Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath Introduction:

About the Second World War and its Aftermath :

The germs of the Second World War lay in the Treaty of Versailles (1919) which was imposed on defeated Germany after the First World War. It was a humiliating and shameful treaty for Germany which imposed drastic losses and unbearable burdens on her. The treaty made the Germans feel a desire to have the treaty nullified as soon as possible.

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The problems and needs of the victorious powers in the First World War. were also not settled by the Treaty of Versailles. The new states which had arisen in central Europe felt insecure about their fate.

There were also rivalries over political ideologies of democracy and dictatorship. There was also the challenge of communism. The western democratic countries were not happy with the growing power of the USSR and the spread of communism in Eastern Europe.

So the western democratic countries preferred to appease Germany and Italy. This emboldened Hitler. In 1938 he first occupied Austria and then Czechoslovakia, then Danzing on the Baltic Sea. On 1 September 1939, the German army marched into poland. So Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3 and the Second World War started.

The war, in the beginning, proved to be highly favourable to Germany. From the end of 1944, the war situation began to change in favour of the Allies. In early 1945 the Allies launched massive attacks on Germany and the German armies surrendered. Japan’s surrender came a few months later when the U.S.A dropped two atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.

The Second World War destroyed far more lives and properties than the First World War. In Germany, Russia and Japan several millions of people lost their lives.The signing of treaties after the Second World War did not mean the coming of peace.

Armed conflict ended but a cold war between two superpowers – the U.S.A and USSR started. International agencies like the U.N.O were set up to settle international issues and for the establishment of peace, but these have not been able so far to prevent the race for armament, in particular, nuclear armament which is a great menace to world peace even today.

One positive result of the war was that the war weakened the old colonial empires and forced them to grant independence to their colonies which they had held for generations.

Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath Very Short Answer Type :

Question 1. Which treaty is known as a ‘dictated peace’?
Answer: The Treaty of Versailles is known as a ‘dictated peace’.

Question 2. What is the name of the republic that was established after 1918 in Germany?
Answer: The name of the Republic that was established after 1918 in Germany was known as the Weimer Republic.

Question 3. On which date did the Second World War begin?
Answer: The Second World War began in September 1939.

Question 4. Who was the Prime Minister of England when the Second World War started?
Answer: Neville Chamberlain was the Prime Minister of England when the Second World War started.

Question 5. Who was the Prime Minister of France when the Second World War broke out?
Answer: Daladier was the Prime Minister of France when the Second World War broke out

Question 6. Who was the founder of the Nazi Party?
Answer: The founder of the Nazi Party was Hitler.

Question 7. When did Germany withdraw from the League of Nations?
Answer: Germany withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933.

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Question 8. Which country was first attacked by Hitler during the Second World War?
Answer: Poland was first attacked by Hitler during the Second World War.

Question 9. Which port of Poland was demanded by Hitler?
Answer: Danzig, a port of Poland, was demanded by Hitler.

Question 10. Who was Hindenburg?
Answer: Hindenburg was the President of German Republic.

Question 11. Which country other than Germany and Italy was a part of the Axis group of nations?
Answer: Japan was a part of the Axis group of nations other than Germany and Italy.

Question 12. Which British Prime Minister appeased Germany?
Answer: The British Prime Minister who appeased Germany was Neville Chamberlain.

Question 13. When did Japan attack Manchuria?
Answer: Japan attacked Manchuria in 1931.

Question 14. Which British warships were drowned by German U-boats?
Answer: The British warships HMS Courageous and the HMS Royal Oak were drowned by German U-boats.

Question 15. Who was Mac Arthur?
Answer: Mac Arthur was the American military General.

Question 16. Which American naval base in the Pacific Ocean was attacked by Japan?
Answer: The American naval base at Pearl Harbour was attacked by Japan.

Question 17. In which year was Pearl Harbour attacked by Japan?
Answer: Pearl Harbour was attacked by Japan in 1941.

Question 18. In which year did Hitler attack Russia?
Answer: Hitler attacked Russia in 1941.

Question 19. In which year did Japan surrender to the Allies during the Second World War?
Answer: Japan surrendered to the Allies during the Second World War in 1945.

Question 20. When did the Second World War come to an end?
Answer: The Second World War came to an end in 1945.

Question 21. Where is Pearl Harbour located?
Answer: Pearl Harbour is located on the island of O’ahu in Hawaii.

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Question 22. Who were the US Presidents during World War II?
Answer: Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman both served as United States Presidents during World War II.

Question 23. Name the World War II General who went on to become the President of the United States of America.
Answer: The World War II General Eischen hower went on to become the President of the United States of America.

Question 24. In which year was the Tehran Conference held?
Answer: The Tehran Conference was held in 1944.

Question 25. In which year was the San Francisco Conference held?
Answer: The San Francisco Conference was held in 1945. ©

Question 26. Who first popularised the term ‘Cold War’?
Answer: The term ‘Cold War’ was first popularised by Walter Lipmann.

Question 27. Name two superpowers which were the main rivals in the Cold War.
Answer:

The superpowers who were the main rivals in the Cold War were:

(1) United States of America and
(2) Soviet Russia.

Question 28. Name two parties in the Cold War.
Answer:

The two parties in the Cold War were:

(1) United States of America and
(2) Soviet Russia.

Question 29. What does NATO stand for?
Answer: NATO stands for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.

Question 30. What does SEATO stand for?
Answer: SEATO stands for South East Asia Treaty Organisation.

Question 31. In which year was Truman Doctrine proclaimed?
Answer: Truman Doctrine was proclaimed in.1947.

Question 32. In which year was Marshall Plan proclaimed?
Answer: Marshall Plan was proclaimed in 1947. :

Question 33. Who is the author of the poem “The White Man’s Burden”?
Answer: The author of the poem “The White Man’s Burden” is Rudyard Kipling.

Question 34. What is the concept of ‘The White Man’s Burden’?
Answer: ‘The White Man’s Burden’ is the idea that white people are superior to then on white races and so, colonial rulers have a duty to take care of and ‘civilise’ the native inhabitants of their colonies.

Question 35. When and between whom was the Russo-German Non-Aggression pact signed?
Answer: The Russo-German Non-Aggression pact was signed ch 23 August 1939 between Russian foreign minister Molotov and German foreign minister Ribbentrop.

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Question 36. After which incident did U.S.A join the Second World War?
Answer: When Japan attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbour, U.S.A joined the World War II.

Question 37. What was the direct cause of Second World War?
Answer: The direct cause of Second World War was Hitler’s attack on Poland.

Question 38. Which day is known as the ‘D-Day’ (Deliverance Day)?
Answer: 6th June 1944 is known as the ‘D-Day’.

Question 39. Who followed the polic
Answer: The Prime Minister of Britain, Neville Chamberlain and Edouard Daladier, the Premier of France followed this policy.

Question 40. Name the countries which took part in the Second World War.
Answer: The countries which took part in the Second World War were Germany, Italy, Japan, Britain, France, Soviet Union, U.S.A, Poland, Yugoslavia, Romania, Greece, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Holland, Belgium, Finland, Bulgaria, Albania, Norway, Denmark, etc.

Question 41. What is meant by Third World countries?
Answer: A group of developing countries in Asia, Africa and South America which achieved independence after the Second World War were known as the Third World countries.

42. What is a Non-Alignment policy?
Answer: Non-Alignment policy which aims at ensuring international peace means keeping away form the two military blocks led by U.S.A and USSR and solving all international conflicts and disputes peacefully through cooperation.

Question 43. When did the Second World War come to an end?
Answer: The Second World War came to an end on 2 September 1945.

Question 44. For how many years did the Second World War continue?
Answer: The Second World War started on 1 September 1939 and ended on 2 September 1945 so the war continued for 6 years.

Question 45. What was the aim of the Versailles Treaty
Answer: The Treaty of Versailles aimed to weaken Germany both economically and militarily.

Question 46. In which year was the Battle of Britain fought?
Answer: The Battle of Britain was fought in 1940.

Question 47. What was the main reason of the defeat of Germany in the Second World War?
Answer: The main reason of the defeat of Germany in the Second World War was the conspiracy of the German generals and the discontent of the soldiers.

Question 48. Name the Czar of Russia who established his capital at Leningrad.
Answer: The Czar of Russia who established his capital at Leningrad was Peter the great.

Question 49. When was the U.N.O established?
Answer: U.N.O was established on 24 October 1945.

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Question 50. Why was Hitler in favour of union between Germany and Austria?
Answer: Hitler was in favour of union between Germany and Austria as a sizeable number of Germans lived in Austria.

Question 51. Under whose leadership did the Russian army defeat the Germans?
Answer: Under the leadership of Marshall Zhukov the Russian army defeated the GermAnswer:

Question 52. How did the U.S.A become the arsenal of democracy?
Answer: U.S.A became the arsenal of democracy when the American Senate enacted the Land-Lease Act in March 1941 and allowed the US government to offer warships, war planes and other weapons to the Allied powers to fight against Fascism.

Question 53. Which Act made the U.S.A. the ‘Arsenal of Democracy’?
Answer: The Land Lease Act enacted by the American Senate in 1941 made the U.S.A. the ‘Arsenal of Democracy’.

Question 54. Which day is regarded as a date which will live in infamy in the U.S.A.?
Answer: The day is regarded as a date which will live in infamy in the history as Japan bombed the US naval base at Pearl Harbour on this day.

Question 55. When was ‘Victory-in-Europe Day’ observed?
Answer: Germany surrendered to the Allied Powers formally on May 7, 1945, and the whole of Europe observed May 8, 1945, as ‘the Victory-in-Europe Day’.

Question 56. What was the Grand Alliance?
Answer: U.S.A, Great Britain and Soviet Russia formed an alliance against the Axis powers which is known as the Grand Alliance.

Question 57. Who followed the ‘one by one policy’?
Answer: Hitler, the German dictator, followed ‘one by one’ policy.

Question 58. What was the ‘Land Lease Act’?
Answer: The American Senate enacted the Land Lease Act in March 1941 and allowed the US Government to offer warships, war planes and other weapons to the Allied powers to fight against fascism.

Question 59. Under whose leadership did the German soldiers start ‘Operation Barbarossa’?
Answer: The German soldiers started ‘Operation Barbarossa’ under the leadership of Hitler.

Question 60. When and by whom was the Anglo-Russian Alliance signed?
Answer: Churchill, the British Prime Minister, concluded the Anglo-Russian Alliance of 1941.

Question 61. Which incident made the Far East the centre of war during World War II?
Answer: The Japanese attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbour made the Far East the centre of war during World War II.

Question 62. After which invasion did the ‘Beginning of the End’ of Germany start under the leadership of Hitler?
Answer: After the invasion of Russia, the ‘Beginning of the end’ of Germany started under the leadership of Hitler.

Question 63. Name the two atom bombs dropped by the U.S.A. on Japan.
Answer: U.S.A. dropped the atomic bombs named ‘Little Boy’ on Hiroshima and ‘Fat man’ on Nagasaki in Japan. :

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64. Why did Hitler attack Poland?
Answer: After the Munich Pact, Hitler demanded the use of the port of Danzig and also the Polish corridor to reach the port. When Poland refused this demand, Hitler attacked Poland.

Question 65. What was the aim of Hitler’s foreign policy?
Answer: Hitler’s foreign policy aimed at German expansion in East Europe in order to carve out some ‘Living Space’ (Lebensraum) for the surplus German population.

Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath 2 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Name the Allied and Axis powers in the Second World War.
Answer:

In the Second World War, the Allied powers were England, France, the USSR, U.S.A. and China. The Axis powers were Italy, Germany and Japan.

Question 2. Through which military campaign did Mussolini try to fulfil his imperial ambition?
Answer:

The Fascist Government under Mussolini became hungry for colonies and Mussolini tried to fulfil his imperial ambitions through his military campaign in the East African country of Ethiopia (Abyssinia). In 1935 he attacked Ethiopia to exploit its minerals and raw materials for industrial development and Ethiopia was formally in 1936.

Question 3. Why did Hitler sign the Munish Pact?
Answer:

England and France followed the policy of appeasement towards Hitler and signed the Munich Pact in 1938. Hitler agreed to sign the Munich Pact because:

(1)Germany was authorised to occupy four border provinces of Czechoslovakia within ten days.
(2) The Czechoslovakian Government was forced to release all the political prisoners of Sudetenland. This territory was also given to Germany.

Question 4. Write a note on the Battle of Leningrad.
Answer:

At the initial stage of the Second World War, the German arty achieved great success. They besieged Leningrad. The Soviet army followed the ‘Scorched Earth’ policy and guerilla model of warfare. As a result, the Nazi forces began to retreat. In the beginning of 1942, Leningrad was vacated by the Russian Red Army.

Question 5. Which incident forced the U.S.A. to join the Second World War?
Answer: The sudden Japanese air attack with 360 aircraft struck at the American fleet at Pearl Harbour in the Hawaiian Islands on 7 December 1941 and wiped out all the American planes on the ground there. This incident at Pearl Harbour forced U.S.A. to join the Second World War.

Question 6. Write a note on bombing the U.S.A. at Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Answer:

The U.S.A. prepared a plan to drop the newly discovered atomic bomb on Japan on August 6, 1945. The atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, an industrial town in Japan, which destroyed half the city and caused 80,000 deaths.

This was the first use of a top bomb during World War II. On August 9, a second atomic bomb was dropped at Nagasaki in Kyum, destroying the whole municipal area and killing 40,000 people. The whole world was alarmed at the extensive destructive capacity of these new weapons.

Question 7. How can you explain the Second World War as a struggle between Fascism and Nazism versus democratic ideals?
Answer:

The Second World War was, in fact, the struggle of two contradictory principles, versus democratic principles. England, France and America were the supporters of the principles of democracy, while the principles of autocracy were fully supported. by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Thus war was inevitable between the supporters of these two contradictory principles.

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Question 8. What is UNRRA?
Answer:

As a result of the Second World War, there was total destruction, devastation and despair in the whole of Europe. In order to regenerate the economy of the devastated countries, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (U.N.R.R.A.) was set up in 1943 in Washington, U.S.A.

It was an international body to provide relief to countries liberated from the German occupation. This economic recovery programme provided substantial economic help to the war ravaged countries like Poland, Italy, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Austria, etc.

Question 9. What was the ‘Fulton Speech’?
Answer:

On 5 March 1946 the former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered a speech at Westminster College, Fulton in the state of Missouri, U.S.A. He warned that a large part of Europe from Stettin to Triest had passed under the “iron curtain” of the Soviet Union. He warned that America should become alert otherwise the Soviet Union would one day conquer the entire continent of Europe.

Question 10. What was the Vichy Government?
Answer:

A puppet French Government led by Petain was established under the control was the capital of this new French Government, it was also called the Vichy Government.

Question 11. When was the Yalta Conferénce held ? Name the countries which took part in the Yalta Conference.
Answer:

The Yalta Conference was held in 1945. The countries which took part in the Yalta Conference were the U.S.A., Britain and Russia.

Question 12. What is the Marshall Plan?
Answer:

The American Foreign Secretary, George Marshall, in a lecture at Harvard University, spoke of a plan of economic resurgence of the war-ravaged countries like France, Britain, Belgium, Italy, West Germany, etc. The plan of Marshall which wanted to save Europe from poverty, hunger and lawlessness is known as the Marshall plan, a programme to finance the recovery of the European economy.

Question 13. What is internationalism?
Answer:

Internationalism is a movement which advocates the economic and political benefit of all. It is the belief that countries can achieve more advantages by working together and trying to understand each other than by arguing and fighting wars with each other.

Question 14. What is nationalism?
Answer:

Nationalism is basically a collective state of mind or consciousness in which people believe their primary duty is loyalty to the nation-state. It implies national superiority and glorifies various national virtues. It is a political or social philosophy in which the welfare of the nation-state as an entity is considered paramount

Question 15. What is the Maginot line?
Answer:

The Maginot Line, an elaborate defensive barrier in northeast France, was named after its principal creator, Andre Maginot who was France’s Minister of War when the fortification was ‘begun in 1929: It was a line of fortification. built by France to defend its border with Germany prior to World War ll.

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Question 16. What is Operation Barbarossa?
Answer:

On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany and her allies began a massive invasion of the Soviet Union under Operation Barbarossa. Hitler changed the original name Operation Fritz to Operation Barbarossa to refer to Frederick Barbarossa, the Holy Roman Emperor, who had set out to conquer the Holy Land in 1190.

Question 17. What is Seigfreid Line?
Answer:

Seigfreid Line was a line of defensive forts and tank defences built along the German western frontier opposite the French Maginot Line in the 1930s and greatly expanded in 1941.

Question 18. What was decided in the Yalta Conference?
Answer:

In the Yalta Conference (1945) it was decided that:

(1) Britain, America and Russia would divide Germany after her surrender into four sectors and each power would occupy one sector. Berlin, the capital of Germany, also was to be divided into four parts.

(2) The heads of different states would meet at a conference at San Francisco to prepare a charter for an international body.

Question 19. What are the characteristic features of democracy?
Answer:

The characteristic features of democracy include open-minded critical enquiry and ‘mutual regard and compromise’. The opposition functions as a legitimate partner of the democratic system. Democracy refuses to go by one-party rule and recognizes ‘individual liberty’.

Question 20. Why did democracy come under strain in Europe?
Answer:

The causes may be described as follows :

(1) Economic crises included inflation in post-war Europe. The Great Depression led to tariff barriers and disruption of trade.

(2) Some of the states suffered racial instability as a result of conflicting ethnic groups.

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Question 21. What are the characteristic features of fascism?
Answer:

However, a clearer understanding may be found by an analysis of the characteristics of

Fascism which were as follows :

(1) Aggressive nationalism and racism,
(2) Mass support,
(3) The leader principle,
(4) Undecided relationship with socialism, and
(5) Autarchy (economic self-sufficiency).

Question 22. Why did dictatorship supplant democracy?
Answer:

Firstly, a strong anti-democratic movement developed in Europe in the Liberalpolitics ceased being favoured. Secondly, during the period after 1920, liberal politics was not looked upon with much favour. Rule by committee and discussion which is a part of the democratic process came to be considered as inappropriate to deal with the critical issues at hand.

Question 23. What is the relation between nationalism and fascism?
Answer:

Nationalism was the springboard of Fascism. To the Italian nationalists whatever was a ‘mutilated victory’. This national frustration was a major factor that paved the way to the rise of Fascism.

Question 24. How did the Second World War outbreak?
Answer:

The outbreak of the Second World War: A worldwide conflict became inevitable when Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939. The war was between the Allied Powers and the Axis Powers.

The Allied Powers principally consisted of Britain, France and Poland, the USSR (joined in 1941), the USA (joined in 1941) and several other small powers. The Axis Powers were Germany, Italy (from 1940) and Japan (from 1941), supported by Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary and Romania.

Question 25. What do you mean by Phony War?
Answer:

Phony War: The period between the start of World War II in 1939 and the German onslaught towards the West in 1940 came to be called the ‘Phony War’. During the period Hitler’s Soviet Russian ally invaded Poland in the east and German troops in the west.

As a result Poland quickly collapsed. On the other hand, the Allied strategy aimed only at holding off German pressure on the Polish front.

Question 26. Why was the Russo-German Non-Aggression Pact signed?
Answer:

Hitler’s agenda was to annex Poland which was opposed by Britain and France. In the event of a war Britain and France would lend support to Poland. But if the Soviet Union were to side with Germany, Poland would be caught in a German-Russian trap. For Stalin negotiations with Britain and France had limited progress.

Stalin was becoming increasingly convinced that the two democracies had no real sympathy for Soviet security concerns. This creates a suitable pepper for the signing of a Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 27. What prompted Hitler to invade the Soviet Union?
Answer:

The answer may be found in the following :

(1) Hitler was not at all sincere in signing the Pact with the Soviets. He signed it as a strategic move.
(2) Without winning over the Soviet Union to his side, it would have been impossible for the Nazis to win the wars of 1939-1940.

Question 28. What was the Pearl Harbour incident?
Answer:

The Pearl Harbour Incident: Pearl Harbour in Hawaii was the main US naval base. Without any formal declaration of war, the Japanese airforce attacked Pearl Harbour early on 7 December 1941 sinking as many as 19 ships, destroying 188 planes and killing 2400 people.

Immediately the USA declared war on Japan, and it was a matter of days before Germany and Italy, who were Japan’s allies, declared war on the USA. American naval losses at Pearl Harbour gave an advantage to Japanese sea power immediately after the attack. However, the strategically important aircraft carriers remained undamaged as these were not in the harbour at that time.

Question 29. What are the major differences between Democracy and Fascism?
Answer:

The major differences between democracy and Fascism are :

(1) Democracy allows and encourages different political parties and political views to function in the political system to turn the wheels of the political system to turn the wheels of the political machinery. On the other hand, Fascism does not tolerate any political party or political views other than the view sponsored by the Fascist dictator.

(2) Democracy develops balanced, healthy and creative nationalism. This appears to be a source of strength and progress in the life of a nation. But Fascism generates hatred and preaches aggressive nationalism. Such perverted nationalism is the cause of conflict among different nations.

Question 30. What was ‘NATO’ and ‘Warsaw Pact’?
Answer:

After the Second World War U.S.A and Soviet Russia who had helped each other in the Second World War became rivals and a competition arose between them to assume the leadership of the world. In 1949 U.S. formed a military alliance called NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) with 15 nations as its members.

It was strong enough to repulse any invasion of West Europe by the Red Army. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, apprehended an invasion of East Europe and Russia by the NATO army. She entered into the Warsaw Pact with East European countries in 1955,

Question 31. What is the ‘Cash and Carry’ policy?
Answer:

In 1939 the American legislature allowed the U.S.A. to help the Western democratic states and sell arms and ammunition to them. This policy was known as the ‘Cash and Carry’ policy. It was a policy to preserve neutrality while aiding the Allies.

It allowed the sale of arms, ammunition and war materials to belligerents (countries engaged in war) as long as the recipients arranged for transportation using their own. ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risks in transportation.

