his fellow prices and proclaimed Versailles as the first German Emperor. But the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) left behind its embittered memories. The French people refused to accept the verdict of Sedan as final, their hopes for
the future was expressed in the single word ‘revenge’.

In these circumstances, Bismarck put all his energies into the task of isolating France from Europe. In 1872 he built up another Holy Alliance, popularly known as Dreikaiserbund, by which Germany, Austria, and Russia united to crush liberal movements. But the reopening, of the Eastern question in 1875 introduced a new factor in the situation. At the Congress of Berlin (1878), Germany co-operated with Austria, and Russia was violently incensed at the ingratitude of the power to whom she had rendered signal services in 1870. The entente of the three Emperors was rudely shattered and Bismarck turned closer to Austrian friendship.

Question 26. Compare and contrast the unification of Italy with that of Germany.
Answer:

The two unifications present points of resemblance as well as difference.

(1) Resemblance :
(1) Both had the same end in view; the one sought the unity of Germany and the other unity of Italy.
(2) To both Italy and Germany, the first requisite was the expulsion of foreign domination, namely that of Austria.

(2) Difference :

(1) Cavour was a liberal, whereas Bismarck was a reactionary.

(2) Cavour followed constitutional and legitimate methods. The monarchy in Italy went hand in hand with the popular movement. But Bismarck believed in Prussian despotism and followed methods of ‘blood and iron’ and vile diplomacy and aggressive policy.

(3) Bismarck, unlike Cavour whose aim was not Piedmont but Italy, believed in unification with Prussian hegemony. He did not allow Prussia to be dissolved into Germany, but the rest of Germany was absorbed into Prussia. Italy absorbed Piedmont whereas Prussia absorbed Germany.

(3) Criticism :

The German Empire was the result of the policy of blood and iron carried out by Bismarck in three wars. Thus it rested upon the sword. When Cavour died, his work was substantially complete. But Bismarck, as Lipson points out, left behind problems that involve uncertainty as to the destiny of the structure he created. Later events were to prove that he gave wholly a false direction to German political development.

Question 27. Give an account of Bismarck’s internal policy.
Answer:

Bismarck’s internal policy

(1) Introduction :

The appearance of Bismarck marks the beginning of a new epoch in European history. Bismarck was one of the most original and remarkable characters of his century. He was one of the greatest men in action with an iron resolve and the most successful statesman of his age. Bismarck ranks in history as one of the few great founders of the States.

(2) The views of Bismarck :

Bismarck was distinguished for his strong monarchical sentiments. He hated democratic ideas and the anarchy left loose by the Revolution in France. To his end, Bismarck devoted all his energies. After having achieved the unification of Germany in three wars he turned his attention to the internal consolidation of the German Empire.

(3) Consolidation of the German Empire :

(1) The Constitution of the new German Empire was put into force in 1871. It was a federal constitution with the King of Prussia ipso facto the German Emperor.

(2) The Imperial Legislature: The Bundesrat :
This was the most powerful institution which possessed legislative, executive, and judicial functions. It represented the states in the federation, but representation to states was most unequal, out of 58 members Prussia alone was given 17. The Bundesrat was not a deliberative body but acted according to the instructions from the home government.

(3) The Reichstag :

The Reichstag was the popular body elected by adult suffrage. But it was powerless and little more than an advisory body. Thus, Bismarck created a staunchly monarchical confederation under Prussian hegemony. The main spring of power was the Bundesrat and the Kingdom of Prussia.

(4) The Prussian Government :

When the Prussian Government came into conflict with the royal power, Bismarck flouted it and trampled it underfoot. The Parliament of Prussia possessed no controlling voice in the state. The executive was not subject to it. The executive in Prussia was the King as Emperor, he gained his great power from the fact that he was the King of Prussia. Bismarck was known as the ‘Tamer of Parliament’.

(5) Conflict with the Church :

The New German Empire had to face a fierce religious conflict called Kultur Kampf or war in defense of civilization, for many years. It was a contest between the State and the Roman Catholic Church. The religious hatred in Germany between the Catholics and the Protestants was intensified by Prussian victories over Austria and France. They were Victories of a Protestant state over two strong Catholic powers. The Catholics won a good number of seats in the Reichstag. Bismarck did not like the appearance of the clerical party in the political arena. He believed that Church should keep out of politics.