Question 32. What was the Cold War?
Answer:

Tension of war without an actual shooting of war has been termed as the Cold War. Cold War is a state of tension between countries in which each side adopts policies designed to strengthen itself and weaken the other by falling short of actual war. It is a kind of verbal war and even more terrible than the ‘Warm War’.

Class ix History Question Answer

Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath 4 Marks Questions And Answers

Question 1. Would you say that Europe was on the brink of war in 1939?
Answer:

On the Brink of War : 1939: By 1939 Europe was on the brink of another World War.

The causes leading to the hostilities were as follows :

(1) Failure of the peace talks and initiatives at the end of the First World War.

(2) The imperialist policy pursued by Nazi Germany under the leadership of Hitler.

(3) The policy of appeasement followed by Britain and France.

(4) The policy of isolationism was followed by the USA. By the Munich Pact (1938), signed by the representatives of Britain, France, Germany and Italy, the occupation of Sudetenland (a part of Czechoslovakia) by Germany was agreed upon and ratified.

Britain and France hoped that the agreement would put an end to Hitler’s territorial ambitions and demands. In fact, by the Munich Pact Hitler promised that he would not use again war as a means to settle political disputes. With this belief, Chamberlain, the then-British Prime Minister, claimed that another World War had been avoided. But destiny had some other answer Soon it became clear that Hitler had fooled all concerned when in March 1939 Hitler occupied the entire Czechoslovakia.

The seizure of Czechoslovakia by Hitler alarmed the British and the French. They feared that Hitler would next annex Poland. Hence the British and French Governments promised to stand by the Poles (people of Poland) in case of an attack from Germany.

Question 2. What were the contributions of the USA to the Second World War?
Answer:

The USA and the Second World War: At the outbreak of World War II the USA remained committed to a policy of isolation or non-participation under the ‘Neutrality Act’ of 1937. People hoped that the USA could avoid future wars by neutrality.

However, the circumstances of war events led to almost an immediate change in the policy. The American attitude drastically changed on Sunday 7, December 1941 when the Japanese bombers attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbour at Hawaii and the airfield at Manila. The USA was now formally engaged at war against the Axis Powers.

The American Contribution: The American Government stepped up its aid.to Britain on a massive scale. Despite Pearl Harbour, the US President Roosevelt insisted in. giving priority to the European theatre of the global conflict.

For, America’s huge production potential was always likely to ensure the defeat of the Axis. The US economy was fully mobilized to produce huge quantities of weaponry which included tanks, merchant shipping and aircraft.

Besides, about 1-5 crore of men and women were enlisted in the war effort. It has been pointed out that the American entry into the war led to another major consequence. It marked the decline of Europe which became more and more dependent on decisions made in Washington.

Question 3. Would you say that World War II was truly a ‘global’ war?
Answer:

The Second World War as a truly ‘global’ War: The Second World War is called the really ‘global’ war for the first time. The cause of it lies in the fact that it was the only war fought on most of the inhabited parts of the earth.

Over 90 million (900 Lakh) soldiers were mobilized, of which war dead ranged from 40 to 60 million (4 to 6 Crore). However, the Second World War was truly ‘global’ in the sense that it had started as a European war with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany. Within a few days, Britain and France formally declared that they were engaged in

war as Germany attacked the country. In 1941 Yugoslavia, Greece and the Soviet Union were engulfed in the war due to the German invasion. The war spread to Asia due to the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbour that drew the USA into war against the Axis powers.

The Japanese involvement in the war resulted in a front in Burma (present Myanmar) and much of Southeast Asia and the Pacific. From 1942 onwards the war also spread to Africa. In view of the involvement of most of the countries of the world in the war, the Second World War was truly a ‘global war’.

Question 4. What were the qualitative and quantitative changes in the destructiveness of war?
Answer:

Qualitative and Quantitative Changes in the Destructiveness of War :

During the Second World War, scientists on both sides were employed in inventing weapons. Their motive was to invent such weapons that were more destructive than anything that the world had ever seen.

Apart from the technological changes that increased the effectiveness of the weaponry, the Germans invented long-range rockets and flying bombs which needed no pilots. These were radio-controlled.

These could be bombed on targets like cities where thousands of civilians — innocent men, women and children lived. But the most terrible weapon of all was the atomic bomb, finally developed by the USA.

This was a terrible weapon which was thousands of times more destructive than any ordinary bomb. The Atom Bomb explodes using the energy that is produced when an atom or atoms split.

One Atom Bomb is sufficient to destroy a whole town. An example can be had of Hiroshima where alone over 50,000 people were killed and another 100,000 injured by one Atom Bomb. Thus in the Second World War, there were some qualitative and quantitative changes in the destructiveness of war.

Question 5. How has aggressive nationalism been a threat to internationalism?
Answer:

Aggressive Nationalism versus Internationalism : Broadly speaking nationalism incorporates identical sentiments over allegiance to the state, traditional cultural heritage, unity among the people, territorial integrity and sovereignty But when it assumes an aggressive posture it may prove self-destructive. In this regard, the Nazi regime of Germany may be an example.

As against ‘aggressive nationalism’ emerged the phenomenon of internationalism. Internationalism is a practice of politics based on cooperation among nations. Internationalism recognizes the right of all nations of national sovereignty, security and self-determination.

It also includes cultural peace, socio-economic Progress and the right to defend the country’s borders against external aggression. There has been a bloom of internationalism in the era we are living in.

The international agencies that have contributed to the growth of internationalism are the United Nations Organization (UNO), the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), etc. However, it is worthy of mention here that the recent state of international terrorism is a danger to the spirit of internationalism. The trend can only be eliminated if all the nations of the world stand united against the menace of aggressive nationalism.

Question 6. Write a short note on the Pact of Paris.
Answer:

The most important milestone in the history of international relations after the Locarno Treaty was the Kellogg-Briand Pact or the Pact of Paris. On April 6, 1927, French Foreign Minister Briand had sent a message to the American people, in which he suggested that the tenth anniversary of the entry of the United States

Into the war might be celebrated by a mutual agreement in favour of ‘the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy’, American Secretary of State, Kellogg, after a long delay, replied with a counter-proposal that the suggested pact should be universal.

Briand agreed. Eventually, on April 27, 1928, representatives of the six great powers (America, Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Japan), the other three Locarno powers (Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia) and the British Dominions and India met in Paris and signed the Pact. This was known as the Kellogg-Briand Pact or the Pact of Paris.

In the first article, the signatories condemned recourse to war for the solution of international controversies and renounced it as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another. Within a few years, sixty-five nations, including the Soviet Union, signed the pact.

The Pact of Paris was not a far-reaching event. It renounced only wars of aggression. War was not outlawed :

(1) When resorted to in self-defence

(2) In the fulfilment of responsibilities under the League Covenant or Locarno agreement. Though the Pact condemned aggressive wars, it made no provision for punishing the guilty. There was not even a provision for consultation among the signatory powers in case of a breach of the Pact. The assertion of self-defence by Britain and the United States exposed the hollowness of the Pact. The original authors of the Pact did not ban war in self-defence.

Nevertheless, the Pact of Paris was an important landmark. The universal repudiation of war as an instrument of policy seems to have a unique importance. It continued a great step forward on the road to international security.

Question 7. Narrate in brief the collapse of Germany in World War II.
Answer:

Even in the midst of defeat, Nazi Germany made a determined bid to recover its power. In mid-November 1944 a general offensive was launched by all six Allied armies on the Western front. It yielded little result at a heavy cost In mid-December the Germans under their experienced commander, Marshal Von Runstedt, struck back at the heavily forested area of Ardennes.

Soon a whole sector of the Allied line in Belgium and Luxemburg was thrown into confusion; a great ‘bulge’ opened which had to be closed at all costs. In the so-called ‘Battle of the Bulge’, Runstedt cut fifty miles through American lines and reinvaded Belgium.

Supplementing this effort, Hitler employed small, unpiloted air-craft bombers which did considerable damage to the civilian population of London. Next were the long-range rockets – so-called V 2 – against which no effective defence could be found in time. But the Nazi offensive proved to be temporary.

By the end of January 1945, the Germans were again driven out of France with the loss of 120,000 men. The Arderures offensive had exhausted Hitler’s last reserves — it hastened rather than delayed the fall of Germany.

The opening of the Second Front in June 1944 brought great advantage to the RussiAnswer: After overrunning Romania, Bulgaria, and Poland, Russian forces reached by January 31, 1945, the Lower Order, only 40 miles from Berlin. Meanwhile in early February 1945 Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin met at Yalta in Crimea. Here a general plan for the destruction of Germany was approved.

In early March, Eisenhower’s armies began a general advance towards the Rhine. They were followed by the British to the north and the French to the south. On April 11, the Allied armies readied the Elbe, only 60 miles from Berlin.

In March and April 1945, Russian armies under Generals Zhukov and Konev took Danzig and Vienna, overran Czechoslovakia and rushed towards Berlin. By April 25, Berlin had been encircled by the armies of Zhukov and Konev. On the 27th Konev’s forces joined the Americans on the Elbe. On April 30, 1945, Hitler shot his mistress and himself in a bunker in Berlin.

Goebbels and his family also took their own lives. On May 2, after desperate street-by-street resistance by the Germans, Berlin capitulated. On May 7, 1945, the Third Reich, under Admiral Karl Doenitz, surrendered unconditionally to the Allies.

It was a formal ending of the Second World War. The real ending took place on August 14, 1945, when Japan surrendered on the terms laid down by the Allies.

Question 8. What was the immediate cause of the Second World War?
Answer:

In the Second World War (1939-1945) Germany, Italy and Japan were on one side and Britain, France, USSR, U.S.A and China were on the other. The immediate cause of the Second World War is to be found in a series of acts of aggression by the German leader Hitler.

Germany annexed Austria and then demanded Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. By the Munich Pact of 1939 the Allies admitted the German claim. Soon after, Germany swallowed up the remaining portion of Czechoslovakia and demanded Danzig from Poland.

Britain, France and Poland formed an alliance against German aggression. Great Britain and France were engaged in negotiations with Russia. In the meantime Germany and Russia concluded a Non-Aggression Pact for 10 years (1939).

Hitler thus emboldened, invaded Poland without any formal declaration of war. Great Britain and France declared war against Germany in September 1939 and the Second World War started.

Question 9. Discuss the nature of the Second World War.
Answer:

Within twenty years of the First World War (1914-18) the Second World War broke out on 13 September 1939.

The nature of the Second World War is discussed below :

(1) The Second World War was more destructive and extensive than the First World War.

(2) This was for the first time that the war was extended in three fronts—land, air and water. It was fought on all major seas in Asia, Africa and Europe. Sixty nations were involved in the war, seven of them on the side of the Axis.

(3) Deadly weapons and the dreadful atom bombs were used in the war. Airplanes played a major role. Fleets of aeroplanes attacked troops and naval units, destroyed railroads and prepared the way for invasion.

(4) The war was fought not only by armed forces ‘at the battlefield but also by civilians in the factories and at home. School children also took part in the war, collecting rubber, newspapers and scrap metal, assisting in War Bond drives and helping air raid wardens.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 10. What was the ‘D-Day’?
Answer:

‘D-Day’ was the Deliverance Day, (June 5, 1944). On that day vast Anglo- American force Ianded at the Normandy coast of northern France by crossing the English Channel. The operation was gigantic. The Military General of U.S.A, Eisenhower took the leadership.

One thousand Anglo-American air crafts conducted a massive dropping of Allied air-troopers behind the German lines by parachute. Nearly 11 thousand warplanes were ready for their defence. Four thousand Allied naval ships and thousands of land forces joined. Caught between the Allied army in the

front and at the back, the Germans became bewildered. The superior Allied forces captured Toulon, Marseilles, Nice, Lyons and the German airfields in France. They liberated Paris from foreign occupation on April 25, 1944. The Allied army then proceeded towards Germany.

Question 11. What were the main theatres of the Second World War?
Answer:

The Second World War began in 1939 and ended in 1945 after lasting for six years. Around 60 countries were involved in this violent war. The war was fought on the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Pacific, and in four major land campaigns—in the Soviet Union, North Africa and the Mediterranean, western Europe, and the Far East.

The main theatres of the war were:

(1) The Russian Theatre or Eastern Theatre
(2) The Mediterranean Theatre
(3) The African Theatre
(4) The Pacific Theatre
(5) The Asian Theatre
(6) Arctic and Atlantic Theatre.

Question 12. When was the Potsdam Conference held? Name the countries which took part in the Potsdam Conference. What was decided in the Potsdam Conference?
Answer:

The Potsdam Conference was held in 1945. The countries which took part in the Potsdam Conference were Russia, America and Britain.

At the Potsdam Conference, it was decided:

(1) Germany was to be divided into four zones, namely American, Soviet, French and British.

(2) Like Germany, its capital Berlin was also to be divided into four zones.

(3) Berlin would be placed under a council named ‘Allied Kommandatura’.

(4) Though Germany was divided into four zones, it was to be treated as a single economic unit.

(5) The Allied Control Council would be formed to supervise the working of Germany as a single economic unit.

(6) Germany would undergo the ‘Five Ds’ (demilitarization, deindustrialisation, decentralisation, democratization and denazification).

Question 13. Write a note on the evolution of internationalism after the Second World War.
Answer:

The destructive effect of the Second World War (1939-45) opened the eyes of different countries of the world. They realised that peace and cooperation could not be established without mutual cooperation and trust. They also realised that war was not the ultimate means to solve problems.

The international peace organisation   The League of Nations which was established after the First World War collapsed before the selfish motives of different nations. International cooperation failed in the field of politics and the Second World War broke out in 1939. After the Second World War, different nations again realised the importance and necessity of mutual cooperation.

They decided to solve their problems through peaceful meetings so that the damage of war might be removed forever and peace might be established among different nations of the world. The United Nations Organisation (U.N.O) was established in 1945 the sole aim of which was to maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations and international cooperation.

Question 14. What were the factors that helped in speeding up the collapse of imperialism after the Second World War?
Answer:

After the Second World War, there have been vast political, economic and social changes in every part of the world. Within about 25 years of the end of the Second World War, most countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America which had been under imperialist rule, won their freedom.

The rise of nationalism and the growth of nationalist movements in Asia and Africa increased rapidly. The Second World War had, besides destroying fascism, weakened the imperialist countries of Europe.

Many of these countries had themselves taken victim to fascist aggression. For example, three imperialist countries of Europe France, Belgium and Holland (The Netherlands) had been under German occupation during the war. Their military power as well as economies had been shattered during the war.

The main factors of the collapse of imperialism were as below :

(1) Setting up of socialist Governments in Eastern Europe under the rule of Communist parties

(2) Serious internal problems

(3) Imperialism no longer was considered a mark of superior civilization

(4) Imperialism associated with injustice and exploitation

(5) Dominant ideas of self-determination, national sovereignty and equality

(6) Cooperation in international relations

(7) Growth of solidarity among the freedom movements of different countries. Each country’s freedom movement supported the freedom struggle in other countries.

(8). The United Nations also has been a major force in promoting the process which has brought about the ending of imperialism.

Question 15. What is the composition and role of the General Assembly in the U.N.O? What is the function of the. Security Council?
Answer:

(1) Composition:

(1) All members of the UN send representatives to the General Assembly
(2) Important decisions, budgetary matters, and admission of members are taken by 2/3 majority of the members.
(3) The General Assembly meets every year on the 3rd Tuesday of September

(2) Functions:

(1) To discuss everything relating to international peace and security
(2) To make recommendations on the maintenance of peace and security
(3) To see the working of other agencies and organs
(4) To consider and approve the U.N. budget

Functions of the Security council:

(1) To maintain international peace
(2) To investigate disputes and make recommendations about solving them
(3) Take military action against the aggressors

16. When was the Yatla Conference held? Name three prominent leaders who attended it. Name any two military alliances which came into being as a consequence of the Cold War.
Answer:

The Yatla Conference was held in 1945. The three prominent leaders were US President Roosevelt, the British P.M. Churchill and the Soviet Premier Stalin. NATO, Warsaw Pact were two military alliances which came into being as a consequence of the Cold War.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 17. What were the Internal Policies of Mussolini?
Answer:

The internal policies of Mussolini are as follows :

(1) Mussolini and the Working class: Fascism opposed the Marxian theory of class struggle. It believed in the harmony of capital and labour. To gain the support of workingmen, it undertook social changes and established a ‘corporate State’.

In 1926, non-Fascist trade unions and all strikes were banned. ‘Syndicates’ were organised of thirteen members—six of employers, six of employees and one of professional men. Under these were tribunals to settle labour disputes. The working hours in the day were fixed at eight. The employers were to contribute to the insurance of the workers against illness, accidents and old age.

(2) Mussolini and the Catholics: Mussolini won the support of the Italian Catholics by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 with Pope Pius XI. It was like the Concordat of Napoleon. It recognised the independence of the Pope in the Papal States. However, soon differences arose on the questions of schools and youth organisations.

(3) Education: The system of education was based upon regimentation. The youths were indoctrinated with Fascist ideologies, nationalism and militarism. The army was increased by conscription and its equipment improved.

(4) Public Works: For patriotic reasons as well as the solution to the unemployment problems, the government fostered a great variety of public works. Mussolini aimed at economic self-sufficiency for Italy. Ancient monuments were repaired and modern improvements were made. Marshes were drained. Railways and huge steamships were built. An electric power plant was constructed.

(5) International Relations : Fascism was a disruptive force in international relations, for it glorified war. In ranting speeches, Mussolini praised war and the war like virtues of the ItaliAnswer: He followed a policy of agressive imperialism. In 1935 Mussolini defied the League and occupied Abyssinia.

In 1936, the ‘Berlin- Rome Axis’ came into being directed against Russia. In the same year Japan, Germany and Italy together made the Anti-Commintern Pact to fight communism. In 1939 when the Second World War began Mussolini joined the Axis and ultimately brought disaster to Italy and to himself.

Question 18. What was the impact of the World War II on contemporary world history?
Answer:

Impact of the Second World War on Contemporary World History: Despite all the suffering and loss of life and materials the Second World War was of profoundly important consequences. e As pointed out by A. J. P.

Taylor, despite all the killing and destructions that accompanied it, ‘the Second World War was a good war’. With the defeat of the Axis powers, the world was relieved of the destructiveness of Fascism. The conflict also brought about certain indirect benefits. Great advances were made in science and in state planning.

In Britain, for example, guidelines were issued for the creation of a Welfare State and state socialism. Even the invention of nuclear weapons with all their potential evils has in the long run proved beneficial to mankind. By multiplying man’s power to destroy his own kind, they have made the consequences of another war so horrifying that they have been an effective instrument for the prevention of war.

It thus contributed to peace. As the destruction of material assets was enormous, Europe seemed destined for some years to endure poverty and starvation. In contrast, the USA appeared immensely strong as rejuvenated.

Out of the Second World War emerged two superpowers, namely the USA and the Soviet Union. It became clear after 1945 the two superpowers would enjoy a predominant influence in world affairs.

One of the most important changes that took place after 1945 that was the growth in the number of new, independent states, most of them in Asia and Africa. The colonial empires of Britain and France disappeared. In their place new nations, such as India, Pakistan, Algeria, Nigeria and a host of independent countries emerged.

Question 19. Write about the technological changes in war weaponry during the Second World War.
Answer:

Technological Changes in War Weaponry During the Second World War: Technology played a crucial role in the course of the World War Il in determining its course and outcome. In the beginning, the soldiers fought with technology that had remained mostly unchanged from World War I.

However, within six years, between 1939 and 1945, technology was rapidly adavancing by leaps and bounds. Scientists were engaged by the both sides for the improvement in the technology in the war weaponry. In the European scenario of the World War II air attacks became crucial throughout the war.

It was possible for the German armies to overrun Western Europe with great speed in 1940 due to the use of sophisticated aircrafts of improved technology. The Soviet JS-3 or the German Panther tank outclassed the best tanks used in the initial stage of the war.

In the navy the battleship, long seen as a dominant element of sea power was displaced by the technological innovation of the aircraft carrier.

The amphibious tanks, amphibious trucks, Higgins boat and many others were the new generation of weaponry developed for use during the war. These are some of the war weaponries developed as a result of the technological changes that took place during the period of the war.

The most dreaded and deadly weapon invented and devised causing massive destruction during the World War II, however, was the Atom Bomb, and henceforth, our age has come to be called the Nuclear Age.

Question 20. The fundamental cause of World War II must be sought in the Treaty of Versailles – Discuss.
Answer:

(1) The Treaty of Versailles has been called ’a dictated Treaty’ which was imposed upon vanquished Germany by the victorious Allied Powers. The delegates of Germany were not invited to the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and the treaty was a revengeful treaty.

(2) The treaty did not adhere to the principle of self-determination. The right of self-determination was not applied for Sudetenland which was transferred to Czechoslovakia. It led to a loss of balance of power in Europe.

(3) While England and France increased their colonies, German colonies were confiscated in the name of good government.

(4) The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were taken away from Germany and were given back to France. The Saar Valley on the western frontier of Germany was handed over to France for fifteen years, after which the fate of the region was to be settled by a plebiscite. The port of Danzig was also snatched away from the possession of Germany.

(5) Germany was saddled with a huge reparation amount by the Treaty which was impossible for her to pay.

(6) The German bared of staff or general of the army was dissolved. Germany had to surrender her fleet to the Allies. According to Wilson’s Fourteen Points, it was decided that all the states would reduce their war armaments. But this clause was only applied to Germany.

Humiliated Germany was looking forward to another war as an opportunity to avenge her defeat. So it is said that the fundamental cause of World War I] must be sought in the Treaty of Versailles.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 21. How did the failure of the League of Nations constitute a cause of the Second World War?
Answer:

The terrible effects of the First World War (1914-13) had stunning effects on the minds of the people and made them cry for peace. President Wilson of America took the initiative and made a plan for the League of Nations which was established in 1920, the primary object of which was to prevent armed conflict. Many international problems arose after the First World War.

At first, the problems were comparatively easy and the League of Nations was able to solve some of them by peaceful methods. But the League’s inability to control the Great Powers became quite evident in the thirties which constituted a cause of the Second World War.

In 1931 when Japan swallowed Manchuria the League did not adopt any penal measure against Japan, and the grievances of China remained unredressed. Encouraged by the failure of the League the autocrats of different countries also started aggression totally ignoring the League of Nations.

In 1935 Italy, under the dictatorship of Mussolini, invaded and occupied Ethiopia (Abyssinia) in Africa. Ethiopia complained to the League and a decision was made by the League Council for enforcement of economic sanctions against Italy.

But Italy did not obey the League’s order and resigned from the League of Nations. During the Spanish Civil War, the League was unable to adopt effective measures to restore peace in Spain and to prevent external intervention.

Franco became victorious and this added to German confidence. For this reason, the Spanish Civil War is regarded as the stage rehearsal for the Second World War. The failure of the League made Hitler and Mussolini bolder.

Immediately after the assumption of dictatorial power Hitler withdrew Germany from the Disarmament Conference in 1933 and from the League of Nations. Within a few years, Hitler swallowed Austria and Czechoslovakia (1938- 39) and invaded Poland in 1939.

The invasion of Poland by Germany was the signal for the outbreak of the Second World War. In no case could the League of Nations prevent or restrict Hitler’s aggressions. Thus the failure of the League of Nations in different international disputes constitute a cause of the Second World War.

Question 22. Discuss the role of the U.S.A. in the Second World War.
Answer:

The U.S.A. followed a policy of neutrality towards international politics after the First World War. She did not join the Second World War and kept herself aloof from the war. But when Japan attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbour on 7 December 1941, the U.S.A. joined the war.

(1) Deviation from the path of neutrality: During World War II, the U.S.A. was sympathetic towards the Allied powers. In 1939 the American legislature allowed the U.S.A. to help the Western democratic states and sell arms and ammunition to them.

This policy was known as the ‘Cash and Carry Policy’. It was a policy to preserve neutrality while aiding the Allies. It allowed the sale of arms, ammunition and war materials to belligerents (countries engaged in war) as long as the recipients arranged for transportation using their own ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risk in transportation. !

(2) System of conscription: In the U.S.A a system of conscription was introduced. According to this, all youths in the age group between 21 and 31 were obliged to join the army.

(3) Land Lease Act: The American Senate enacted the Land Lease Act in March 1941 and allowed the US Government to offer warships, warplanes and other weapons to the Allied Powers to fight against fascism. U.S.A became the arsenal of democracy.

(4) Incident of Pearl Harbour :

Japan attacked the American fleet at Pearl Harbour in the Hawaiian islands on 7 December, 1941with 350 aircraft and wiped out the American planes on the ground there. This incident forced U.S.A to join the Second World War.

Chapter 6 The Second World War And Its Aftermath 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Describe the rise of Fascist Dictatorship in Italy.
Answer:

(1) Introduction: In the period following the close of the World War 1, liberalism was in its deathbed. It witnessed the close of the 19th-century liberal democracy and the rise of dictatorships in almost all the countries of Europe—Italy, Germany, Poland, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria and Turkey.

In Russia Czardom was replaced by the totalitarian States of the Communists. In the years after the war the world was faced with the strange phenomenon of dire poverty existing in the midst of unexampled plenty. Laissez-faire had to give place to a planned economy.

(2) Favourable conditions in Italy for the rise of Fascists: Fascists depict that in the years which immediately followed the war of 1914-1918, Italy was in the grip of the post-war slump. It was in the State of economic dislocation which the feeble government under Nitti and Goiliti was unable to deal with.

Distress and disorder was the order of the day. Agriculture was stagnant and hunger led to disturbances, strikes and riots. Italy was in danger of turning communist.

The real discontent in Italy as in Germany, was embitterment of the army politic

They were disappointed with Italian gains in the war. The Fascist Party exploited their discontent and recruited supporters from the war veterans. All this would have subsided, but for the emergence of dynamic personality in the person of Mussolini whose ambition was to become the dictator of Italy.

(3) Benito Mussolini: Benito Mussolini was the son of a socialist blacksmith at Forli. In his early life, he was an elementary school teacher and before the war, a left-wing socialist. He served jail lived in exile and at length, became the editor of the ‘Avanti’ or the official organ of the Italian socialists.

During the war, he became an ultra-patriot and broke away from the socialist party on the issue of Italy’s attitude to the war. He gained the support of the restless demobilized soldiers, dissatisfied workers, youthful intellectuals and groups of frightened businessmen.

(4) Growth of Fascism: The word Fascism was derived from ‘Fascio’ or club which Mussolini organised at Milan in 1919. In the next two years, he gave time and energy to organise a network of similar clubs all over Italy.

In 1921 they were consolidated into a political party with Mussolini at its head. Fascism adopted the symbolism and ceremony of Rome in the days of Caesar. It promised to revive the glories of Imperial Rome. They expected to make the Mediterranean Sea an Italian lake.

Fascists wore black shirts in imitation of Garibaldi’s red shirts. The Black Shirts’ of Mussolini corresponded to Hitler’s ‘Storm Troopers’. With perfect organisation and violence, Fascists gathered momentum during 1921-1922 while its opponents Liberals, Socialists and Catholics were divided and weak.

In October 1922, Mussolini ordered the mobilization of the Black Shirts and Emmanuel III, convinced of the Fascist strength, asked Mussolini to form the ministry.

(5) Mussolini becomes a Dictator : Fascism is a totalitarian concept which glorifies the State and subordinates the individual to it. The Duce or the leader of the Fascist Party controls the political, military and economic institutions of the kingdom. He is the commander of the Fascist militia and presides over the Grand Council of Fascism.

Mussolini emerged as a dominant figure in a totalitarian regime. He forced the terrified Parliament to grant her dictatorial powers. Fascists were speedily put into key positions throughout the country and were given a monopoly on propaganda.

Socialists were suppressed and their strikes stopped. Strict censorship was forceful and police measures set up a veritable reign of terror. Opponents were imprisoned or exiled. Critics were silenced.

Between the years 1925 and 1929 Mussolini consolidated his dictatorship. Political parties other than the Fascists were banned. Mussolini was authorised to initiate legislation and appoint local officials. The electoral law wase changed to a mere ‘yes’ or ‘no’ vote on a list of Fascist candidates.

Question 2. What are the achievements of Mussolini?
Answer:

(1) Mussolini’s achievements: Fascism, as organised by Mussolini, set before itself three definite aims :

Exaltation of the state, protection of private property, and a strong foreign policy which would rehabilitate Italy’s position as a great power. The movement began as an impulse towards law and order and sought to safeguard existing institutions against the destructive influences of Bolshevism.

But as it progressed, it developed a philosophy. It claimed to be a spiritual movement aiming at re-vivifying the Italian soul in terms of duty to the Italian state. It thus became the essence of nationalism and stood for the grandeur that was ancient Rome.

Fascism achieved much for Italy. It restored the nation’s confidence in itself and made the administration of Government efficient in every respect. Mussolini balanced the budget, stabilised the currency, and adjusted the difference between labour and capital so that the two should act as partners under the supervision of the state.

Fascism encouraged economic self-sufficiency and efforts were made to reduce the country’s dependence upon foreign imports of wheat, cotton and tobacco.

Energetic measures were taken to develop Italy’s share of grid shipping and tourist traffic. Education was encouraged by increasing the number of schools by enforcing laws for compulsory school attendance.

One of Mussolini’s outstanding achievements was the settlement of the long-standing dispute with the Papacy. By the Lateran Treaty of 1929, the Pope recognised the Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy, with Rome as its capital.

The Italian state, on the other hand, recognised the Pope as a sovereign power in the Vatican and indemnified him for the loss of his temporal possessions. Along with this treaty, a Concordat was concluded by which the future relations between the State and the Papacy were defined.

The result of this pact was to secure for the State the unstinted support of the Church and thereby to remove one of the causes which had largely contributed to the weakness of the Italian Government.

The Italians would no longer have to choose between their loyalty to the state and obedience to their religious head. They could be good citizens as well as good Catholics. Like Bonapartism, Fascism made political use of religion and saw in it a valuable aid to authority and a stabilising force against social upheaval.

Thus under the Fascist regime Italy was saved from disorder and anarchy and she came to occupy a commanding position in Europe. But these advantages were secured at a price, namely, political liberty.

Fascist rule is frankly autocratic, in which there is no room for popular sovereignty. Parliament was not abolished, but the electoral system was so altered as to ensure Fascist predominance with the result that Parliament was reduced to the humble position of an advisory council.

The Press was rigidly censored and freedom of meeting and speech severely restricted. Opposition to Fascism was severely punished, and anybody not believing in its creed was open to suspicion and subject to surveillance.

The murder of a socialist member of Parliament in 1924 showed the new regime at its worst. Fascism tolerates no difference of opinion. Mussolini was, in theory, the premier of a constitutional sovereign, but in fact he was a dictator.

(2) Fascist Foreign Policy: One of the fundamental articles of the Fascist faith was the raising of Italian prestige in the eyes of foreign nations. The Fascists glorified war as a symbol of national virility. Hence Mussolini aimed at reviving the prestige of ancient Rome and securing for Italy the position of a world power.

At the peace conference, the Allies had neglected Italy in the distribution of mandates and so Mussolini sought to rectify this wrong by adopting a vigorous policy of colonial expansion.

He turned his eyes to Tunisia and Corsica which were French possessions, and maintained that Italy had a better right to them. Besides, the two countries were competing for control of the Western Mediterranean and for superiority in naval armaments. Mussolini’s bellicose utterances put a severe strain on Franco-Italian relations for a time and pretended a crisis.

This was, however, averted and Mussolini turned to Eastern Europe for expansion. He secured for Italy the Dodecanese islands and definitely acquired Fiume in 1924. Italy’s relations with Yugoslavia also became more and more strained as the latter, prompted by irredentist movements, wanted to acquire a large portion of Dalmatia from Italy.

The Italo-Yugoslav quarrel was in essence a struggle for the control of the Adriatic. This struggle was further intensified when Mussolini conquered Albania from King Zogin in 1939.

But the most spectacular of Mussolini‘s achievements was the conquest of Ethiopia. He wanted to wipe off the humiliation of Italian defeat at Adqwa at the hands of the Abyssinians in 1896.

But the real cause was that Italy needed colonies to enhance her prestige and to find more room and more food for her growing population. Hence, Mussolini took advantage of some border “incidents” at Walwal to attack Abyssinia in 1935.

Its king Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations for arbitration, which promptly declared. Italy to be the aggressor. Mussolini, however, defied the League, conquered Abyssinia and proclaimed King Victor Emmanuel as the Emperor of Ethiopia (1936).

After this war Italy drew closer to Germany and became estranged from France and Britain. Mussolini came to an understanding with Hitler and thus arose what was called the Rome-Berlin Axis. When the Second World War broke out and the power of France collapsed, Mussolini joined Germany and declared war on Britain and France (1940).

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 3. Why did Japan join the Second World War?
Answer:

(1) Japan’s pre-war policy: Japan’s attack on Manchuria in 1931 was a serious blow at the League of Nations and also at the system of balance of powers which has been established at the Washington Conference in 1921. Japan’s aggression against China began anew in 1937. This Sino-Japanese war merged into the Second World War in 1941 and came to close with the fall of Japan in 1945.

Japan joined the Anti-Commintern Pact with Germany in 1939. Her main purpose was to keep the Western powers far away from China, which she wanted to bring within her grip, and so she wanted to convince them that she was like Germany a sworn enemy of communism. The relations between Tokyo and Berlin cooled off when Hitler concluded the Non-aggression Pact with Stalin in 1939.

After the fall of France, which Japan took as a spectacular demonstration of Hitler’s power, she joined the Berlin-Rome Axis, thus converting it into the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis (1940). But her real interest lay in Asia where she was afraid of Russian attack. So Japan concluded a Neutrality Pact with the Soviet Union a few months before her own surprise attack on the United States at Pearland! Harbour on December 7, 1941.

(2) Why Japan joined World War II: The outbreak of war in Europe in 1939 provided Japan a fresh opportunity to “carrying her mission and fulfilling her special responsibilities in Eastern Asia”

The resistance of China under Chiang Kai-Shek had spoiled the Japanese plans for the satisfaction of their political, economic and nationalistic aspirations. The fall of France (1940) opened new prospects for Japan’s political and economic expansion in Southeast Asia. The concept of ‘Greater East Asia’ under Japanese hegemony emerged immediately after the fall of France.

By the Tripartite Pact of 1940 (Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis), Germany and Italy “recognised and respected the leadership of Japan in the establishment of a new or in Greater East.Asia.” The treaty was in no way to affect the existing relations between the three contracting parties and the Soviet Union.

Obviously, the alliance was aimed at the United States. This became quite clear when Japan signed its Treaty of Neutrality with the Soviet Union in 1941.

Strengthened her alliance with Germany, Japan secured from the French authorities in Indo-China, who were loyal to the Vichlo Government sponsored by Hitler after the fall of France, important concessions including the occupation of territory and setting up of naval and air bases.

Japan also tried to extend its control to Siam (Thailand). These aggressive measures were inconsistent with the policy of the United States.

It was officially declared by Washington that any Japanese action against Thailand would cause the United States great concern. At the same time, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill issued a joint declaration, known as the Atlantic Charter stating the general principles of post-war political reconstruction.

Despite definite warnings from Washington and London the Japanese continued their military preparations. In Japan, Konoe as Prime Minister (1941) was somewhat moderate towards America, Japan’s principal rival.

Roosevelt was willing to meet with Konoe, but Hull, the U.S. Secretary of State, insisted that any compromise with Japan would sanction aggression, while negotiations for an American-Japanese agreement were going on, the Japanese made a surprise attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbour (Hawaii) where a large portion of the American navy was at anchor (December 7, 1941). Thus Japan struck the first blow, she brought the war to the Far East and dragged the United States into formal war.

(3) Japan’s war aims: Japan’s primary concerns were Asian. From 1938, Japan’s problem was how to settle the mess in China. A second problem was Soviet Russia. A third problem was the United State’s navy in the Pacific, which was a threat to Japan‘s navy. A fourth area of Japanese concern was South-East Asia rich in raw materials.

The key to Japan’s war aim is to be found in her plea that she had a mission as also ‘special responsibilities’ in Eastern Asia. She claimed a special position in China. In the years preceding the Second World War, she had occupied two Chinese provinces— Manchuria and Jehol — and established puppet regimes in inner Mongolia and Hopei. Japan‘s original imperialism centred around China. During the thirties, Japan had spelled out her China programme.

As a small country with an expanding population, she wanted colonial territory. The militarists wanted a forward policy for glory and the nationalists were dazzled by the vision of a great Japan.

As early as 1936, Japan had submitted her terms to China on the basis of Japan’s guardianship. Hitler’s occupation of France and Holland and the isolation of Britain exposed the French Dutch and English colonial possessions in South-East Asia to Japanese ambition. Japan coveted the rubber, oil, tin and rice which this region produced in abundance.

She proposed to create ‘a new order’ and a ‘co-prosperity sphere’, but her triumphal march through Indo-China, Indonesia, Malaya and Burma proved that was a merciless exploiter rather than a generous liberator of Asiatic peoples from Western Colonialism.

The desire to dominate the whole of East Asia—to exploit this vast region politically and economically—was the key to Japanese policy during the Second World War.

Question 4. Briefly narrate the fall of Italy in the World War II.
Answer:

For many months after the fall of France in June 1940, fighting between the belligerents was confined to North and East Africa. In August 1940 the Italians seized British Somaliland. The Italian attack on Egypt opened in September.

In December 1940, the British in Egypt, under General Wavell, counter-attacked and took 1,30,000 prisoners. Between January and May 1941, the British troops overwhelmed the Italian garrisons in Somaliland, Eritrea and Ethiopia and restored Haile Selassie to the throne.

Meanwhile, in March 1941, the Germans shipped men and materials under an experienced tank commander, General Rommel, to the assistance of the Italians. Within less than a month the Allies were ousted from Libya, except for the garrison in Tobruk, held out until relieved in November by General Sir Claude Auchinleck.

In May 1942 Rommel embarked on a new full-scale offensive. In June he captured Tobruk and advanced to El Alamein, only sixty miles west of Alexandria.

The advance of the Axis forces under Rommel posed a great threat to the Suez Canal. Churchill dismissed Auchinleck and put General Montgomery in command of the Eighth Army. Montgomery re-equipped the troops with new and heavier tanks sent from the United States.

The decisive battle of El Alamein was fought in October 1942. One thousand massed guns opened with an intense barrage. The British armoured tanks advanced. Unable to break through, Rommel ordered a general retreat.

He lost some 60,000 men, 500 tanks and 1000 guns. Within a few weeks, Tobruk and Benghazi were again occupied by the British. In January 1943 Tripoli fell and the Allied forces were within striking distance of Tunis, the gateway to Italy.

Meanwhile, the Anglo-American forces under General Dwight Eisenhower landed in Morocco and Algeria on November 8, 1942. The Allies hoped to close in on Tunis before German reinforcements could be concentrated there.

During January and February 1943 powerful attacks were launched against American forces along the Algeria-Tunisia border. But by early March they had checked the assault and affected a junction with the British forces under Montgomery on April 7.

On May 5, the Allies won a decisive victory. More than 2,50,000 Germans and Italians were taken prisoner. It was a decisive Axis defeat as within a week the entire Axis forces in Africa surrendered. It made possible the next steps — an attack by the Allies upon the Balkans and upon Italy and was the prelude to the collapse of Mussolini’s regime.

The invasion of Italy began in early July. On July 9, 1943, the Allied forces numbering about 13 divisions, landed on the coast of Sicily and quickly overcame the Italian defence. On July 25, 1943, King Victor Emmanuel dismissed Mussolini and took him into custody. The King entrusted the Government to Marshal Badoglio who opened secret negotiations with the Allies.

On September 3, Badoglio signed an armistice, amounting to unconditional surrender. The Allies crossed from Sicily to the Italian mainland. Despite the resistance of the Germans, the Allied forces captured Naples by October 1. Meanwhile, the Nazis had freed Mussolini from prison and the latter set up a puppet Fascist republic. At last on June 4, 1944, the Allied forces entered Rome.

Question 5. What were the political consequences of the Second World War?
Answer:

The political consequences of the war were immense. The immediate consequence was the disappearance of the German State. In accordance with the decisions reached at Yalta, Germany was divided into four zones, to be occupied and administered by Britain, France, the Soviet Union and the United States.

The Soviet zone would cover the eastern part of the country, while the western part would comprise zones for Britain, the United States and France.

In each zone, authority was vested in the military commander of the occupying power, and the four commanders together constituted a ‘Control Council’ for Germany as a whole. Berlin was divided into four sectors as occupied by four powers.

Each power behaved in its own way in its own zone presaging the division of Germany into the German Democratic and German Federal Republic.

Germany had to suffer great territorial losses, Russia getting the northern part, East Prussia including Konigsberg and Poland obtaining Danzig, Upper and Lower Silesia, eastern Brandenburg, most of Pomerania, and a southern strip of East Prussia.

In addition, Aloace-Lorraine was restored to France; Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium; the Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia Austria was detached and divided into zones for Allied military occupation, and the Saar basin was put under French control.

Russia emerged from the war with enlarged territory. Apart from retaining all the territory – Karelia, the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Polish White Russia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, acquired as a result of the German-Soviet Pact, she added East Prussia and Ruthenia, East Germany, Austria, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Rumania and Bulgaria. In Asia, she added the Kurile Islands, South Sakhalin, Dairen and Port Arthur. Russia showed tremendous resilience after the war.

The Second World War diminished Britain’s strength and crippled her economic resources. France had to suffer much during four years of Nazi occupation and in the difficult months after liberation.

The situation was made worse by unusually severe winters in 1945-46 and 1946-47. The existence of various political groups and activities of the communists weakened France. The difficulty was increased by De Gaulle’s resignation on January 20, 1946.

It was not until the establishment of the second parliament of the Fourth Republic that France could become politically stable. Italy became a Republic (1946) with no overseas colonies, impoverished, but able to recover economically.

The Second World War shifted the balance of power. Out of the war emerged two great world powers the United States and the Soviet Russia. Both had been strong states before the war, but in the years that immediately followed it they became the arbiters of the international events.

In the struggle between two ideologies democracy and communism, the latter emerged with remarkable strength. During 1946-47 the Governments of Poland, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria Albania, Rumania, Flungary, and Czechoslovakia were converted, step by step, into virtual communist dictatorships. Democratic monarchies were restored in Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium.

The divisions of the world into two ideologies led to significant new political alignments. During the war Britain, France, Russia, China and the United States were allied against Germany, Italy and Japan. Not long after the war almost complete reversal of alignment took place.

The United States came to lean heavily on the support of West Germany, Japan and Italy. Conversely, Russia, Communist China, and their allies became another bloc.

Thus, the post-war world saw a growing tension among the Allies, between East and West, and more specifically between Russia and the United States. To counteract communism, the Western responses were the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).

The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet rejoinder. Thus old conflicts subsided into new discords and the result was not peace but a ‘cold war’. After the Second World War, a third force emerged which refused to join either of the two sides in the Cold War. India became one of the two important leaders of the uncommitted or non-aligned powers, most of which were Afro-Asian.

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 6. What was Hitler’s contribution to the origin of World War II?
Answer:

Hitler’s Policy Aggression: When Hitler assumed supreme power in 1934, he made no secret of his intentions. He meant to reverse the verdict of Versailles, redeem Germany’s honour and establish her unchallenged dominance in Europe.

At first, he proceeded with caution. In March 1935 he introduced conscription and began to rearm openly on a large scale in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. In March 1936 Hitler occupied the demilitarised Rhineland.

In November 1936 Germany and Japan signed an Anti-Commintern Pact. In 1937 Italy joined the Pact and thus was formed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. In November 7937 Hitler announced that Germany’s basic need was greater living space to be attained only through military conquest.

In March 1938 Hitler marched troops on Austria and annexed it. Thereafter Hitler demanded Sudetenland, a portion of Czechoslovakia where three million Germans lived. The situation seemed ripe for the outbreak of a war.

But Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, was opposed to war. He seemed ready to believe that by permitting Germany to annex Sudetenland Hitler would be appeased and there would be no war. At the Munich Pact (October 1, 1938), Hitler got a free hand to annex the Sudetenland. But it was only six months afterwards, Hitler conquered the whole of Czechoslovakia.

Hitler’s Demand on Poland: On March 27, 1929, Hitler seized Memel, a port of Lithuania. In April, Italy occupied Albania. Simultaneously, Hitler demanded from Poland Danzig and the narrow corridor that separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany.

This was too much for Chamberlain. On March 31, he guaranteed Polish independence and France did likewise. On April 5, Poland accepted the Franco-British guarantee as a mutual obligation.

As the situation worsened, Britain introduced conscription. On May 22, 1939, was signed a ten-year alliance between Italy and Germany, the so-called ‘Pact of Steel’ which provided for immediate military aid in case either signatory became involved in hostilities. Meanwhile, attempts were made, though half-heartedly, by the Western Powers, to draw the Soviet Union with them.

But on August 23, the world was surprised by the news of the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. Events moved swiftly. At dawn, on September 1, 1939, Germany, without declaring war, attacked Poland. Fifty hours later, on September 3, Britain declared war against Germany. France joined the war at once.

Question 7. Write how democracy was under strain between the two World Wars.
Answer:

Democracy versus Dictatorship: After the end of the First World War the victorious Allies remade Europe under the slogan of ‘self-determination’. It seemed that an age of democracy had dawned.

It was believed that all states were progressing uniformly towards parliamentary politics. In 1920 almost all countries of Europe (except Russia) were under democracy. But surprisingly, after twenty years, prior to the Second World War most European states were dictatorships.

The authoritarian rule of one man and a single party came to be established in those countries. Clearly, democracy was on the back foot. R. J. Overy has said that the apparent decline of progress (democracy) sustained a sense of crisis throughout the inter-war years.

Democracy Under Strain: Before discussing the question of why dictatorship replaced democracy, it is better to know what was meant by the ‘democratic’ state and what were its ideals. The features of democracy include open-minded critical enquiry and ‘mutual regard and compromise’.

The opposition functions as a legitimate partner of the ruling party in the democratic system. Democracy refuses to go by one-party rule and recognizes ‘individual liberty’,

Democracy also envisages the extension of voting rights (suffrage) and stimulating the powers of representative institutions like parliament. Unfortunately, democracy everywhere in Europe soon came under severe strain.

The causes may be described as follows :

(1)Economic crises such as inflation in the post-War Europe. The Great Depression led to tariff barriers and disruption of trade.

(2)Some of the states suffered racial discrimination as a result of conflicting ethnic groups.

(3) Social disruption was caused due to growing hostilities towards the regime of different social classes.

(4) The economic, racial and social crises had a serious impact the political parties in different democracies.

(5) In such a state of affairs what was needed was a stable political framework to restore firm resolve to preserve democracy which was missing.

(6) The trend leading away from democracy was assisted by another defect that existed in some of the new constitutions.

For instance, the Weimar Constitution of Germany gave the President of the Republic emergency powers as and when he needed them. Thus Germany became authoritarian under the Weimar Republic. This made the political atmosphere for the rise of a dictator like Hitler.

(1) It has been pointed out by historian Stephen J. Lee that the weakening of the democracies was also due to the absence of any really popular statesman during the inter-war period. Contrarily, the dictators of the period had tremendous popularity. The masses were tempted by their charisma.

(2) Thus weakness of democracy and the simultaneous emergence of great personalities, who were opposed to democracy, paved the way for the emergence of dictatorship in Europe.

Question 8. What were the causes of the defeat of the Axis Powers in the Second World War?
Answer: In the Second World War (1939-45) the Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) were defeated by the Allied powers (England, France, Russia, U.S.A. and China).

The causes of the defeat of the Axis Powers are as follows: 

(1) The Axis Powers were not equipped for a major world war and could not withstand the combined attack of three advanced nations like Britain, U.S.A. and the Soviet Union.

(2) Germany produced all sorts of wonderful gadgets during World War II—except the one that mattered the atomic bomb. Germany’s nuclear project was disjointed and poorly supported.

(3) Hitler relied on the strength of the German airforce which was outnumbered due to the entry of the U.S.A and the Soviet Union.

(4) The German attackers believed that Soviet Communism was a corrupt and primitive system that would collapse. But the air and tank armies were reorganised and the technology available was hastily modernised to match the GermAnswer

(5) Spain was a member of the Axis Powers during the war, but it never committed troops to the effort. Led by Fascist dictator Francisco Franco, the country steadfastly refused to enter into the thrall.

(6) The Allied Powers who wanted to establish democracy had world sympathy behind them, which the Axis Powers failed to ‘get.

(7) The people of the territories Conquered by the German armies were harshly treated and the Nazis faced opposition from the conquered territories.

(8) Intrigue among the German Generals also contributed to the defeat of Germany.

(9) When U.S.A. joined the war, the power of the Allies exceeded all that Germany, Japan and her allies could summon together and led to the defeat of Germany.

(10) Hitler’s high ambition and dominating nature were also responsible for his failure. He was suspicious and even distrusted his lieutenants like Goering and Himmler, which brought about his downfall.

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas Introduction

The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered.

So the leaders who played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met in Vienna (1815) to draw up a new map of Europe. However, the spirit propagated by the French Revolution created problems. The concept of nationalism and nation-state was championed by the people. Thus, a conflict between monarchical and nationalist forces arose.

Learn and Real all  WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

The conflict ultimately ended in the triumph of liberalism’s overreaction. The Vienna Settlement (1817) restored the old ruling families to their respective thrones. Moreover, it stood for restoration-revolution conditions but the Vienna Congress completely ignored the will of the common people. The people demanded the right to participate in the government.

Thus the was a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals. In monarchical states like France, Austria, and other countries people launched movements for democratic rights. Suppress nationalities like the Germans, Italians, and Hungarians started movements for the establishment of nation-states. Ultimately democracy was established in France. Italy and Germany emerged as nation-states.

Moreover, the hopes and aspirations of the Christian nationalities in the Balkan region gave rise to complex problems. In 1854, the Crimean War broke out. The Treaty of Paris brought an end to it in 1856 but it failed to resolve the Eastern
Question.

In Russia also revolutionary forces were increasingly activities Czar AlexanderIl passed the Emancipation Statute which generated new socio-political and intellectual forces – this clash with the existing political framework of Czarist
absolutism.

The nationalist and democratic ideals of the French Revolution influenced the Greeks and they also started ‘their own struggle for freedom. The Greek struggle for independence began with the activities of secret societies. The Greeks ultimately severed themselves from Turkish domination and came to be recognized as an independent state.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas Very Short Answer Type :

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 1. Which countries constituted the Quadruple Alliance?
Answer: The Quadruple Alliance was concluded among England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia.

Question 2. Who was the President and Secretary of the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: Prince Metternich was the President and Von Gentz was the Secretary of the Congress of Vienna.

Question 3. What is the legacy of the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: The Vienna Congress introduced a new epoch and the germs of future development.

Question 4. Who was Polignac?
Answer: Polignac was the ultra-conservative minister of Charles X of France.

5. Who was the king of France when the July Revolution started in 1830?
Answer: Charles X, the younger brother of Louis XVI and Louis XVIII was the King of France when the July Revolution, of 1830 began.

Question 6. Who wrote ‘Organisation of Labour’?
Answer: Louis Blanc wrote ‘Organisation of Labour’. Its objectives were to organize labor organizations and fight for the right to work.

Question 7. Who popularised in France the maxim of ‘Right Work’?
Answer: Louis Blanc popularised the maxim of ‘Right to work’.

Question 8. Who said, “When France sneezes Europe catches a cold”?
Answer: Prince Metternich, the Prime Minister of Austria.

Question 9. Which year in the history of Europe is known as the Year of Revolutions?
Answer: In Europe, 1848 is known as the Year of Revolutions.

Question 10. Which country of Europe was known as “the Sickman of Europe”?
Answer: Turkey is known as “the Sickman of Europe”.

Question 11. Which was known as the most unnecessary war in the history of Europe?
Answer: Crimean war (1854-1856) is known as the most unnecessary war.

Question 12. “The die is cast and we have made history”- Who said this?
Answer: Count Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, said so. When Austria declared war upon Italy in 1859, Cavour said so because it was his personal triumph to make Austria an aggressor.

Question 13. Name the makers of Italian unification.
Answer: Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel II were the makers of the Italian unification.

Question 14. Name the Pope who helped to unite the Italian unification.
Answer: Pope Pius IX helped to unite Italian unification.

Question 15. What is the name of the Prussian Parliament?
Answer: Diet is the name of the Prussian Parliament.

Question 16. When was Bismarck appointed the Chancellor of Prussia?
Answer: In 1862 Bismarck was appointed the Chancellor of Prussia.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 17. Who said Germany was too narrow for Austria and Prussia?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck said that Germany was too narrow for Austria and Prussia.

Question 18. Which war is known as the Seven Weeks War?
Answer: Austro-Prussian war, of 1866 is known as the Seven Weeks War.

Question 19. With which war the battle of Sadowa or the battle of Koniggratz is associated?
Answer: The battle of Sadowa is associated with the Austro—Prussian war.

Question 20. When did the Franco-Prussian war break out? By which treaty did the war come to an end?
Answer: In 1870 the Franco-Prussian war broke out In 1871. The treaty of Frankfurt, came to an end.

Question 21. When did the Second Empire of France come to an end?
Answer: In 1871 the Second Empire of France came to an end.

Question 22. What were the most important results of the Franco-Prussian war?
Answer: The Franco-Prussian war laid out two important results. In Germany, Italy, and France completely undid the work of the Congress of Vienna.

Question 23. With which war the battle of Sedan is associated? What is its importance?
Answer:
Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871) :
The war helped to complete the unification of Germany.

Question 24. Who was the first Emperor of the United German Empire?
Answer: William I was the first Emperor of united Germany.

Question 25. Who was known as the Czar Liberator?
Answer: Czar Alexander II of Russia is known as the Czar Liberator.

Question 26. By which treaty was the Austro-Prussian war concluded?
Answer: Austro-Prussian war was concluded by the Treaty of Prague in 1866.

Question 27. Who wrote the novel ‘Fathers and sons’ which expressly defined the creed of Nihilism?
Answer: Turgenev’s ‘Fathers and sons’ expressly defined the creed of Nihilism.

Question 28. Who said, “Germany is a satiated power”?
Answer: Bismarck said that Germany is a satiating power.

Question 29. What was Bismarck’s attitude towards England?
Answer: Bismarck carefully kept England out of his European system.

Question 30. When was Bismarck, the Pilot of the German Empire, dropped?
Answer: In 1890.

Question 31. Who was known as the ‘Iron Chancellor’?
Answer: Bismarck.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 32. What was the ordained principle of Kaiser William II’s foreign policy?
Answer: Kaizer William II sought to make Germany a world power.

Question 33. Who inaugurated the new era of Welt Politik (World Policy) for Germany?
Answer: Kaiser William II inaugurated the new era of welt-Politik in Germany.

Question 34. What was the name of United Moldavia and Wallachia?
Answer: Rumania.

Question 35. What was the greatest demerit of the Treaty of Berlin of 1878?
Answer: The Treaty of Berlin (1878) ignored the sentiments of the people of Berlin.

Question 36. What are the modern ideals born of the French Revolution?
Answer: The modern ideals born of the French Revolution are nationalism, liberalism, and democracy.

Question 37. Which period is known as the Age of Metternich?
Answer: 1815-1848 is known as the Age of Metternich.

Question 38. Which dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy?
Answer: The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy.

Question 39. Name the King who was restored to the throne of France according to the ‘Principle of Legitimacy’.
Answer: The King who was restored to the throne of France according to the Principle of Legitimacy, was Louis XVIII.

Question 40. Who were the members of the Concert of Europe?
Answer: The members of the Concert of Europe were Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England.

Question 41. What was the objective of the Principle of Legitimacy of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The objective of the Principle of Legitimacy of the Vienna Congress was to bring back the original ruling dynasties which used to rule in different parts of Europe before the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Question 42. What was the objective of the Principle of Balance of Powers of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The objective of the Principle of Balance of Powers of the Vienna Congress was to reconstitute the map of Europe in such a way that one state could not beat another in the race for power.

Question 43. What was the objective of the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The objective of the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress was to reward those powers which played an important part in the defeat of Napoleon with
the possession of different territories.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 44. Name the countries which were benefitted from the Principle of Compensation.
Answer:
The countries which were benefitted from the Principle of Compensation were:
(1) Austria
(2) Russia
(3) Prussia and
(4) England.

Question 45. What is the ‘Concert of Europe’?
Answer: The Big Four–Austria, Prussia, England, and Russia devised a system known as the ‘Concert of Europe’ to maintain the political arrangement made in the Vienna
Congress and to ensure peace in Europe.

Question 46. Who were the Big Four at the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: The Big Four at the Congress of Vienna were Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England.

Question 47. When did the July Revolution break out in France?
Answer: The July Revolution broke out in France in 1830.

Question 48. Name the countries where the impact of the July Revolution was felt.
Answer: The impact of the July Revolution was felt in Germany, Belgium, Poland, Spain, Portugal, and England.

Question 49. Name the countries which were inspired by the success of the July Revolution.
Answer: The countries which were inspired by the success of the July Revolution were Belgium, Poland, Portugal, Spain, England, ‘Italy, and Germany.

Question 50. Name two leaders of the July Revolution.
Answer: Two leaders of the July Revolution were Thiers and Lafayette.

Question 51. Who issued the ‘July Ordinance and when?
Answer: The July Ordinance was issued by the French emperor Charles X in 1830 (25th July).

Question 52. Name the Bourbon king who was overthrown by the July Revolution in France.
Answer: The Bourbon king who was overthrown by the July Revolution in France was Charles X.

Question 53. Who was Polignac?
Answer: Polignac was the minister of the French King Charles X, who issued arbitrary ordinances like restricting the freedom of the press, diminishing the number of electors
and curbing the voting rights of the people.

Question 54. Which year is known as the ‘Year of Revolutions’ and why?
Answer: The year 1848 is known as the ‘Year of Revolutions’ because of the revolution which broke out in 1848 in France expedited national movements in 15 European
countries.

Question 55. What was the period of the ‘July Monarchy’?
Answer: The period of the July Monarchy was 1830-1848.

Question 56. Name the countries which were influenced by the February Revolution.
Answer: The countries that were influenced by the February Revolution were Germany, Italy, Austria, Hungary, Denmark, Netherlands, etc.

Question 57. In which year Louis Napoleon declared himself the ‘Emperor of France’?
Answer: In 1852 Louis Napoleon declared himself the Emperor of France.

Question 58. Which country stood in the way of unity and democracy in Italy?
Answer: Austria stood in the way of unity and democracy in Italy.

Question 59. Name the leaders who played the most important part in the unification of Italy.
Answer: The leaders who played the most important part in the unification of Italy were Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 60. Which treaty ended the Battle of Sadowa?
Answer: The Battle of Sadowa ended with the treaty of Prague. 5

Question 61. In which year and by whom was the Battle of Sedan fought?
Answer: The Battle of Sedan was fought in 1870 between Prussia and France.

Question 62. In which year and by whom was the Battle of Sadowa fought?
Answer: The Battle of Sadowa was fought in 1866 between Prussia and Austria.

Question 63. In which year and by whom was the treaty of Villafranca signed?
Answer: The treaty of Villafranca was signed in 1859 between Austria and France.

Question 64. Name the only state which was independent before the unification of Italy.
Answer: The only state which was independent before the unification of Italy was Piedmont-Sardinia.

Question 65. Name one secret society established during the Italian unification movement.
Answer: Carbonari was a secret society established during the Italian unification movement.

Question 66. Who established Young Italy?
Answer: Young Italy was established by Mazzini.

Question 67. What is Carbonari?
Answer: Carbonari was a secret society of Italy that aimed to unite Italy into a single state, achieve liberty and drive the Austrians out of Italy.

Question 68. When was the Italian unification completed?
Answer: The Italian unification was completed in 1870.

Question 69. Name the countries where the impact of the July Revolution was felt.
Answer: The impact of the July Revolution was felt in Belgium, Poland, Spain, Portugal, England, Italy, and Germany.

Question 70. What is ‘Pan-Germanism’?
Answer: ‘Pan-Germanism’ means the idea or sentiment of a united German people which developed in Germany under the influence of poets, philosophers, and historians like Bohmer, Fichte, Hegel, Hausser, etc.

Question 71. Who was the real architect of the unification of Germany?
Answer: The real architect of the unification of Germany was Bismarck.

Question 72. When was the Second Republic established in France?
Answer: Second Republic was established in France in 1848.

Question 73. Who became the emperor or ‘Kaiser’ after German unification?
Answer: The Prussian King William I became the emperor or Kaiser after German Unification.

Question 74. In which year was the treaty of Frankfurt signed?
Answer: The treaty of Frankfurt was signed in 1871.

Question 75. What is the ‘Confederation of the Rhine’?
Answer: Napoleon Bonaparte formed forty-nine states of the former three hundred states in Germany and inaugurated a federal administrative system in Germany known as the Confederation of the Rhine.

Question 76. Who followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’.

Question 77. Who was called the ‘Red Shirts’?
Answer: Garibaldi’s followers were called the Red Shirts.

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 78. Who was Count Benedetti?
Answer: Count Benedetti was the ambassador of the French King Napoleon III to the Prussian emperor William I.

Question 79. Who was the general of the Red Shirt volunteer force?
Answer: The general of the Red Shirt volunteer force was Garibaldi.

Question 80. What is the other name of the ‘Balkan’ region?
Answer: The other name of the Balkan region is Near East.

Question 81. Name some nationalities living in the ‘Balkan’ region.
Answer: Some nationalities living in the Balkan region were Greek, Serb, Romanian, Albanian, Bulgarian, etc.

Question 82. In which year and by whom was the Treaty of San Stephano signed?
Answer: The Treaty of San Stephano was signed in 1878 between Russia and Turkey.

Question 83. In which year and by which treaty did Turkey accept the independence of Greece?
Answer: Turkey accepted the independence of Greece through the Treaty of London in 1832.

Question 84. Why was the war between England, France, and Russia in 1854 known as the Crimean War?
Answer: The war between England, France, and Russia in 1854 was known as the Crimean War because it was fought in the Crimean peninsula in Southern Russia.

Question 85. When was the Crimean War fought?
Answer: The Crimean War was fought during 1854-56.

Question 86. Which region is known as the ‘Balkan’?
Answer: The ‘Balkan’ means the hilly region between the Aegean Sea and the Danube river.

Question 87. Name one socialist leader of Europe.
Answer: One socialist leader was Louis Blanc.

Question 88. What are the modern ideals born of the French Revolution?
Answer: The modern ideals born of the French Revolution are nationalism, liberalism, and democracy.

Question 89. Which period is known as the Age of Metternich?
Answer: 1815-1848 is known as the Age of Metternich.

Question 90. Who was the real architect of the unification of Germany?
Answer: The real architect of the unification of Germany was Bismarck.

Question 91. Name one socialist leader of Europe.
Answer: One socialist leader was Louis Blanc.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas 2 Marks Questions And Answers :

Question 1. Name some of the leading diplomats of Europe who met in Vienna.
Answer: The leading diplomats who assembled at Vienna were Prince Metternich, the Prime Minister of Austria, Czar Alexander of Russia, Castlereagh, the Foreign Minister of England, and Talleyrand, the clever diplomat of France.

Question 2. What were the three guiding principles of the Congress of Vienna?
Answer:

The guiding principles of the Congress of Vienna were :

(1) Balance of Power
(2) Legitimacy and,
(3) Rewards to the victors at the expense of the vanquished.

Question 3. What arrangements did the Congress of Vienna do for Germany’s political settlement?
Answer: Germany was formed into a loose confederation of thirty-nine States whose affairs were to be conducted by a Federal Diet under the presidentship of Austria.

Question 4. What arrangements were made by the Congress of Vienna for the settlement of the Italian political problems?
Answer: In Italy, Austrian interests determined the territorial arrangements. Austria herself received Lombardy and Venice while rollers connected with the Austrian imperial family were restored to their thrones of Parma Madona and Tuscany. The Papal States were re-established. Naples was restored to the Bourbon king Ferdinand and Genoa was annexed to Sardinia. Thus Italy became a mere geographical expression.

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Question 5. Why has the Congress of Vienna been harshly criticized?
Answer: The Congress of Vienna ignored the principles of nationalism and democracy. By its policy also the interests of the smaller States were sacrificed and the bigger ones benefitted.

Question 6. What arrangements were made to make Vienna Settlement permanent?
Answer: Two different organizations were formed to make the Vienna settlement permanent. The first was the Holy Alliance sponsored by Czar Alexander I of Russia, and the second was the Concert of Europe based upon the Quadruple Alliance of big four powers, viz. Russia, England, Prussia, and Austria.

Question 7. What was the nature of the Holy Alliance?
Answer: The Holy Alliance was not a treaty and so had no building force. It was politically useless because of its vagueness. Charity and love are not capable of being defined in diplomatic terms. The Holy Alliance was a hobby of Alexander and came to an end with his death in 1825.

Question 8. What is the importance of the Holy Alliance in the subsequent history of Europe?
Answer: The importance of the Holy Alliance lies in the fact that it had the germs of the idea of international cooperation for peace, which in future found expression in the international peace movement of the Hague Conference.

Question 9. What is the importance of the Concert of Europe? What was its aim?
Answer: The Concert of Europe was the first experiment in internationalism. Its aim was to maintain peace and order in Europe and check the revolutionary ideas.

Question 10. Whom did the Allies restore on the throne of France after the battle of Waterloo? How long did he rule in France?
Answer: After the battle of Waterloo the victorious Allies restored the rule of the Bourbon dynasty in France in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI. Louis
XVIII ruled in France from 1815 to 1824.