(1) The Kultur Kampf :

The Kultur Kampf was a quarrel among the Catholics themselves. In 1870, the Vatican Council proclaimed the new dogma of Papal infallibility. The large majority of Catholic princes in Germany accepted it, but some refused. There the majority demanded that those who had not accepted it should be removed from their positions in universities and schools. The Prussian Government refused to remove them. A religious war broke out.

(2) The Falk :

The Prussian legislature passed the Falk or May Laws which forbade Catholic priests from intervening in civil affairs. The state exercised control over the appointment and dismissal of priests. A law was passed making civil marriages compulsory. The Government took repressive measures like fines and imprisonment to enforce these laws. The nation’s life was disturbed.

(3) Compromise :

The religious policy of Bismarck failed and he was forced to compromise. The anti-clerical legislation was gradually repealed except that concerning civil marriage. The only permanent result of the religious conflict was the strengthening of the Catholic party in Germany.

(6) Suppression of Socialists :

In 1878, Bismarck turned his attention to the socialist party which was founded by Ferdinand Lassalle. The socialists demanded political and civil freedoms, economic and social reforms, and humanitarian measures in the interests of the working class. Bismarck who hated the Socialists adopted two methods in dealing with them:

(1) stern repression of socialist agitation, and

(2) concessions to the working class. First came repression. In 1878 he passed a law of great severity which forbade all socialist associations, meetings, and publications. It also made provision for the promulgation of Martial Law. But repression failed to check the socialists. Bismarck tried the second method. He tried to improve the condition of the working class by adopting the policy of State Socialism Sickness. Accident, Old Age Insurance laws were passed. In this legislation, Bismarck was the pioneer in Europe. The Socialists denounced these laws as inadequate. Thus both his methods failed and the socialist party steadily increased in Germany.

(7) Army Reforms :

To safeguard the new Germany, Bismarck turned to both diplomacy and military preparedness. The German military machine was always growing, never shrinking, after 1871 Bismarck introduced compulsory military service.

(8) Judicial Reforms :

The whole judicial administration was reorganized and a uniform code of procedure was introduced for the whole empire. A Supreme Court was established at Leipzig.

(9) Economic Measures :

Bismarck brought about a thorough change in the financial and industrial policy of Germany. In the interest of the development of German manufactures, he adopted in 1879, the policy of protection by introducing high tariffs. For the same purpose in 1884, he introduced the vigorous colonial policy. Germany was thoroughly industrialized. The iron mines of Lorraine as well as the coal mines or the Ruhr were fully exploited. Steel and Textile industries were promoted and Railway was extended. The Reich Bank was established and the coinage was improved.

(9) “Dropping of the Pilot” :

In 1888, Frederick William I was succeeded by his ‘son, William II. The new Kaiser could not break the controlling influence of the great chancellor. Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890. The removal of Bismarck was a great loss to Germany as shown in the phrase “dropping of the pilot” which is applied to describe it.

Question 28. What were the aims of the foreign policy of Bismarck from 1861 to 1871?
Answer:

The aims of the foreign policy of Bismarck from 1861 to 1871

(1) Introduction :

The appearance of Bismarck marked the beginning of a new epoch in European history. Bismarck who entered the stage of European politics in 1861, was one of the most original and remarkable characters of his century. He was one of the greatest of the diplomats and men of a Nation with an iron resolve. Like Napoleon, he was a destroyer but unlike Napoleon, he has never led astray on ambition. Bismarck was a realist and the most successful statesman of his age. A great diplomat, he struck at the right moment.

(2) The aims of Bismarck’s foreign policy :

Bismarck was distinguished for his strong monarchical sentiments and his hatred of the anarchy of democracy let loose by the Revolution. His sole aim was the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony. He aimed at making Prussia the strongest and the greatest power in Europe. To this end, he followed any means however unscrupulous. He would achieve the unification of Germany not by ‘speeches’ but by the sword, “blood and iron” as he called it. His foreign policy was aggressive. He did it under the protection of self-defense, forcing his opponents to take the initiative. Bismarck possessed the wonderful skill of making friends and dividing his enemies. Bismarck’s policy was aggressive nationalism but not aggressive imperialism as his second master Kaiser William II mistook it for.