Question 11. How did Louis XVIII, the King of France want to rule his kingdom? What was the result?
Answer: Louis18 clearly realized that the restoration of the royal line did not mean the restoration of the Old Regime and that concessions must be made to the new spirit. He, therefore, granted a Charter to his people, ensuring them a Constitutional Government.

The Charter established a Parliament of two Houses a Chamber of Peers, appointed for life, and a Chamber of Deputies, elected by a very limited body of voters. The Constitution though falling short of the aspirations raised by the Revolution, was a liberal one, indeed more liberal than France had at any time enjoyed.

Question 12. What was the July Ordinance issued by Charles X ? What were its results?
Answer: At the instance of the reactionary Chief Minister, Polignac, Charles X issued four Ordinances on July 26, 1830. This Ordinance suspended the liberty of the press, dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, changed the electoral system, and reduced the number of voters. When the news of the Ordinance reached Paris, the people immediately broke out in revolt.

Question 13. What was the result of the July Revolution in France?
Answer: At the outbreak of the July Revolution Charles X fled and abdicated in favor of his grandson. But the people passed over his claims and set up a provisional Government with Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Louis Phillippe was offered the crown which he accepted under the title of the King of France.

Question 14. Indicate the time span of the July Monarchy. Who ruled during that time?
Answer: The July Monarchy ruled in France from July 1830 to February 1848. Louis Philippe ruled France in that period.

Question 15. To which dynasty did Louis Philippe belong? Why was he called ‘Citizen king’?
Answer: Louis Philippe belonged to the House of Orleans. As Louis Philippe was dependent on the middle class for support, the Orleanist Monarchy became a middle-class monarchy run on a limited franchise for the benefit of the middle class. The angered other parties in derision gave Louis the derisive sobriquet ‘Citizen King’.

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Question 16. When did Socialism begin to appear in the political ideas of France? What was its immediate effect in France?
Answer: ‘Socialism’ bred from industrialism began to make headway in France during the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848). Socialism became a potent factor in the Revolution of 1848 which overthrew the Orlean Monarchy.

Question 17. What was the immediate cause of the French Revolution of 1848?
Answer: The immediate cause of the French Revolution of 1848 was the king’s refusal to allow any further extension of the franchise. Guizot, the Prime Minister of Louis Philippe, denied listening to any proposal of electoral reform. Theirs and his followers organized a series of reform banquets in order to stir up the people in favor of the extension of the franchise.

Guizot was dismissed by the king but the people were not satisfied and a riot broke out in Paris. Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to England and the Revolution was complete.

Question 18. When was the Second Republic of France formed? Who was the head of the Second Republic of France?
Answer: In 1848, after the February Revolution of France, the so-called Second Republic of France was formed. Lamartine headed the Second Republic of France.

Question 19. Name some of the leaders of France who brought a political change to France in 1848.
Answer: The leaders who brought a political change in France in 1848 are Ijunartine, Louis Blanc, Theirs, etc.

Question 20. Name the parties which opposed the Government of Louis Philippe.
Answer: Except for the Party of Constitutionalists, all the other political parties in France were against the accession of Louis Philippe. The Legitimists wanted a Bourbon Prince on the throne and considered Louis as a usurper, who belongs to the Or leans family.

The Bonapartists recalled the glories of Napoleon and had no love for a King whose foreign policy was timid and peaceful. His moderate policy and refusal to allow any further extension of popular influence estranged the Republicans. Moreover, there was another new force hostile to Louis Philippe. This was Socialism. Socialism became a potent factor in the Revolution of 1848.

Question 21. Which Monarchy was known as the July Monarchy? When did it come to an end?
Answer: The Monarchy established by Louis Philippe in France in 1830 was known as the July Monarchy. July Monarchy came to an end by the February Revolution of 1848.

Question 22. What were the repercussions of the July Revolution of France in Europe?
Answer: The July Revolution in Paris found its echo in many of the States of Europe. It was the signal and encouragement for widespread popular movements all over Europe and destroyed the whole structure created by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815.

The success of the Parisians in obtaining a Constitutional Government was a triumph for liberation and the voice of the people was everywhere on behalf of freedom and self—government in Belgium, Germany, Italy, Poland, and England.

Question 23. What was the main cause of the revolt in Belgium in 1830? What was its result?
Answer: The July Revolution in Paris awakened the first responsive echo in Belgium. The Belgians protested against their artificial union with Holland by the Congress of Vienna. As a result of the revolt of the Belgians, Belgium became a separate kingdom with Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as its king in 1831. The independence of Belgium is an important victory of the principle of nationality and was the first breach in the Vienna settlement, the first conspicuous example of the abandonment of the system of Metternich.

Question 24. What was the importance of the July Revolution (1830) in Europe?
Answer: The July Revolution of France (1830) was an event of resounding importance in Europe. It secured the independence of Belgium, established a Constitutional Monarchy in France, and helped the cause of Parliamentary reform in England.

Question 25. What was the result of the February Revolution in 1848?
Answer: The triumph of the democratic revolution in France in 1948 sent a thrill of hope throughout Europe and released the ’ ..tup feelings of liberalism everywhere. It was the signal for the widest -as Ad far-reaching popular movement all over Europe. It was so strong in Central-“Europe that for a time it swept everything before it and Prussia and Austria, bulwarks of absolutism, were shaken to their very foundations.

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Question 26. Which period of Europe is called the “Era of Metternich” and why?
Answer: The period from 1815 to 1848 in the history of Europe is known as the “Era of Metternich” because his reactionary political ideals were predominant in the course of the history of the continent

Question 27. What do you know of the Frankfurt Parliament?
Answer: A National Parliament (Vor Parliament) was elected by universal alignment at Frankfurt in Germany in 1848 to draw up a Constitution for United Germany. Austria was excluded from it and Prussia was given a prominent position which showed the future trend of German politics and German unity of Prussia.

Question 28. Who promised to assume the leadership of the movements of Germany? Why did he refuse it later on?
Answer: Frederick William of Prussia promised to assume the leadership of the movements for a United Germany. The Constitution as framed by the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848 provided for a single hereditary emperor to rule over all of Germany and a Legislature of two Houses.

The Crown was offered to the Prussian King but Frederick William refused it. He refused it for two reasons: firstly, because it might lead to war with Austria which would not submit to the second position in Germany; and secondly, because he disliked the idea of receiving a Crown from a revolutionary assembly that had a doubtful right to make the offer.

Question 29. What is Zollverein? What is its importance?
Answer: In 1818 on the initiative of Prussia was established the Zollverein or Customs Union by which Prussia and the neighboring States were included under one economic system based upon free trade. The members of the Union established free trade among themselves by removing their respective tariff walls and thus came to have a common fiscal policy.

By 1850 nearly all the States of Germany except Austria joined the Zollverein and Prussia found herself at the head of a comprehensive economic Union. The political value of solidarity of the economic interests of the German States was very great. It turned men’s eyes from Austria to Prussia and constituted a real preparation for German unity under Prussian leadership. The commercial union became a precursor of the political Union.

Question 30. What was the result of the political uprising in 1848 in Austria?
Answer: The popular insurrection first broke out in Austria’s capital Vienna. There a turbulent mob of students and workingmen clashed with the imperial troops. At first shock, Metternich was compelled to flee to England. Emperor Ferdinand I was forced to grant a liberal Constitution guaranteeing freedom to the press, civil liberty, and Parliament. But when the popular insurrection started all over the Austria-Hungarian Empire, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his nephew Francis.

Question 31. What do you know of ‘Carbonari?
Answer: Carbonari (‘burning charcoal’) was a secret political organization of Italy that fostered the ideal of nationalism and fomenting insurrections.

Question 32. Who founded Young Italy? What were its ideals?
Answer: In 1831 Mazzini established a society called Young Italy. God, the People, and Italy were the cries of the society; education and literary propaganda and, if necessary, revolution were its methods the conversion of an idea into a popular cause was its achievement.

Question 33. What do you know about Charles Albert?
Answer: Charles Albert, the king of Piedmont Sardina, declared war against Austria in 1848. But he was defeated at the battle of Novara in 1849. Sick at heart Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II. The defeat of Novara shattered the hopes of the Italians and marked the beginning of the reaction. Victor Emmanuel II ruled Italy from 1849 to 1878.

Question 34. What was the result of the Revolution of 1848?
Answer: The result of the revolutionary movements of 1848 was extremely disappointing to the liberals. Reaction triumphed everywhere, the old Government slipped back into the old grooves. But it should be noted that the revolution was not a total failure. The political earthquake of 1848 had shaken the foundation of autocracy all over Europe, and the succeeding generations were encouraged to strike effective blows at the tottering structure.

Question 35. What was the general nature of the Revolution of 1848?
Answer: The Revolution of 1848 was distinctly a republican movement strongly colored by socialistic ideas. It was the joint product of political and economic causes.

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Question 36. What do you know of Carlsbad Decrees? Who issued them?
Answer: In 1819 Metternich arranged a conference of German princes at Carlsbad where it was agreed to suppress liberal movements. The Conference passed a number of decrees by which the Press was put under strict censorship, the universities were placed under Government control and the student societies were suppressed. It was also forbidden to grant any Constitution inconsistent with the monarchical principle.

Question 37. What do you know of Hetairia Phalke?
Answer: In the first quarter of the 19th century the Greeks, under the rule of the Turks, were touched by the new ideas of freedom which awakened their aspiration for national independence. In 1849 they founded a secret society known as the Philke Hetairia with the object of disseminating nationalist doctrines and fostering insurrection against the Turks.

Question 38. Why were Decemberists so-called?
Answer: In Russia, the turning point in relations between the monarchy and the nation came in 1825, with the so-called Decemberist Revolt. Before his death, Czar Alexander I intended that his younger brother Nicholas should succeed him, although Constantine was next in the line of succession. Thus, an absurd situation arose in which Nicholas at St. Petersburg proclaimed him Emperor, and Constantine declared himself Emperor at Warsaw.

For nearly several weeks in December 1825, the throne remained vacant. The secret societies seized the chance to stage a revolt against the army at St. Petersburg with the aim of summoning a national assembly. But the plotters had no clear plan or organization and had made adequate preparations. So, they were crushed with great severity. As the revolt took place in the month of December, it is known as Decemberist Revolt.

Question 39. Why did the Crimean war break out? By which treaty it came to an end?
Answer: The Crimean War broke out in 1854. It came to an end with the treaty of Paris in 1856.

Question 40. Why is the Crimean war called the watershed of European history?
Answer: The Crimean war occupies a peculiar place of importance in the history of ‘Europe. It re-opened the Eastern question and renewed the divergent interest of the powers in the Near East. What was more serious, it was the prelude to the most momentous developments of the nineteenth century.

Its events left a trail of consequences in the unification of Italy and Germany in the estrangement of Russia and Prussia. Hence, it has been remarked that the Crimean war was in a general sense the watershed of European history.

Question 41. Who proposed the partition of Turkey? What was British policy on this point?
Answer: Nicholas, the Czar of Russia, proposed something like a joint Anglo-Russian partition of the Turkish Empire. He suggested that England might have Egypt and Crete while Russia might occupy Constantinople, although not in proprietary right. England declined to fall in with the scheme of partition. The maintenance of the integrity of Turkey was the traditional policy of England and there was no desire to alter it.

Question 42. What was the prelude to the Crimean war?
Answer: A quarrel broke out between the Latin monks and the monks of the Greek church ever the custody of the Holy places of Jerusalem. France had a traditional right to the guardianship of the Holy places. Czar Nicholas I, as the head of the Greek church, championed the cause of the Greek monks. Turkey attempted a compromise that satisfied neither side and it precipitated a crisis in the Turkish Empire in 1854.

Question 43. Why did Napoleon III, the French Emperor come to champion the cause of the Latin monks?
Answer: Napoleon III wanted to signalize his accession to the French throne with a spectacular foreign policy that was likely to reconcile the French people to his rule. A war with Russia in support of the Latin monks would suit the purpose nicely.

It would please the clerical party in France, whose support Napolean III considered essential to his purpose. Moreover, it would maintain the prestige of France in the East, which had sunk low owing to the timid policy of Louis Philippe. Above all, a victory over Russia would gratify French national pride by avenging the humiliation of Moscow.

Question 44. What were the political ideas of Mazzini?
Answer: Mazzini was the prophet of Italian unity. Mazzini was an idealist. This belief he communicated to the people with a religious ardor which made its appeal irresistible. Italy united, and republican was the all-absorbing passion and ideal. Mazzini stirred the people and kindled their enthusiasm for greater success.

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Question 45. Name the countries which joined Turkey against Russia in the Crimean war.
Answer: The names of the countries that joined the war for Turkey were England and France. After the outbreak of war Piedmont-Sardinia also joined Turkey.

Question 46. What is ‘Vienna Note’?
Answer: When the dispute between France and Russia over the Holy places in Jerusalem precipitated a crisis in the Turkish Empire in 1854, diplomacy made a last attempt to prevent the outbreak of hostilities. England, France, Prussia, and Austria met at Vienna and drew up a declaration known as the Vienna Note. It asserted the need of protecting the Christian subjects in Turkey. The Note was presented both to Russia and Turkey. Russia accepted the Note but Turkey rejected it and war became irresistible.

Question 47. What were the most important results of the Crimean war?
Answer:

The most important results of the Crimean war were:

(1) Liberation of Italy;
(2) Rupture of good feeling between Russia and Austria and,
(3) Good understanding between Prussia and Russia.

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Question 48. What are the effects of the Crimean war in Russia?
Answer: The Crimean war affected Russia deeply. At home, it led to a series of reforms carried out by Czar Alexander II, the most important of which was the emancipation of the Serfs. Abroad it gave a new turn to Russian expansion. The expansion checked in Europe was transferred to Central Asia where she began to push forward with great strides.

Question 49. What do you know of the Compact of Plombieres?
Answer: In 1858 Napoleon III of France and Count Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia met at Plorilbieres, wherein a secret meeting the fate of Italy was decided. By the compact of Plombieres, it was agreed that Napoleon III would join Sardinia in the event of war with Austria and make her free from the Alps to the Adriatic. But at the price of his aid Napoleon III was to receive Savoy and Nice.

Question 50. What do you know of the treaty of Villafranca?
Answer: Amid the Austro-Italian War (1859) Napoleon 3 suddenly called a halt and without consulting his allies, arranged the terms of treaties with Austria at Villafranca (1859). Their terms were ratified by the Treaty of Zurich. By the terms of the treaty of Villafranca, it was settled that Austria was to cede Lombardy to Sardinia but retain Venetia.

The rulers of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena who have been expelled by their subjects on the outbreak of war were to be restored and an Italian Federation was to be formed under the Presidency of the Pope.

Question 51. What do you know of the March of the Thousand?
Answer: In 1960 Garibaldi mailed to Sicily, leading his famous expedition of the Thousand. Within three months Garibaldi was the master of the island and proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emanuel II. Never had such a rapid conquest by such a handful of men been known in the pages of history.

Question 52. Whom do you regard as mainly responsible for the unification of Italy?
Answer: Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, fathomed clearly the political situation of Europe, and by three diplomatic masters strokes he completed his mission; first by sending 17000 soldiers to the Crimean war, second by signing the Treaty of Plombieres with Napoleon III and third by assisting secretly Garilbaldi’s venture.

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Question 53. When did United Italy occupy Rome?
Answer: During the Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871), after the defeat of France in the battle of Sedan, French troops withdrew from Rome and Victor Emmanuel II seized the opportunity to occupy Rome which became the capital of united Italy. Before the occupation of Rome by united Italy Turin was the capital of united Italy.

Question 54. How was the Italian unification completed?
Answer: Italy’s unification was completed by Mazzini’s moral enthusiasm, Garibaldi’s sword, Cavour’s diplomacy, and Victor Emmanuel II’s tact and good sense.

Question 55. Who was known as the ‘Man of Blood and Iron’ and why?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, was known as the ‘Man of Blood and Iron’ because he believed that not by speeches and resolutions of the majority are the great questions of the day were to be decided but by the policy of ‘blood and iron’, which means the use of arms. For this, his policy is known as the blood and iron policy.

Question 56. Name the war after which Italy got Venetia and Rome. What were the effects of the Austro-Prussian War on Italy?
Answer: By the terms of the Treaty of Prague after the battle of Sadowa in 1866, Italy had acquired Venetia and thereby advanced one step further towards her complete union. Thus she got rid of her greatest enemy and was within sight of the national goal—the acquisition of Rome which she occupied after the battle of Sedan.

Question 58. In which year, they enacted the Edict of emancipation?
Answer: In 1861 Tsar Alexander II of Russia, better known as the Czar Liberator, promulgated the Edict of Emancipation. By it, serfdom was abolished throughout the Russian empire. This ended the legal jurisdiction of the lords over the serfs who became personally free.

Question 59. What were the main reforms of Alexander II of Russia?
Answer:

The major reforms of Alexander II were:

(1) Emancipation of the serfs,
(2) Creation of local councils or Zemstvos and
(3) Radical reorganization of the law courts.

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Question 60. Why was the Czar Liberator Alexander II a target of the attack of Nihilists?
Answer: The Nihilists expected much more liberal reforms from Czar Alexander II of Russia. But he failed to satisfy them and, therefore, he became their target.

Question 61. What were Zemstvos? How were they formed?
Answer: District Local Councils of Russia created by the reforms of Czar Alexander II were known as the Zemstvos. These were formed by the representatives elected by the people representing all classes of the community.

Question 62. What is Mir? What were its functions?
Answer: Mir is a village community that, according to the Edict of Emancipation promulgated by Czar Alexander II of Russia, was to parcel the lands of the village among its resident peasants.

Question 63. What is Nihilism? What were the motives of Nihilism?
Answer: The followers of Nihilism are called Nihilists. Nihilism is a spirit of absolute negation and of barren criticism. In short, Nihilism would not bow before any authority and would not accept any principle unproved. They wanted to find a state of reason.

Question 64. Who wrote ‘Napoleonic Ideas’? What were its contents?
Answer: In 1839 Louis Napoleon, (Napoleonic II] of France) wrote and published‘Napoleonic Ideas’ Napoleonic Ideas maintained that the great Napoleon stood for order, authority, religion, the welfare of the people at home, and national glory abroad. Napoleonic Ideas proved a very useful agency of propaganda and served to discredit the dull mediocrity of the Orleanist regime of Louis Philippe.

Question 65. When was the battle of Sedan fought? What was its result?
Answer: The battle of Sedan was fought in 1870-1871. In this battle, France was totally defeated and as a result, the unification of Germany was completed. The Prussian King became the Emperor of the United German Empire.

Question 66. What is Kultur kampf ?
Answer: Within a short time after the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck became involved in a protracted struggle with the Catholic church. This conflict has been dignified by the name of Kultur Kampf, which meant struggle for civilization. It arose from the almost inevitable opposition of the Catholic church to the German empire in which Protestant Prussia was supreme.

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Question 67. What is the May Laws? What were its repercussions?
Answer: In 1873, Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany passed the May Laws which enjoined compulsory civil marriage and declared that all candidates for the priesthood should be German citizens educated in German public schools and universities and that no bishop or priest might be appointed without notification to the Government which reserved the right to veto the appointment Pope Pius IX declared the laws null and void and the Catholics offered an obstinate resistance to this policy of persecution.

Question 68. How did Bismarck intend to improve the social condition of working men? What was its importance?
Answer: By slow and gradual degrees Bismarck instituted a comprehensive scheme of insurance against the vicissitudes of life, such as compulsory insurance against accidents, sickness, old age, etc. The policy is known as State socialism and it was Bismarck’s chief contribution to the solution of the social question of the time. In this respect, he was a pioneer.

Question 69. What were the main objectives of the foreign policy of Bismarck?
Answer: Bismarck sought to maintain peace in order to consolidate his newly created empire. So he tried to isolate France and maintain a friendship with Austria and Russia.

Question 70. What do you know of Dreikaiserbund or Three Emperors’ League? When did Russia withdraw from the League?
Answer: Bismarck arranged a meeting in 1872 between the Emperors of Austria, Russia, and Germany in Berlin. The meeting of the three Emperors resulted in the entente known as the Dreikaiserbund or the Three Emperors’ League. It was not a treaty of the alliance but an announcement to the world of the intimate and cordial relations between the three powers.

Though not a treaty, the political significance of the Dreikaiserbund was important. It meant that Austria had forgiven Sadowa and accepted the exclusion from Germany and she no longer mediated revenge. At the time of the Berlin Treaty (1878), Germany showed special care for the interest of Austria and Russia left Dreikaiserbund in disgust.

Question 71. What was the cause of conflict between Kaiser William II and Bismarck?
Answer: The cause of conflict between Kaiser William II and Bismarck was really one for power, the question being whether the Hoheuzollem dynasty or Bismarck should rule. As Bismarck declined to accede to the Emperor’s order, he was forced out of office in 1890. Thus fell the ‘Iron Chancellor’, undoubtedly one of the greatest but one of the least attractive men of the century.

Question 72. Could Bismarck, a believer in the policy of “blood and iron”, maintain it all through?
Answer: After the unification of Germany in 1871, Bismarck abandoned the policy of blood and iron and mainly followed a policy of peace and appeasement to maintain the change in the political system of Europe already made.

Question 73. What do you know of the Treaty of San Stefano, 1871?
Answer: The Treaty of San Stefano, which Russia forced upon Turkey, practically decreed the dissolution of the Turkish Empire. According to the treaty, the Sultan of Turkey was to recognize the independence of Serbia and Montenegro. But the most striking feature of the treaty was the creation of Big Bulgaria which was to be an autonomous State tributary to Turkey and was to extend from the Danube to the Aegean and from the Black sea to Albania. It was revised by the treaty of Berlin, in 1878.

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Question 74. What do you know of the Treaty of Berlin?
Answer: The extension of Russian influence in the Balkans was prejudicial to England’s interest and so she demanded a revision of the Treaty of San Stefano by a Congress of European powers.

The Congress met at Berlin in 1878 by which the following arrangements were made :

(1) Montenegro, Serbia, and Rumania were declared independent of Turkey
(2) The Big Bulgaria of the Treaty of San Stefano was divided into two parts
(3) Austria was allowed to administer Bosnia and Herzegovina
(4) England secured the control of Cyprus and,
(5) The Sultan of Turkey in his turn, promised to protect his Asiatic subjects.