(3) Foreign policy before unification :

(1) The war against Denmark and the Austro-Prussian War :

Before the unification of Germany, Bismarck’s foreign policy aimed at the expulsion of Austrians from the Germanic Confederation. He realized that the main obstacle to the unification of Germany was Austria. He induced Austria to cooperate with Prussia in a war against Denmark over the question of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck could foresee the aggrandizement of Prussia as well as a chance to quarrel with Austria, both of which he desired, for the greatest glory of the country. Denmark was defeated and Austria picked up a quarrel on the question of the future of the duchies. Bismarck, by clever diplomacy, isolated Austria by winning the friendship of Russia and Italy and securing the neutrality of France. Having thus isolated Austria, he forced Austria to take initiative and declare war. Austria was defeated at Sadowa and expelled from Germany.

(2) The Franco-Prussian War :

The traditional policy of France was to keep Germany disunited. So, Bismarck desired war with France. France also felt wounded for receiving no compensation for the neutrality in the Austro-Prussian War. Bismarck again set to work and this time to isolate France. He secured the support of Austria in the Treaty of Prague at the end of the Austro-Prussian War. He made public the aggressive designs of Napoleon III for Belgium, Luxembourg, and Palatinate and thereby caused a breach between France and Britain. Italy nourished a grudge against Napoleon III for his betrayal of her cause in the unification of Italy and for

his having wrested Savoy and Nice. Russia was secretly encouraged to violate the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. Thus having rendered the isolation of France complete, she defeated her at Sedan. By the Treaty of Frankfurt, Bismarck secured for Germany the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine from France. He proclaimed the King of Prussia as the German Emperor in the French Palace of Mirror at Versailles. The French never forgave these two things, and revenge upon Germany became the whole concern of France in the years to come.

Question 29. Critically examine the foreign policy of Germany from 1871 to 1890.
Answer:

The foreign policy of Germany from 1871 to 1890

(1) Introduction :

The France-Prussian War left behind embittered memories. France was bent upon revenge and recovering the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine. Hence, Bismarck was forced to follow the policy of isolating France from Europe and conquering her weak so that she might not be a danger to Germany. With this end in view, he formed the League of Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund) in 1872.

(2) The League of Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund), 1872 :

Bismarck invited the Emperors of Prussia and Austria, the possible allies of France to Britain. He convinced them of the common danger from Revolutionary France to all monarchs alike. Thus, the three Emperors of Russia, Austria, and Prussia formed an alliance.

(1) The Congress of Berlin :
The League of Three Emperors was not to be destined to last, for Austria and Russia were rivals in the Balkans. The actual break-up took place with the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Bismarck, who played the honest broker, supported the claims of Austria against Russia in securing Bosnia and
Herzegovina which was claimed by Serbia is an ally of Russia.

(2) The Dual Alliance :
Having lost the friendship of Russia, Bismarck made up for the loss through a closer alliance mth Austria. Austria and Germany signed the Dual Alliance.

(3) The Triple Alliance :

The Dual Alliance was converted into a Triple Alliance by admitting Italy into it. Italy was offended by the French occupation of Tunis and threw in her lot with the Central Powers. The isolation of France was made complete. This alarmed France. She gradually patched up her differences with Russia and Britain and formed the Triple Entente to counterpoise the Triple Alliance. Thus the policy of Bismarck led to the division of Europe into two rival camps.

(3) Colonial Policy :

One of the important features of the closing years of Bismarck’s political career was the beginning of a German colonial empire. In 1871, he refused to demand as a prize any of the French colonial possessions. He believed that Germany should consolidate and should not risk the hostility of other nations by entering the path of colonial rivalry.

But after 1880, Bismarck was attracted by the activities of energetic merchants from Hamburg and Bremen who established trading. Stations in Africa and the islands of the Pacific. He adopted the policy of protection and the development of German manufacturers to the utmost and aspired for new markets for German products.

In 1884, he adopted a vigorous colonial policy and took part in the scramble for Africa. Germany acquired Cameroon, Togoland, German South-West Africa, German East Africa, and also a part of New Guinea.

(4) Criticism :

In 1888, Kaiser William 1 was succeeded by his son William II. The new Kaiser could not break the control of the great Chancellor. Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890. The German Empire that Bismarck established rested upon the sword and its foundations were a series of contacts between different governments.

As such, it required delicate and skillful handling. With the ‘dropping of the pilot’ in 1890, all political wisdom vanished in Germany. Diplomacy gave place to tactless aggression.

The military engine created by Bismarck became a menace to Europe until it was blown up in the flames of World War I. Thus, it will be seen that Bismarck gave a wholly false direction to German political development.

Question 30. “Alexander II may be regarded as the Czar Liberator.” -Discuss.
Answer:

“Alexander II may be regarded as the Czar Liberator.”