Question 75. Who played the role of ‘honest broker’ in the time of the Berlin Treaty?
Answer: Otto Von Bismarck played the role of the honest broker at the time of the conclusion of the Berlin Treaty.

Question 76. What did Napoleon do to unify Italy?
Answer: Before the conquest of Napoleon Italy was divided into small petty kingdoms, mostly ruled by foreign rulers. When Napoleon conquered Italy he united the different provinces of Italy and enforced his laws known as Code Napoleon. He drove away the feudal lords and built roads to unite different parts of Italy.

Question 77. What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Legitimacy?
Answer: According to the Principle of Legitimacy, the new king Louis XVIII of the Bourbon dynasty ascended the French throne and the House of Orange was restored to the throne of Holland. The House of Savoy was restored to the kingdom of Piedmont in Italy and the Pope was restored to his papal kingdom. The rulers of small kingdoms overthrown by Napoleon were also brought back to their respective territories.

Question 78. What were the main weaknesses of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The system built at Vienna Congress (1815) did not last long.

Its main weaknesses were :

(1) It completely ignored the will of the people. The people did not forget the lessons of the French Revolution and demanded that the Government should be formed so as to derive its right from the will of the governed.

(2) Moreover, in some countries like Germany and Italy, people who spoke the same language and were members of the same nationality were compelled to live in separate states into which the countries were artificially divided.

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Question 79. What led to the summoning of the Vienna Congress?
Answer: The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor, in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered. So, the leaders who had played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met in Vienna (1815) to reconstruct the political map of Europe devastated by Napoleonic warfare.

Question 80. Who first protested against the system of 1815 and why?
Answer: The first protest against the system of 1815 came from the youths and students of Germany. They wanted to overthrow the system, according to which the country was divided into a number of separate states. They also resented the cruel laws under which they suffered.

Question 81. What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Balance of Powers?
Answer: In order to ensure that peace prevailed in all of Europe, it was decided at the Vienna Congress that the power of different countries of Europe should be balanced so that no country could become powerful enough to threaten another country. France was responsible for disturbing the peace of Europe.

Therefore, it was necessary to control her power. Keeping in view the idea of permanent peace in Europe, the power of Bavaria, Holland, Saxony, Sardinia, and Prussia was increased.

Question 82. What was the ‘Metternich System’?
Answer: From the year 1815 to 1848, the Austrian Minister Metternich was the most commanding personality in Europe. He was the central figure of European diplomacy. He represented reaction in its extreme form and was the enemy of both democracy and nationalism. His policy was the maintenance of the status quo keeping things as they were.

Hence he set himself to resist all demands for reforms, all struggles for national independence, and all aspirations for self-government. He aimed at making Europe go back to the condition prevailing before 1789.

Question 83. What were the four ordinances issued by Charles X in 1830?
Answer:

The four ordinances issued by Charles X in 1830 were:

(1) Suspending the liberty of the press
(2) Dissolving the Chamber of Deputies
(3) Changing the electoral system
(4) Ordering fresh elections.

Question 84. What do you mean by ‘July Monarchy’?
Answer: Louis Philippe was nominated by the French Parliament to be the constitutional monarch of France in 1830. His monarchy is also known as the ‘July Monarchy’ because of its installation as a result of the Revolution that took place in the month of July.

Question 85. Why is the period between 1815 to 1848 known as the ‘Era of Metternich’?
Answer: Metternich was the most influential man in Europe from 1815 to 1848. After the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte in the Battle of Waterloo, Metternich became the central figure not only in the politics of Austria but in the politics of the whole of Europe. Owing to his unlimited influence, the period of 34 years (1815-1848) is called the ‘Age of Mettermich’ in the history of Europe.

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Question 86. What was the condition of Italy before unification?
Answer:

Italy, before unification, was a divided country.

(1) Besides Piedmont and the island of Sardinia, which were ruled by an Italian king in the north, the different parts of Italy were occupied by one or the other country.
2) Central Italy was ruled by the Pope, who was the head of the Church as well as of the Roman empire.
(3) Austria occupied the northern part of Italy.
(4) The southern part of Italy which included Naples and the island of Sicily was under the rule of the King of Naples.
(5) Besides, many smaller parts of Italy were ruled by the princes of Austria.

Question 87. What was ‘Young Italy’?
Answer: Joseph Mazzini was an inspiring leader of Italy. He founded a party known as Young Italy in 1832. He had immense faith in the power and strength of the Italian youths. Young men up to the age of forty could be its members.

Question 88. What were the wars waged by Bismarck for the unification of Germany?
Answer: Bismarck waged three wars for the unification of Germany. These were the Danish war (1864); Austro-Prussian War (1866) and Franco-Prussian War (1870).

Question 89. What was the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’?
Answer: According to Bismarck, the greatest obstacle to German unity was Austria. He used to say that the greatest question of the day would be decided not by speeches and majority resolutions but by a policy of ‘blood and iron’. His motto was to oust Austria from Germany if possible by diplomacy, if necessary by ‘blood and iron’ or war.

Question 90. What is Phalke Hetaira?
Answer: The Greeks were under the subjugation of Turkey and they fought for independence. The struggle of the Greeks originated in the activities of the Phalke Hetaira (a secret society for friendly brotherhood) formed in Odesa (now in Ukraine) in 1814. Its main object was to spread the doctrine of liberty and expel the Turks from Europe. They aimed to revive the old Greek empire of the east.

Question 91. Why was the Ottoman empire so named?
Answer: During the period between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries Turkey was a dominating power. The Turkish empire included vast areas of Europe and Africa and was known as the Ottoman empire after the name of one of her Amirs, Othman.

Question 92. What were the provisions of the Treaty of Adrianople?
Answer: Russia defeated Turkey in the Battle of Navarino and forced the Treaty of Adrianople on Turkey in 1829. According to the terms of this treaty, Turkey recognized the independence of Greece. Russia got Wallachia and Moldavia. Russia also acquired commercial and political rights in some territories in Asia.

Question 93. Did Czar Alexander II really liberate the serfs?
Answer: Czar Alexander 2 passed the ‘Emancipation Statute’ in 1861 which abolished serfdom in Russia and came to be known as ‘Czar the liberator’. However, in practice, the peasants were not liberated. The ownership of land was denied to them and was vested in the hands of ‘mirs’. The serfs were subjected to the village mirs instead of the lords who exploited them in various ways.

Question 94. Which period is known as the ‘Age of Conferences’? What were the conferences held during this period?
Answer: The period between 1815-1825 is called the ‘Age of Conferences’ in the history of Europe.

Five Conferences were held during this period. These were :

(1) Aix-Ia-Chapelle (1818)
(2) Troppau (1820)
(3) Laibach (1822)
(4) Verona (1822)
(5) St. Petersburg (1825)

Class ix History Question Answer

Question 95. What is the importance of the July Revolution of 1830?
Answer: The July Revolution of 1830 is one of the most important events in the history of France. From the following facts, it can be proved that the July

Revolution was an event of utmost importance :
(1)After -the July Revolution, a constitutional monarchy was established in France under Louis Philippe in place of the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons.
(2) Before the July Revolution, the aristocracy and the clergy of France used to enjoy unlimited rights and privileges. However, after the July Revolution, all these classes were deprived of their privileges.

Question 96. How was Rammohan Roy influenced by the July Revolution?
Answer: The July Revolution of 1830 in France bore a rich legacy for the people of the world during the 19th and 20th centuries. This was because the ideals of liberty, equality, liberalism, and democracy became popular among the people. These ideals spread rapidly from France to other countries of the world. Rammohan Roy, the ‘first modern man of India’ was greatly influenced by the July Revolution. He took an intense interest in the July Revolution which he viewed as a triumph of liberty.

He celebrated the success of the July Revolution in France. He was an internationalist and supported the cause of freedom everywhere. Deeply influenced by the ideals of the Revolution Rammohan Roy thought of monarchy and its absolutism as great evils.

Question 97. What was the Frankfurt Parliament?
Answer: The national leaders of German established a Parliament at frankfurt in Germany in 1815 whose members when elected on the basis of a universal adult franchise. The main function of this Parliament was to frame a constitution for Germany to achieve political unity and liberty and establish a popular government in place of the government of absolute monarchy.

According to the decisions of the Frankfurt Parliament, the crown of a united Germany was offered to Frederick William. But he refused this offer. His view was that he should not receive the crown as a gift from the representatives of the people. He believed in the unification of Germany through sheer force.

Question 98. Which treaty was concluded after the Crimean War? What were the provisions of the treaty?
Answer: The Treaty of Paris (1856) was concluded after the Crimean War (1854).

According to the provisions of the treaty

(1) England, France, and Austria admitted Turkey to the European family of states.
(2) The Sultan of Turkey promised to improve the condition of the Christians living in Turkey.
(3) Russia and Turkey returned the conquered provinces to each other.
(4) Russia promised not to interfere in the internal affairs of Turkey.

Question 99. How did the Crimean War lay the foundation for the unification of Italy?
Answer: The Crimean War (1854) laid the foundation for the unification of Italy. Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont, was a great diplomat. He wanted to unify Italy but, at the same time, he knew that Italy could not be unified without driving out Austria from Italy and that was quite impossible without foreign help.

He wanted to put the Italian question on an international platform. He, therefore, sent his soldiers to the Crimean War in support of the Allies. He soon achieved success in his object when he was invited to the Treaty of Paris. He succeeded in gaining the sympathy of the Allies.

Question 100. What is the significance of the Greek War of Independence?
Answer:

The Greek war of Independence is a landmark in the history of Europe.

(1) It showed that the resolutions of the Congress of Vienna were impractical and that national forces could not be checked by reactionary guiding principles.
(2) The Greek War of Independence was a great blow to the Metternich system.
(3) The European powers were attracted to the near east for the first time.
(4) They felt that each had a common interest in the region. They also felt the need to free the Christian states from oppressive Turkish rule.

Question 101. How would you criticize the Emancipation Statute of 1861?
Answer:

The Emancipation Statute of 1861 passed by Alexander II, the Czar of Russia, was criticized on the following grounds :

(1) The nobles resented the loss of land. The Act also deprived them of the services of the serfs.
(2) The edict did not fulfill the expectations of the serfs. The ownership of land was denied to them and was vested in the hands of ‘mirs’.
(3) The serfs were subjected to the village mirs instead of the lords.
(4) The annual installment of redemption money payable to the Government by the serfs in addition to other taxes put a heavy burden on them.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas 4 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Why was there a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals after 1815?
Answer: The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor, in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered. So the leaders who played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met at Vienna (1815) which completely ignored the will of the people.

The people did not forget the lessons of the French Revolution and demanded that the Government should be formed so as to derive its right from the will of the governed. Moreover, in some countries like Italy and Germany, people who spoke the same language and were members of the same nationality were compelled to live in separate states into which these countries were artificially divided.

Thus the aspirations of the people were twofold :
(1) democratic or liberal which aimed at winning the people the right to participate in the Government, and
(2) nationalist which was the outcome of the people’s desire to form themselves into a unified state. As a result, there was a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals after 1815.

Question 2. What do you know as ‘Ems Telegram’?
Answer:

Ems Telegram: The French King sent his ambassador Count Benedetti to the Prussian Emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohen Colle. the dynasty would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain the Prussian Emperor William. I was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refuses to make such a promise to Benedetti. A repo no the whole matter Was sent to Bismarck by telegram (13th July 1870). Known as 5my Telegram in European history.

Change in a telegram by Bismarck: Bismarck immediately found an opportunity to read his ‘Ems Telegram’, Shortening the text of the telegram on Purpose, Bismarck public the same in the next day’s paper. As a result of the change of words effected by Bismarck, the whole meaning of the telegram stood changed beyond recognition. The published matter appeared to indicate that the French ambassador, Benedetti had been insulted by the Prussian Emperor.

Consequence: This infuriated the Frenchmen and a strong public opinion was created in France Fora a war with Prussia. When France declared war against Prussia on 15th July 1870, it was Bismarck’s diplomacy that carried the day. Bismarck was always ready for the fray, he was just seeking an opportunity. As an aggressor, again France could not secure the support of any European power. But Prussia with the help and cooperation of Italy and Austria was able to resist the French attack. The battle that followed between France and Prussia in 1870 is known in history as the Battle of Sedan.

Question 3. “The Vienna Treaty was a reasonable and statesmanlike settlement.” Write in support of the Vienna settlement. Or, In what ways was the Vienna Congress successful?
Answer: It is generally said that “The Congress of Vienna made mistakes both of omission and commission”.In spite of the mistakes,

This conference proved very useful in the following ways:

(1) It was the first occasion when the representatives of almost all the countries of Europe gathered to solve international problems.
(2) It saved Europe from the continental wars for a period of about forty years. No war was fought for about 40 years, i.e., 1815-1856.
(3) It abolished the inhuman system of slavery. The diplomats passed a resolution and made an appeal to abolish slavery.
(4) Thus it may be concluded that although the Vienna Congress committed many mistakes yet it is true that it was “an honest attempt to prevent future war and the best that could have been derived in 1815.”

Question 4. What decisions were taken regarding France at the Vienna Congress (1815)?
Answer:

The following decisions were taken regarding France at the Vienna Congress (1815).

(1) The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy. Louis XVIII of the Bourbon dynasty was placed on the throne of France.
(2) France was asked to pay the war expenses amounting to seventy million francs.
(3) 150,000 soldiers of the allied countries would stay in France till the full payment of the war expenses had been made.
(4) France was to go back to her boundaries as in 1789 and sacrifice all lands conquered by Napoleon.
(5) States like Holland, Piedmont, Prussia, and Austria bordering France were strengthened so that France would moe be able to disturb the European order in future years.
(6) France was required to restore all the historical artifacts and works of art which Napoleon had brought to France from different parts of Europe.

Question 5. What was the contribution of Mazzini to the Italian unification movement?
Answer: Mazzini was considered the prophet of the Italian movement for unification. He was the founder of the Young Italy movement. He founded a party known as Young Italy in 1832. He had immense faith in the power and strength of the Italian youths. Young men up to the age of forty could be its members.

The objectives of Young Italy were as follows :

(1) Italy should be unified as one nation.
(2) Austria should be driven out of Italy.
(3) Republic should be established in Italy.
(4) In the war against Austria foreign help. was not necessary.
(5) Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only. The mass uprising organized by the Young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure due to a lack of organization and a plan of action among the rebels. His greatest contribution was that he could make the Italians realize that it was possible to have the dream of the unification of Italy materialized.

Question 6. What were the main objectives of the Quadruple Alliance?
Answer: The Allied powers — Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia signed a document in 1815 which was called the ‘Quadruple Alliance’.

Their main objectives were :

(1) To unitedly oppose the attempts of Napoleon and his descendants to grab the throne of France
(2) To take united action, if necessary, in order to prevent the growth of the spirit of revolution in the European countries.
(3) To strictly implement the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in all countries of Europe.
(4) To make united attempts to maintain peace and order in Europe.

Question 7. Give an account of ‘the February Revolution in France (1848).
Answer: Louis Philippe. came to the throne of France on 30th July 1830. After coming to the throne of France, Louis Philippe introduced some liberal reforms. He introduced the freedom of the press and declared France to be a secular state. He could not satisfy the different political parties of France and failed to keep pace with their ideals and aspirations.

Popular discontent gradually increased and a movement under the leadership of Thiers started. People demanded the end of the monarchy in France. Guizot, the Prime Minister was not in favor of any administrative reforms. As the popular agitation took a serious turn, Guizot was dismissed from office. An armed Clash took place on 23rd February in front of the house of the deposed Minister Guizot in which many agitators were killed. This happened in the month of February and came to be known as the February Revolution. Louis Philippe abdicated and France was declared a ‘Republic’.

Question 8. Explain the concept of the nation-state.
Answer: The emergence of nation-states brought in a new life force.in the political life of the world. It had its beginning in Europe in the modern period. Nationalism, however, was a consequence of the French Revolution and Napoleonic warfare in Europe.

Nation-State : When a group of people living in a particular geographical area, speaking the same language combine together as ‘one people’, distinct from others, under a powerful: king, a nation-state may be said to have developed. Various factors account for the growth of nation-states.

(1) In the middle ages the powerful feudal lords weakened the kings by limiting their powers. Some of the contemporary monarchs tried to control the feudal lords but they failed miserably. Due to the decay of feudalism towards the end of the middle ages, the feudal lords were no longer able to oppose the power of the kings. Thus was possible the emergence of nation-states.

(2) The Christian church which earlier opposed royal power now became a supporter of a powerful monarchy. By defending the royal power the church helped the growth of nation-states.

(3) Support of the middle class to the kings was another important factor in the growth of nation-states. The financial support of the wealthy middle class made the kings more and more powerful.

(4) The aforesaid causes jointly helped in giving rise to a number of nation-states under powerful kings.

(5) By uprooting feudalism and weakening the power of the church politically independent nation-states paved the way for a new modern political system. The beginning of nationalism and the Divine Right of kingship (or absolute monarchy) dates from such times.

(6) The first two nation-states under strong monarchies were England and France.

Question 9. Explain the term nationalism and its development in modern Europe.
Answer:

Nationalism: All over the world political life is commonly taking place in the form of nationalism. Yet historians on nationalism like C.J.H. Hayes and Hans Kohn admit that no satisfactory single definition of nationalism is possible. Generally speaking, nationalism is the sense of unity felt by people who share the same history, language, and culture.

Nationalism was the root cause behind it and provided fuel to many of the struggles for unification as also as independence. In the nineteenth century, nationalism became more intense for the people who had already become united like the British, French, Spaniards, and others.

(1) Factors Helping Nationalism: The development of national consciousness or nationalism took place mainly due to absolute monarchy. The monarch became the symbol of national unity and independence. It was around the institution of monarchy that nationalism accumulated. Besides, the rise of national patriotism was also reflected in the rise of vernacular literature.

(2) Emergence of Modern Nationalism: The period of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars was particularly fruitful for the evolution of modern nationalism in Europe. The French Revolution united all classes of people and inspired loyalty in them toward the country.

Hayes has pointed out that a sudden spurt of nationalism was one of the most impressive features of the French Revolution. During that time new symbols of nationalism were created in France. The Frenchmen wore liberty caps and, equipped with primitive weapons, rushed to the war front. Troops from different parts of the country sang a new hymn of freedom, La Marseillaise that later on became the national anthem of France. ,

(3) Napoleon Bonaparte and Nationalism: In the process of empire building, the French troops led by Napoleon invaded the different countries of Europe. The people whose countries had been defeated and annexed started to feel the emotion of nationalism. Napoleon was not a believer in nationalism. Yet he had raised the banner of nationalism and so he led the French army to conquer countries one after another.

In fact, the Napoleonic Empire was built by extinguishing the liberties of many peoples. Not only that, by creating a new unified state for the Italians, Poles, and some of the Germans, Napoleon unintentionally inspired nationalism amongst them. After the downfall of Napoleon, the reorganization of Europe under the Vienna Settlement didn’t give much emphasis on the newborn idea of nationalism.

Question 10. What were the aspirations of the people of Europe after 1815?
Answer:

Aspirations of the Peoples of Europe After 1815: The French Revolution and Napoleon had a tremendous influence on the minds of the people of Europe. People cherished the ideas of democracy and nationalism. But both nationalism and democracy were given a setback due to the arrangements made in the Vienna Congress. The people landed in a world of repressive autocrats. In the years following 1815, the aspirations of the people were mainly twofold—nationalist and democratic. The people who were yet to achieve unity were enthusiasts and felt happiness by the very hope of it.

The popular aspirations turned towards unity or independence. Germany and Italy are two such examples. In countries where national unity and independence had already been achieved, the people’s struggles were directed toward the achievement of democratic principles and institutions. France, Spain, Russia, and England are the countries that belonged to the second type.

Question 11. What were the objectives of the Metternich system?
Answer:

The Metternich System: As the Vienna Congress had vanquished the principle of nationalism, its effect was bound to be temporary. Yet Metternich, the Chancellor of Austria, through his ‘system’ or arrangement, commonly known as the Metternich System sought to give permanence to the settlement made in the Vienna Congress.

The objectives of the ‘system’ were:

Preservation of the arrangements made in the Vienna Congress; Refrainment from Liberalism and Nationalism; and Preservation of the monarchy.

(1) As a believer in monarchy, Metternich considered monarchy as the only natural form of Government. According to him, only the presence of a king ruling at the length of the society could guarantee social order. Alongside preserving the system of monarchy Metternich also took steps to prevent the growth of the liberal and nationalist ideas released by the French Revolution.

(2) Metternich devised the Vienna Congress to convince the big powers that there was a revolutionary conspiracy in Europe against the monarchical system and he succeeded in it. This amounted to a threat to the existence of monarchical supremacy.

(3) Metternich formed a Quadruple Alliance of the big powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England) at the Vienna Congress. Thus, he virtually built up a ‘police system’. The intention was to oversee the preservation of the monarchical predominance and prevention of the spread of the ideas of liberalism and nationalism.

Question 12. What was the importance of the February Revolution?
Answer:

Importance of the February Revolution: The February Revolution was successful in the same matters. Its most important consequence was that it was finally successful in overthrowing the reactionary Metternich System. The System had been silencing the waves of nationalism all over Europe since 1815.

The Revolution of 1848 also proved that ideas couldn’t be destroyed easily. The forces of liberalism and nationalism released by the French Revolution worked their way through the artificial iron shell with which the conservative diplomats kept it covered for a time.

In Germany and Italy, the Revolution of 1848 unified the people and deepened nationalist sentiments. In Germany, the liberals summoned a national assembly at Frankfurt, elected on the basis of adult suffrage. The Foundation of the Frankfurt Parliament was just the beginning of the greater goal of German unification.

The nationalist struggle in Italy revealed that Piedmont-Sardinia should be the center wherefrom the movement for Italian unification should begin. Italy was previously divided and weakened but the feeling of nationalism revived it as a result of the Revolution of 1848. In Hungary, the liberals affected a revolution in their country. Press was freed and the vestiges of feudalism were abolished. A liberal Government was established. Hungary emerged as a free national state.

Question 13. What were the contributions of the Young Italy movement?
Answer:

Young Italy: In 1848 when the tidal wave of the Revolution in France swept over Europe Young Italy, under the leadership of Mazzini, organized a mass uprising in many parts of Italy, But the Young Italy movement fizzled out for lack of organization and coordination among the rebels.

Role of Mazzin: Giuseppe Mazzini founded a youth organization called Young Italy in 1831. He created the mental climate that was so necessary for building a new united Italy and it is for this that he is remembered rightly as the pioneer in the movement for a united independent Italy. The mass uprising organized by young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure.

The objectives and program of Young Italy were as follows:-

(1) Italy should be unified as one nation.
(2) Austria should be driven out of Italy.
(3) Republic should be established in Italy.
(4) In the war against Answertria foreign help was not taken.
(5) Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only.

Role of Cavour: After the failure of the Young Italy movement, the leadership of the Italian unification passed on to Count Camillo Cavour.

His objectives were as follows:

(1) Cavour wanted to make the problem of the unification of Italy a European question.
(2) Cavour decided to drive out Austria from Italian soil with the help of foreign powers.
(3) He believed that Italian unity was possible only under the leadership of Piedmont – Sardinia. Thus, when Victor Immanuel II, king of Piedmont Sardinia, appointed Cavour as the prime to his dream of a united Italy following principal stated above.

Contributions: Young Italy’s uprising of 1848 showed the unpractical nature of Mazzini/s program. Yet the movement expressed the nationalist aspirations of the Italian people. The frustrated people rose from a slough of despair. The disunited people of Italy realized that their independence was not merely an elusive dream. Mental strength was created among the Italians which was so necessary for building a new united Italy.

Question 14. Write about the spurt of nationalism in Serbia.
Answer: Serbia lost her independence a long time back. They remei’.ed under Turkish rule until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Though King Alexander 1889 granted a liberal constitution, yet failed to win the support of the people to his side, and political unrest went on unabated. The rebels in 1903 placed one Peter on the throne and restored the Constitution of 1889.

Under Peter, the Serbians concentrated on a nationalistic policy that would bring all the Serbs of the Balkans. into one large state. But the dream of a larger Serbia could not be realized without a conflict with Austria-Hungary. The movement, therefore, turned revolutionary and directed against the integrity of Austria-Hungary. Thus it became the most dangerous ‘irredentist’ (advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity) problem in Europe.

Question 15. “The real purpose of the Congress of Vienna was to divide among the conquerors the spoils taken from the vanquished.” – Discuss
Answer: According to the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress (1815), the old ruling families were brought back to their respective thrones. The Congress generally followed the rule of restoring to everyone, prince or duke, the territory which had been his before 1789. Care wag, however, was taken so that each of the big four powers Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England got additional territories.

(1) England: England got Malta, the Ionian Island in the eastern Mediterranean, Heligoland, Trinidad and Mauritius, Ceylon, and the Cape of Good Hope.

(2) Austria: Austria was compensated for the loss of Belgium by getting the Italian possessions of Lombardy and Venetia and, she also received Tyrol, Salsbury, and Illyria

(3) Prussia: Prussia got the northern part of Saxony, Posen, Thorn, Danzig, the Rhine area, and West Pomerania.

(4) Russia: Russia got one-fourth part of Poland and also got compensation in Finland and in the Turkish province of Bessarabia.

Question 16. Discuss the basic principles of the Vienna Congress.
Answer: After the downfall of Napoleon, a conference of the heads of the European countries was held at Vienna, the capital of Austria in 1815.

The basic principles of the Vienna Congress were:

(1) The Principle of Legitimacy
(2) The Principle of Balance of Powers and
(3) The Principle of Compensation.

The Principle of Legitimacy: According to this principle, it was decided that those rulers who had been driven from their states and had been deprived of their thrones should be reinstated. In other words, the diplomats of the Vienna Congress did not recognize any political: change that had occurred in Europe after 1789. They were determined to bring back the Europe that existed before the French Revolution.

The Principle of Balance of Powers: The diplomats of the Vienna Congress decided that the powers of the different countries should be balanced so that no country could threaten another. It indicated balancing the neighboring kingdom of France with the latter in such a way that France would not be able to disturb the European order of 1815 in the coming years.

The Principle of Compensation: According to this principle, it was decided that those states which had helped the allies against Napoleon were to be rewarded, but those which had supported Napoleon were to be punished. Moreover, it was also decided that those kingdoms should be compensated that had either been destroyed or had suffered losses because of Napoleon. Since the allies had taken an active ” part in the downfall of Napoleon, it was also decided to compensate them by giving them some new territories.

Question 17. Criticism of the work of the Vienna Congress.
Answer: The Vienna Cc ingress (1815) was convened with the declaration of high morals and principles. It was expected that the settlement of the Vienna Congress would
prove valuable for the establishment of peace based upon a just division of power. But it has been remarked that it was a symbol of the reaction, conservatism, and selfishness of big powers.

It was criticized on the following grounds :

(1) The principles adopted at the Vienna Congress were overlooked by the diplomats. The Principle of Legitimacy was not applied in many states like Naples, Saxony, and Genoa. Each representative was eager to grab as many provinces as he could.

(2) The representatives of the Vienna Congress did not represent the common people. Congress ignored the feelings of the common people and did not respect their rights of the people.

(3) Congress ignored the feelings of nationality. They divided many states and annexed them to one another without keeping in their minds the idea of nationality. The rulers rearranged Europe according to their own desires; disposing of it as if it was their own personal property.

(4) The Congress ignored the feelings of the revolution. The feelings of liberty, equality, and fraternity were ignored while undertaking the great work of the reconstruction of Europe.

Question 18. What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Compensation?
Answer: According to the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress, it was decided that those states which had helped the Allies against Napoleon, were to be rewarded. But those states which had supported Napoleon were to be punished.

(1) As England played the most important role in bringing about the defeat of Napoleon, England received the lion’s share of compensation. England got Malta, the Ionian Islands in the eastern Mediterranean, Heligoland, Ceylon, Trinidad, Mauritius, and the Cape Colony in Africa.

(2) Russia got most of the Polish territory, Finland and Bessarabia, and the Turks and a major part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

(3) Prussia got Swedish Pomerania, some Polish territory, about two-fifth of Saxony, and large districts of the Rhine.

(4) Austria was given Venetia and Lombardy in Italy as compensation for the loss of Belgium. It got Tyros from Bavaria and Illyrian provinces along the Eastern coast of the Adriatic.

(5)It was also decided that those states which had supported Napoleon were to be punished. Poland was punished. This big country was divided into three parts and given to Russia, Prussia, and Austria respectively.

(6)As the King of Denmark had helped Napoleon against the Allies, Denmark was punished. Norway was snatched away from her and given to, Sweden.

Question 19. What were the main features of Czar Alexander II’s Emancipation Statute?
Answer: There were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising 50% of the total population. The condition of the serfs was miserable. They were treated like animals by their masters. Czar Alexander II passed the ‘Emancipation Statute’ in 1861 and abolished serfdom.

The main features of the ‘Emancipation Statute were as follows:

(1) The Russian serfs were declared free. They were granted civ rights equal to that of the free peasants.
(2) All the rights of the lords on the serfs ceased to exist.
(3) The serfs were granted full freedom. The liberated serfs could own property, engage in business, and were free to marry at their will.
(4) The landed estates of the lord were to be divided into two parts. The serfs would get 50 of the land they used to cultivate under the lords.
(5) The serfs must pay the landlord for the land received from him. Since the serfs had no money to pay, the Government would advance the money to the lords on behalf of the serfs. The serfs were to pay back to the Government in 49 installments.
(6) The land was not vested with individual serfs, but the village mirs got the land and controlled it.

Question 20. What was the contribution of Garibaldi to the unification of Italy?
Answer: Garibaldi was a famous patriot of Italy. He was influenced by the ideas of Mazzini and he joined Young Italy. In 1860 the people of Sicily rose in revolt against their King Francis II of Naples. The rebels requested Garibaldi to help them. Garibaldi decided to come ahead to help the Sicilians. An army of volunteers was organized at Genoa with one thousand of them wearing red shirts.

Therefore, they were called the ‘Red Shirts’. On 5 May 1860, the Red Shirts under the leadership of Garibaldi went to Sicily. It was called ‘Expedition of the thousands’. It seemed that the campaign would fail, for the King of Naples had 24,000 troops in Sicily and about 100,000 in Naples.

But fortune favored Garibaldi. The army of Sicily was badly defeated by the soldiers of Garibaldi. Now he decided to take Naples also. In spite of a big army, the King of Naples could not fight with Garibaldi and fled. Garibaldi took possession of Naples. After freeing Sicily and Naples from the autocracy of Francis II, Garibaldi decided to attack Rome in order to complete the unification of Italy.

But Cavour did not allow this because he apprehended that Garibaldi’s increased strength would be an impediment to Italian unification under the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia. Garibaldi accepted the proposal and gave up all the conquered provinces in favor of Victor Emmanuel II.

Question 21. What is Ems Telegram?
Answer: In 1869 the Spanish throne became vacant. Leopold of the Prussian Hohenzollern family was invited by the Spaniards to become the King of Spain. With the possibility of both Prussia and Spain coming under the rule of the Hohenzollern family, the balance of power in Europe was threatened. In these circumstances, France put tremendous pressure on Spain, as a result of which Leopold declined the offer.

Not satisfied with this, Napoleon III, the French king, sent his ambassador Count Benedetti to the Prussian emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohenzollern dynasties would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain. The Prussian emperor William was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refused to make such a promise to Benedetti. A report on the whole matter was sent to Bismarck by telegram (13th July 1870). Bismarck immediately found an opportunity after reading this famous ‘Ems Telegram’.

Bismarck abridged the telegram in such a way that it appeared to the French that their ambassador Benedetti was insulted and it appeared to the Prussians that their King was insulted. Bismarck had the abridged telegram published in the newspaper. This infuriated the French. An outcry for a war against Prussia grew and the war was declared by France on 19th July 1870.

Consequence: This infuriated the Frenchmen and a strong public opinion was created in France for war with Prussia. When France declared war against Prussia on 15th July 1870, it was Bismarck’s diplomacy that carried the day. Bismarck was always ready for the fray, he was just seeking an opportunity. As an aggressor, again, France could not secure the support of any European power. But Prussia with the help and cooperation of Italy and Austria was able to resist the French attack. The battle that followed between France and Prussia in 1870 is known in history as the Battle of Sedan.

Question 22. What do you know as ‘Ems Telegram’?
Answer: The French King sent his ambassador Count Benedetti to the Prussian Emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohenzollern dynasties would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain. The Prussian Emperor William I was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refused to make such a promise to Benedetti. A report on the whole matter was sent to Bismarck by telegram (13th July 1870), known as Ems Telegram in European history.

Change in a telegram by Bismarck: Bismarck immediately found an opportunity after reading this ‘Ems Telegram’, Shortening the text of the telegram on purpose, Bismarck published the same in the next day’s paper. As a result of the change of words effected by Bismarck, the whole meaning of the telegram stood changed beyond recognition. The published matter appeared to indicate that the French ambassador, Benedetti had been insulted by the Prussian Emperor.

Consequence: This infuriated the Frenchmen and a strong public opinion was created in France for war with Prussia. When France declared war against Prussia on 15th July 1870, it was Bismarck’s diplomacy that carried the day. Bismarck was always ready for the fray, he was just seeking an opportunity. As an aggressor, again, France could not secure the support of any European power. But Prussia with the help and cooperation of Italy and Austria was able to resist the French attack. The battle that followed between France and Prussia in 1870 is known in history as the Battle of Sedan.

Question 23. Give a pen picture of the life of the serfs in Russia. Who was known as ‘Czar the Liberator’ and why?
Answer: There were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising 50% of the total population. The condition of the serfs was miserable. They were treated like animals by their masters. They could be auctioned. They were subjected to physical punishment. The serfs were tied to the lords for everything and had no freedom. The law did not recognize or protect their rights. Czar Alexander II abolished serfdom and came to be known as ‘Czar the Liberator’.

The serf system was detrimental to Russia’s progress. The unskilled, illiterate serfs were unfit to work in the factories or in modern agricultural farms. The Serf system lost its utility and became a barrier to the economic progress of Russia. By the Emancipation Statute of 1861, the Russian serfs were declared free. They were granted civil rights equal to those of the free peasants.

All the rights of the lords on the serfs ceased to exist. They were granted full freedom. The liberated serfs could Own property, engage in business, and were free to marry at their will. The land to be received by the serfs was to be fixed by magistrates called Arbiters of peace.

Chapter 3 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict Of Nationalist Andmonarchial Ideas 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Why was the Vienna Settlement formed?
Answer: After the fall of Napoleon in 1814, it was decided that a Congress should be held in Vienna to undertake the task of territorial reconstruction. The territorial settlement made at Vienna was signed in June 1815 before the battle of Waterloo. It was in effect made by the representatives of the five Great Powers.

There was the Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Metternich, the Chancellor of Austria, King Frederick William III of Prussia, Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Secretary, and Talleyrand, the skillful representative of France. All the powers were represented in Congress except Turkey. After much bargaining, the treaty was signed on 9 June 1815.

One great principle underlying the Vienna Settlement was the restoration, as far as possible, of the boundaries and reigning families of Europe, as they had been before 1789. It was this principle of legitimacy which Talleyrand urged in order to preserve France.

In line with this principle, the Bourbons were reinstated in Spain and in the Two Sicilies, the House of Orange in Holland, the House of Savoy in Sardinia, the Pope in the Papal State, and a number of German princes in their former possessions. The Swiss Confederation was restored. In the name of legitimacy, Austria recovered Tyrol and most of the territories she had lost.

The second principle involved compensation to those who had played major roles in defeating Napoleon. Prussia was strengthened. She was given a large slice of Saxony, Westphalia, and more territory along the Rhine. The strengthening of Prussia on the Rhine made her ultimately the national champion of Germany against France. Germany was reconstituted as a loose confederation of thirty-nine states with a Diet consisting of delegates of various rulers. Austria presided over the Diet and dominated the Confederation.

Austria recovered certain Polish lands and received Northern Italy, henceforth known as the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom. She also recovered the Illyrian provinces along the eastern coast of the Adriatic which she had lost in 1809. She also got Tyrol and other valleys of the eastern Alps.

Moreover, the restored rulers of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany in north-central Italy belonged to the Habsburg family. Britain, the most persistent enemy of Napoleon and the pay-mistress of the allies, took her reward in the form of colonies and naval bases. She occupied Heligoland in the North Sea, Malta and Ionian Islands in the Mediterranean, Cape colony in South Africa, and Ceylon in the Indian Ocean.

The third principle which guided the Congress of Vienna was to provide a guarantee for the future peace of Europe by weakening France. She was reduced to the boundaries that she possessed before the outbreak of the Revolution. Steps were taken to surround France with strong states as bulwarks against future aggressions. Thus north Belgium, previously an Austrian province, was joined to Holland as one kingdom under the House of Orange.

In the southeast the kingdom of Sardinia—Piedmont was strengthened by the acquisition of Genoa. Among other important changes, Norway was taken from Denmark and joined Sweden. Switzerland was strengthened by the addition of three Cantons which had previously been incorporated in France.

Question 2. Narrate how France became a republic for the second time in 1848.
Answer: Louis Philippe’s legal title to the throne of France was very weak. He was invited to ascend the throne by only 219 members of the Chamber of Deputies out of 430, a bare majority. Though the franchise was slightly extended, it was still open only to the wealthy. Louis Philippe’s Government rested, therefore, on the support of the bourgeois, the well-to-do trading, and manufacturing classes.

As Louis Philippe’s rule lacked any popular sanction, it had many enemies from the start Legitimists, Bonapartists, and Republicans. The Legitimists defended the rights of Charles X and his descendants. The Bonapartists recalled the glorious days of Napoleon and looked with contempt upon a king whose foreign policy was timid. The Republicans were opposed to any form of monarchy.

In June 1832, an insurrection broke out in Paris. It was important as being the first republican outbreak since 1815. The Government passed a law restricting the right of association. Hardly had the new law been passed than new insurrections broke out in several cities.

The most important was that in Lyons in April 1834 which grew out of labor troubles. Determined to strike hard at all opponents, the Government secured the passage in 1835 of new laws–September Laws- concerning the special (assize) courts, the jury system, and the press. Special courts were established to judge summarily all those attacking the security of the state. Press censorship. was re-established. These laws greatly weakened the July Monarchy.

The parliamentary history of France during the ten years from 1830 to 1840 was marked by instability. There were ten ministers within ten years. Yet there was a fairly continuous policy. The main work was to consolidate the July Monarchy, put down its enemies, and keep peace with foreign countries. In.1840 Guizot, the reactionary became the Prime Minister .who remained in power till the monarchy collapsed in 1848.

The three things that combined to overthrow the Orleans foreign policy were the growing tide of socialism and Guizot’s reactionary measures. In the thirties, Louis Philippe determined all costs to avoid war. Despite the sympathy of The French people gave no support to the insurrection in Poland and Italy. In the crisis of the East in which Mehmet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, declared war against Turkey, France alone sided with the former. The diplomatic isolation of France was clear when the Powers Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain—met in London in 1840. They made a treaty with Turkey, pledging themselves to force

Mehmet Ali to terms. Finally, Louis Philippe estranged England through a diplomatic conflict over the affairs of the Spanish Marriage. In that country, Queen Isabella and her sister Louisa were both unmarried. It was arranged that they should marry the two sons of Louis Philippe.

Because of opposition, Isabella married her cousin, the Duke of Cadiz and Louisa married the Duke of Montpensier, son of Louis Philippe. The two marriages were celebrated on 10th October 1846 though the French Government had promised the British that Louisa should not marry a French prince until Isabella was married and had children. The result was that Louis Philippe had lost the friendship of Britain, his best ally in Europe.

The July Monarchy was a Government of the bourgeoisie, of the capitalists. Under Louis Philippe, France was passing from the old industrial system to the new factory system. This transition was in every country painful. The number of paupers doubled during the July Monarchy.

The doctrines of Socialism, advocated by Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Louis Blanc spread far and wide among the workers. Saint-Simon preached the gospel of work, ‘man must work’, He believed that the State should own the means of production and should organize industry on the principle of ‘Labour according to capacity and reward according to services’.

Fourier advocated that each worker must share in its products and be guaranteed a sufficient minimum to free him from anxiety. But the eloquent champion of Socialism was Louis Blanc, who in 1839 published the Organisation of Labour. The State must acknowledge and implement the ‘right to work’ and must protect the poor and the weak.

Guizot refused to recognize that France needed any change in her political institutions. He opposed any extension of suffrage and any legislation for the laboring classes. The amount of discontent with the Government of France was steadily growing. Yet it could do nothing because the ministry was steadily supported by the Chamber of Deputies. Deputies were bribed directly or indirectly to support the Government. About 200 of the 430 deputies were at the same time office-holders. The revolutionary movement began in 1847 when the opposition organized the ‘reform banquet’.

On 28 December 1847, in a speech from the throne, Louis Philippe denounced agitations. The opposition arranged a great banquet in Paris on 22 February 1848. Eighty-seven prominent deputies promised to attend. In alarm, the Government prohibited the banquet. This prohibition led to the French Revolution of 1848. On 22 February the populace crowded the streets shouting for reform. Students and workers clashed with the police.

The National Guard was called out but refused to fire. The King dismissed Guizot and prepared for gram reforms. Now the Republicans entered the scene. On 23rd February a Paris mob attacked Guizot’s residence. On the 24th morning, the streets of Paris were barricaded by workmen. Louis Philippe, after vainly trying to win over the populace, abdicated in favor of his ten-year-old grandson, the Count of Paris, and fled to England. Thus in 1848, France became a Republic for the second time.

Question 3. Write an essay on Mazzini and Young Italy.
Answer: In 1831, a young Genoan, Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) founded a new society ‘Young Italy’. As a student, Mazzini loved the works of the romantic writers of Italy, France, Britain, and Germany. Young Italy was to be a people’s movement dedicated to the establishment of a free, independent, and republican Italian nation. Mazzini’s methods differed from those of the Carbonari in two main respects.

First, he placed less emphasis on plots and secrecy, and more on, propaganda. Secondly, he addressed himself not to the educated classes only, but to the people as a whole. Mazzini had a religious, almost mystic enthusiasm for his work, for he loved Italy above everything else. Italy had a third life to lead. This noble dream was bound to have a limited appeal. The rural masses were generally unmoved by it and the middle classes were not attracted toward a revolution that threatened the social as well as political structure.

Nevertheless, Mazzini must be regarded as one of the pioneers in forging national unity. His ceaseless propaganda created a vigorous public opinion in favor of national independence without which the great plans of unification could not have succeeded. He had all the faith of a prophet and the courage of a crusader.

It was the kind of spirit that produced a Garibaldi. Even after his influence had begun to wane, it was strong enough to act as a spur to Cavour. His faith in liberation by popular insurrection had its greatest triumph in southern Italy in 1860. Among the makers of modern Italy, Mazzini holds an imperishable place as she laid the moral foundations of Italian unification.

The next step in the movement of revolution was taken by the Neo-Guelfs whose leader Gioberti wanted to evolve a federation of Italian states under the Pope. But the greatest drawback of Gioberti was that he did not offer any program for freeing Italy from the Austrians. In 1846 with the election of Piux 9 as Pope, the Italian question entered a new phase.

He championed the cause of nationality and introduced reforms in the Government of the Papal States. In 1847 occurred the Milanese ‘tobacco riots’. Then in January 1848 a revolution broke out in Sicily followed by that of Sardinia. Finally came the news of the March Revolution in Vienna, and all of Italy took fire. The leadership was grasped by Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, who declared war against Austria.

But in 1849, the Austrians won a decisive victory at Novara over the King of Sardinia. The threatening intervention of Louis Napoleon saved the Kingdom of Sardinia from total extinction. Thus ended in failure the first attempt of Italy to win unity and liberty. Charles Albert had declared that Italy could save itself without foreign allies.

Now the Italians had learned that with all their zeal they could not hope to contend against Austria unaided. There must be one Italian state around which the others might rally. Sardinia was the obvious choice which had now a new King, Victor Emmanuel II, and a minister of exceptional talent in the person of Cavour.

Question 4. What was the Eastern Question? What were the factors in the Eastern Question?
Answer: The term Eastern Question came into use at the time of the Greek War of Independence. But the problem had existed ever since the middle of the fourteenth century when the Ottoman Turks had set foot on European soil. The Turks conquered the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, Serbs, Bulgars, Greeks, and Romans. The upper class was the Turks, most of whom were feudal lords and government officials. The Rumanians and Bulgarians were peasants, while the Greeks were sea-faring people.

The great majority of the inhabitants were Christians, members of the Greek Church, which in belief and ritual, was almost identical to the Orthodox Church in Russia. At its head was the Patriarch in Constantinople, who was always a Greek; but he was appointed by the Sultan, the head of the Mohammedan faith and the oppressor of the Christians.

In the 19th century, the Eastern Question developed three distinctive features. First, the growing weakness of Turkey made it impossible for her to resist the aggressions of her neighbors. Turkey had her period of greatness but her decline had already set in. Secondly, the rivalries of European powers created tension in Eastern Europe. While Britain and France became protectors of Turkey, Russia and Austria were interested in the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire.

Thirdly, the ideas of democracy and nationalism propagated by the French Revolution encouraged the Christian nationalities to throw off the Turkish yoke. In 1804 the Serbs revolted and waged a determined struggle until in 1817 they obtained substantial concessions from the Turks. In the first half of the nineteenth century, Russia was eager to annex Constantinople and her territories as well.

During the period 1830-41, France was equally interested in dismembering Turkey and she favored the revolt of Egypt against Turkey. England, on the other hand, was as anxious as ever to preserve the Turkish Empire. Though Russia wanted to break the Ottoman Empire, Britain believed that the existence of Turkey in Europe as a barrier against Russia was necessary to safeguard her Empire in India and her position in the Mediterranean Ever since 1815 British statesmen had been obsessed with the thought that if France ceased to dominate Europe, Russia would take her place.

British policy, therefore, revolved around France by strengthening the latter against Russia’s domination, yet keeping France harmless. Apart from this element, British policy was to develop the independence of Central Europe so that it could hold its own against both Russia and France. Britain’s natural allies, therefore, were Austria and Prussia.

Russian ambition to control Turkey was to a certain extent checked by the Treaty of Adrianople (1829). It laid down that there should be freedom of trade and navigation in the Black Sea, and that the Bosphorus and Dardanelles should be open to all Russian merchant ships and to the merchant ships of all other powers with which Turkey was at peace. In 1833, Russia. secured her unrivaled influence over Turkey as a price of protection against Egypt with which the former had been involved in a war.

By the treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi (1833) Russia obtained complete control over the Black Sea and free passage of her warships through the. Straits of Dardanelles and Bosphorus. But in 1840 Palmerston insisted that the affairs of Turkey were of general European concern. By the Treaty of London in July 1841, the Five Great Powers—England, Russia, France, Austria, and Prussia—agreed that the Straits be closed to all foreign ships of war so long as Turkey was at peace.

Question 5. Write an essay on the Crimean War.
Answer: The Crimean War occupies a chief place in the history of Europe in the nineteenth century. The war arose out of a petty quarrel between Roman Catholic and Greek or Orthodox Christians in Palestine which ignited the latent conflict between Russia and France. The Tsar had long been interested in the Ottoman Empire, whose Sultan Nicholas was described as the sick man of the East.

In January 1853, Tsar Nicholas proposed to England to partition Turkish territories between them leaving France out of the deal. England did not accept this proposal. Then arose the question of the holy place. The Greek or Orthodox claims were pressed upon Turkey by the Tsar, who also demanded that Russia be allowed to protect the Christians in the Ottoman Empire. The acceptance of the Russian claims by Turkey would have virtually placed Turkey under  Russian control.

The cause of the Roman Catholics was championed by France whose Emperor Napoleon III wished to strengthen his position at home by winning the support of the Catholic party. The Russian ambassador at Constantinople, Menshikoff, opposed the French demand but Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, the British ambassador, supported it. Britain had already been committed to preventing Russia. expansion in the Balkans at any cost.

In July 1853, Russian troops occupied Moldavia and Wallachia (modern Roumania). In October Turkey declared war. An attempt was made by the European powers when they met in Vienna to settle the question by peaceful means. The meeting ended in failure. in March 1854, Britain and France declared war on Russia. Sardinia, eager to curry Franco-British favor, provided an expeditionary force in 1855. British and French fleets came to the Black Sea and attacked Crimea. Since military operations were confined mostly to this peninsula, the conflict is known as the Crimean War.

Before long Russia, fearing that Austria should join with other powers, withdrew from Moldavia and Wallachia. The allies decided to besiege the Russian naval base of Sebastopol on the southern side of the Crimean peninsula. The siege of Sebastopol was a mad venture and the methods employed were tragic. Battles occurred at Balaclava and Inkerman—remarkable for the bravery of the troops and the incapacity of their leaders. The siege continued till September 1855. The besieging forces, harassed by Russian winter and sickness, suffered great losses.

The British made a desperate attempt to storm the Redan, one of the strongest forts around Sebastopol, while the French succeeded in capturing the Malakoff. In September the Russians under Gortschakoff evacuated Sebastopol. This was practically the end of the war. Russia was exhausted by the war and peace must be made. Although Palmerston, on behalf of Britain, was in favor of continuing the war to crush Russia, Napoleon saw that he had nothing to gain by continuing it. The Treaty of Paris signed on 30 March 1856 brought the war to a conclusion.

The Treaty of Paris guaranteed the independence of Turkey. It was laid down that no power had the right to interfere between the Sultan and his Christian subjects. Turkey was admitted to the concert of Europe. The Black Sea was neutralized, its waters and ports being thrown open to merchant ships of all nations.

The navigation of the Danube was declared to be free. Greater independence was granted to the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. The independence of Serbia was guaranteed. To Modavia Russia gave up a part of Bessarabia. The Russian right to the guardianship of Christian peoples was thus abandoned. A treaty of peace can only define the conditions of the present; it cannot bind the future. Thus the Russians, fifteen years later, repudiated the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris.

In 1872 Russia completely wiped away the humiliation of Crimea by recovering Bessarabia. The peace conference of Paris settled certain questions of maritime law. Privateering was declared abolished; enemy goods, except contraband of war, were not to be seized in neutral ships.

For a blockade to be effective must be maintained by an adequate naval force. The improvement of nursing and medical services affected by the work of Florence Nightingale and others was another lasting benefit of the war. The significance of the Crimean War lay in the fact that it shattered the peace in Europe and ushered in a succession of wars. It removed the shadow of Russian power from Central European affairs.

The war was a personal triumph of NapoleonIII and he had covered France with glory. By participating in the war Sardinia got the opportunity to champion the cause of Italian liberation. The Crimean war was an important chapter in the Eastern Question and the prelude to the most important political development of the nineteenth century.

The Peace of Paris reaffirmed the principle of collective responsibility by the Great Powers which believed that the European Concert would be effective in the years that followed. The Peace Treaty gave the powers acting in concert a general right to intervene in international disputes. Thus, the Crimean War was a fumbling war, probably unnecessary, largely futile, yet rich in unintended consequences.

Question 6. How did the Ottoman Empire decay due to the attitude of the European powers?
Answer: Until the twentieth century Turkey was known as the Ottoman which denoted a dynasty. In the Ottoman Empire, Islam was the established religion. Christians were regarded with contempt and had to suffer from various disabilities. The Government of Turkey was an absolute monarchy, with all power vested in the Sultan.

The Ulemas and the Janissaries, the Sultan’s picked bodyguards, resisted western ideas. The Sultan, Selim III (1789-1807), felt the necessity of introducing radical military reform, only to be impeded by a reaction that led to his deposition. Mahmud II (1808-39) had to wait until he felt strong enough to suppress the Janissaries (1826) and revive a reform of the army. But this came too late and the Greek revolt could not be averted.

The Empire still had a medieval and feudal structure, capped by a top-heavy bureaucracy. Apart from inflation which hindered the economic growth of the country, agriculture and industry was crippled by taxes. The ‘Eastern Question’ has always been an international question. The question took different shapes at different times. While the Ottoman Empire posed a serious threat to Europe and Asia, European statesmen no longer feared the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. They feared its dismemberment and tried to take advantage of its weakness.

Russia was bound to the Balkan peoples by ties of religion and race and beneath the intention of protecting them from Turkish misrule lay the ostensible object of securing access to the Mediterranean. Russian policy in the Near East had been to seize Constantinople as an ultimate goal.

Between the years 1788 and 1791, Austria and Russia attacked Turkey in concert. On the plea of protecting the Christians in the Turkish Empire, Russia advanced as far as the port of Oczakov on the Black Sea. Younger Pitt of Britain was quick enough to realize the portents of the Russian advance and the menace to Turkey’s integrity. Though Parliament did not support him over the incident, Britain with varying degrees followed a pro-Turkish and anti-Russian policy.

At the dawn of the nineteenth century, Russia began to look covetously on Constantinople. In the eyes of Austria, Russian ascendancy in the Balkans foreshadowed a great Slav Empire. The growth of the Pan-Slavic movement in the Balkans encouraged by the Russians was a menace to the integrity of the Austrian Empire.

After the expulsion of Austria from Italy and Germany, she sought to find compensation in the southeast at the expense of Turkey. British policy in the Near East had not been consistently anti-Russian before the Crimean War. Until the beginning of 1853, British suspicions were turned against France both at Constantinople and in Egypt; and Britain and Russia often pitted themselves against French encroachment.

In 1871 it appeared that the whole Eastern Question was ready to burst into flames. The failure of reforms in Turkey and the weakening of Turkish rule foreshadowed a fast-approaching upheaval. But events in Western and Central Europe absorbed the attention of the Great Powers.

Austria and Russia made every effort to outbid’ each other in their expansionist plans. France and Italy were embroiled in the consolidation of new regimés. Britain still clung to the idea of maintaining the integrity of Turkey as a bulwark against Russian expansionism. Bismarck was so preoccupied with completing the work of unifying the new German Reich that he treated the Eastern Question as of negligible importance.

Yet from this time onward the Eastern Question assumed a new dimension to demand the attention of the Great Powers. The last quarter of the nineteenth century which was filled with frequent crises and wars owed not a little to this Eastern Question.

Question 7. Write an essay on the Treaty of Berlin.
Answer: Balkan affairs formed the chief event that brought the imperial powers into bloody conflict in 1914. Until about 1830 the Balkan peoples were subjects of the Sultan of Turkey. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, they increased their agitation for unity and independence. In 1830 Greece won its independence and Serbs and parts of Romania were granted autonomy. But Balkan nationalities were determined to continue their struggle for independence.

In 1875 the oppressed peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted against their Turkish masters. The revolt rapidly spread to Serbia and Montenegro. For several months in the summer of 1875, the Turks busied themselves with savage reprisals against the rebel provinces. In December 1875 the Austrian Chancellor, Count Andrassy, with the approval of Russia and Germany, drew up a note which was presented to Turkey. The note demanded various kinds of reforms in the disaffected regions. But the Turkish Government had no intention of carrying out the proposed reforms.

Meanwhile, Bulgaria broke out into revolt in April 1876, and in Constantinople, Sultan Abdul Aziz was deposed and replaced by Murad V. He occupied the throne for a few weeks and was deposed by his unscrupulous brother, Abdul Hamid II. On 11 May 1876, the Austrian and Russian Chancellors met Bismarck at Berlin and proposed to impose an armistice upon Turkey. Though France and Italy agreed to the measure, Britain refused her assent. Hence the proposed intervention was given up. During May 1876 the Turks adopted severe repressive measures and cruelly massacred twelve thousand Bulgars.

Britain could not maintain her support of the Sultan in the face of such inhuman misdeeds. Serbia and Montenegro declared war against the Sultan in June and July respectively. An international conference that met at Constantinople during the winter of 1876-77, proposed terms for pacification. But the Sultan rejected these proposals. There- Russia, having secured the friendly neutrality of Austria, declared war in April 1877. By the beginning of 1878 Russian forces had taken Sofia and were advancing to the gates of Constantinople. At this point, Turkey asked for an armistice in March.1878 signed the treaty of San Stefano.

The Sultan recognized the independence of Rumania, Serbia, Montenegro, and a greatly enlarged Bulgaria. Russia was to gain Bessarabia and the Dobruja in exchange for other territories granted to Rumania. The treaty was extremely unpopular to Britain and Austria who feared that Russia would dominate the new Bulgaria.

Moreover, Romania, Serbia, and Greece disliked the rise of Bulgaria. Britain and Austria threatened war unless the settlement was submitted to a Congress of the powers. Accordingly, in June 1878, the Congress met in Berlin under the presidency of Bismarck, attended by Russia, France, Britain, Austria, Italy, and Turkey.

The Treaty of Berlin recognized the complete independence of Romania, Serbia “and Montenegro. The enlarged state of Bulgaria was reduced in size by the exclusion of Rumelia and Macedonia, the latter being placed under direct Turkish rule. Austria-Hungary was allowed to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina. Britain gained the island of Cyprus.

Thessaly was promised to Greece, but only given up three years later. Russia was obliged to be content only with Bessarabia. Rumania received the province called Dobruja. France was promised a free hand in Turkey’s North African territory of Tunisia. Only Germany and Italy left the Congress without territorial gains.

This comprehensive settlement was to be strengthened by reforms in European Turkey. The Turkish Government was to uphold religious liberty and equality. The Treaty of Berlin formed an important landmark in the history of the Eastern Question. Russia’s ambition in south-eastern Europe had been checked much to the satisfaction of England who occupied the island of Cyprus.

The treatment accorded to Russia by the Treaty of Berlin eventually strained her relations with Germany and she formed an alliance with France. Bismarck was founded in Austria-Hungary. A valuable friend as the latter’s interests were more closely interlinked with Balkan Peninsula. Thus the Congress of Berlin recreated the alliance system of pre- 1815 and emphasized the play of power politics. If it prevented a localized European war in 1878, the Congress of Berlin sowed many of the seeds of a far greater conflict to come.

Question 8. Write an essay on the Balkan Wars.
Answer: In 1912 an unprecedented development had taken place. Owing largely to the statesmanship of Venizelos of Greece, a league had been formed between Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. There were a number of factors that helped to bring about the unity of the Balkans against Turkey.

The success of Austria in annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina created a sense of panic among the Balkan States. Their object was now to prevent any further increase in the threatening Austro-German. control of the Peninsula. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, Macedonia had been the storm center of the Balkan peninsula in which a large number of Christians were inhumanly prosecuted.

On the triumph of the ‘Young Turks’ in Turkey (1908), the lot of the Christians in Greece grew worse. These events inflamed the people of the Balkan States with the desire to liberate their brothers in Macedonia.

For some years Russia had been active in bringing about a league of the Balkan states under her auspices a weapon that might be used not only. against Turkey and Austria as well. After Turkey’s defeat by Italy in a brief war (1910-11), the Balkan States believed that their hour had come. Russia and Austria, not yet ready for a showdown between themselves, warned the Balkan states not to attack Turkey.

First Balkan War: On 8 October 1912, Montenegro declared war on Turkey and very soon was joined by Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia. To everyone’s surprise, the Balkan allies overwhelmed the Turkish resistance and captured Salonica and Monastir. By March 1913, the Bulgarians were in possession of Adrianople, while the Serbs took Scutari in April. Thus the Balkan League had practically destroyed all of European Turkey outside Constantinople.

This alarmed both Austria and Russia. A conference was summoned to London to settle a new map of the Balkans. On 30 May 1913, the Treaty of London was signed. By this Treaty, Turkey lost all its European territory save Constantinople and a narrow strip along the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Albania was set up as an autonomous state.

Crete was allowed to unite with Greece. The danger that the great powers might be dragged into a general war had been averted because both Russian and Austrian interests had been safeguarded. Britain and Germany were satisfied with the improvement of their own relations in the process.

Second Balkan War: No sooner was peace concluded than the Balkan allies began to quarrel over the division of the spoils. The Great Powers were no less responsible for the Second Balkan War. Austria was determined to prevent Serbia from gaining Albania. In this determination, Austria was backed by Germany and Italy.

Albania had been created as an independent state. Thus the hostile attitude of the Powers checked Serbia from gaining an outlet on the Adriatic. In her disappointment, Serbia demanded a part of Macedonia which had been assigned to Bulgaria. Greece was also at odds with Bulgaria over the division of Thrace. Russia sought to intervene with offers of arbitration. The situation seemed to be saved.

But Austria had made up her mind to smash the Balkan League and she deliberately incited Bulgaria against her allies. On 29 June 1913, a war broke out between Bulgaria on one side. and Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Romania on the other.

The Turks, hopeful of regaining some of their losses, fought against Bulgaria. In July the Turks recaptured Adrianople, while the Greeks, Serbs, and Rumanians threatened the Bulgarian capital, Sofia. King Ferdinand of Bulgaria had to make peace and the Treaty of Bucharest (10 August 1913) imposed a new settlement on the Balkans.

By this treaty, Romania gained the Silistrian plateau at the expense of Bulgaria. Serbia annexed northern and central Macedonia. Greece secured Crete, southern Epirus, southern Macedonia (including Salonica), and part of western Thrace.

Turks wrested from Bulgaria, the town of Adrianople, and a larger part of Thrace. Bulgaria received a part of Thrace and Eastern Macedonia, with a few miles of the Aegean Coast. It was estimated that as a result of the Treaty of Bucharest, over a million Bulgarian people passed under foreign rule. Thus ended the Balkan Wars and seldom in history have any wars changed their character so rapidly.

Question 9. Write in brief about Balkan nationalism.
Answer:

Rise of Balkan Nationalism: The Sultan of Turkey, Abdul Macid I (1839-1861) couldn’t gain from the Treaty of Paris. He failed to introduce necessary reforms for ensuring the territorial integrity of the empire. The main events of the next few years after the Crimean War concerned the small Balkan States.

(1) Greece: In 1862 the Greek King Otto had to abdicate after a long period of misgovernment. The new King George I brought in a system of parliamentary Government. The Greeks were prosperous. This encouraged their nationalist desires for the annexation of the Greeks in Crete, Salonica, and the Aegean Islands. With the help of Serbia and Bulgaria in the Balkan War (1912-1913) the Greeks received the desired territories and became unified forming a whole and complete nation.

Greek Nationalism and Hetairia Philike: The Greeks of the Ottoman Empire began a national revival at the time of the French Revolution and Napoleon. The propounders of Greek nationalism were Adamantios Korais and Constantine Rigas. They founded secret societies and in a secret and illicit manner circulated newspapers for the cause of Greek independence.

In 1814 a Greek revolutionary. the society named Hetairia Philike was founded in the. The Russian city of Odessa in Russia. The society soon was stuffed with thousands of members. Prince Alexander Ypsilanti was the president of the society. Ypsilanti entered Rumania, a province of the Ottoman – Empire, and organized a national Greek revolt. But the Turkish troops captured the Greek leader and sent him to an Austrian prison.

(2) Serbia: Serbia lost her independence a long time ago. She remained under Turkish rule until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Though King Alexander 1889 granted a liberal constitution, yet failed to win the support of the people to his side, and political unrest was carried on unrestricted. The rebels in 1903 placed one named Peter on the throne and restored the constitution of 1889.

Under Peter, the Serbians formulated a nationalistic policy that would bring all the Serbs of the Balkans into one large state. But the dream of a larger Serbia could not be realized without a conflict with Austria-Hungary. The movement, therefore, turned revolutionary and directed against the territorial integrity of Austria-Hungary. Thus it became the most dangerous ‘irredentist’ (advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity) problem in Europe and created great havoc.

(3) Moldavia and Wallachia: The two districts of Moldavia and Wallachia, at the mouth of the Danube River, consequently became independent at the end of the Crimean War. But these two had been occupied by the Russian forces at any time there had been a war between Turkey and Russia.

The people of Moldavia and Wallachia, however, had always shown a strong sense of nationalism. Little progress was made until 1856 when the powers recognized the two provinces’ independence with two separate assemblies. But nevertheless, this was overcome by the two assemblies, each choosing the same prince. Thus the two provinces were united to form the new state of Romania in 1861. But this name, however, was not given till 1866.

(4) Montenegro: Of the other Balkan states the independence of Montenegro under a separate Prince was recognized in 1878. It prospered under Prince Nicholas, who also advanced political democracy in the state. A constitution was adopted to provide for a Parliament elected by universal manhood suffrage in 1905.

(5) Insurrections in Other Balkan States: The oppressions of the Turkish Officials ultimately compelled the peasants of Herzegovina to rise in insurrection. Very soon they were joined by the fellow Slavs of Bosnia in 1875. The next year the people of Bulgaria bust out in rebellion against the Turkish officials. The Bulgarians were tortured by the Turkish soldiers with utmost brutality. The mass killing in Bulgaria enthralled and engrossed all of Europe. Meanwhile, Serbia and Montenegro declared war against Turkey in 1876. The Balkan issues were finally settled at a European Congress held in Berlin (Berlin Congress) in 1878.

Question 10. Describe the settlement effected by the Congres of Vienna. What were its defects? Or, Discuss the three principles of the Vienna settlement. Was the settlement a reactionary one?
Answer:

(1) Introduction: The destruction of the Napoleonic regime necessitated the reconstruction of Europe. The work of reconstruction that was undertaken by the Congress of Vienna, was one of the most important diplomatic gatherings in the history of Europe. At the Austrian capital Vienna, in the autumn of 1814, assembled the most illustrious personages in Europe.

There were the Emperors of Austria and Russia and the kings of Prussia, and Bavaria. Wurtumburg and Denmark, Louis, 18