(1) Introduction :

The Crimean War was in a general sense the watershed of European history; the statement may be with particular force applied to Russian defeat which discredited wholly the system of Nicholas I and set on foot a movement toward democracy, which in one form or another, has been the principal theme of her internal history from that day to this.

(2) Alexander II :

The way to reform in Russia was prepared by the death of Czar Nicholas I at the beginning of 1855 and by the accession of Alexander II. He was a man of kindly and humane instincts, with none of his father’s love of soldiering. He was a great lover of Russia, deeply sensitive to her humiliations and conscious of his own responsibility. The reforms upon which he embarked at the beginning of his reign, were not the emanations of democratic conviction.

(3) The Treaty of Paris :

The new Czar Alexander II who succeeded Nicholas I made peace with the Allies in 1856, known as the Treaty of Paris. The treaty did not refer to the petty quarrel on which the war broke out, but it attempted to reach a settlement of the Eastern Question.
(1) Conquests made during the war were to be restored.
(2) Moldavia and Wallachia were declared autonomous. Russia lost its protectorate over them.
(3) The Black Sea was neutralized and its ports were thrown open to the merchant ships of all nations.
(4) The Russians undertook not to fortify Sebastopol.
(5) To Moldavia was ceded southern Bessarabia by Russia.
(6) Kars was returned to Turkey.
(7) Russia was given back Crimea.
(8) Their freedom was guaranteed by the Great Powers.
(9) The powers collectively guaranteed not to interfere in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire and to preserve its territorial integrity.
(10) The Sultan promised to introduce liberal reforms in the Balkan states.
(11) Turkey was admitted to the ‘European concert’ and the Sultan was empowered to send representatives to the future congress of the powers.

(4) Criticism of the Treaty :

There were nearly 45 million serfs forming about half of her population, 23 million belonged to the crown, and the rest to the private lords and church. Those in the royal domain were far better off than those in the private ‘and. The Edict of Emancipation of Alexander II a measure not only of profound moral but also of greatest economic importance—was based on four main principles. The first was embodied in the concession of full civic rights. The serf became a free peasant freed from bondage to his master.

Secondly, the serf was to be given not only freedom but land and the noble was to lose not only his labor but some of his property. Otherwise, the landless peasants would create a greater number of social and economic problems than had been removed by liberation.

The third principle enjoined that the land was not to be bestowed upon the peasant in personal ownership, but in communal ownership upon the village group or ‘mir’ to which he was attached. The mir held the land and the mir was collectively responsible for certain yearly payments which were to be given to the lord. Lastly, the Government was to help the village groups to redeem the annual dues to the former owner of the soil by lending them sums of money equal to the capitalized value of the land. The practical effects of emancipation on the land-owning classes varied in different parts of the country. But to the peasant, it brought deep disappointment. On the surface the edict was revolutionary, in practice, it affected little economic improvement in their condition. They found that the authority of the mir was as irritating as that of the lords.

(5) Other Reforms :

The emancipation of the serfs, the greatest of Alexander’s reforms, was speedily followed by others. The disabilities were removed from the universities and from foreign travel, the press censorship was considerably modified, the army and navy reorganized and important changes were introduced into the judicial administration and into local government. The Judicial system was full of abuses and it was rotten to the core with wholesale corruption. An entirely new judicial structure was set up, modeled on English and French lines.

The administrative and judicial functions have separated the independence of the magistrates and promoted oval procedures of trial by jury established. A new penal code was introduced and civil and criminal cases were simplified. Justices of the peace, chosen by popular election, were instituted to deal with minor affairs, and more important suits were reserved for regular tribunals composed of trained judges supported by the crown.

The Crimean War has shown the inefficiency of the administration and. radical changes were introduced in the Moscow provinces, in the direction of decentralization and local autonomy. New Councils or Zemstvos were set up representing the classes of the community. The councils were of two kinds, the district council elected by popular suffrage, and the provincial council elected by the District Council. But their powers were restricted by the right of veto over their decisions possessed by the Governor of the province and by the lack of their inadequate financial resources.

(6) Conclusion :

Through the wide reforms, Alexander II performed a great service as Peter the Great in bringing Russia into line with western nations. A new spirit began to pervade Russia, new literature and economics and philosophy and politics sprang up and a marked impulse was given to education and the press swarmed with Utopias. The concession and local autonomy was merely a preface to the grant of complete political self-government. Russia was to imitate the nations of the West.

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment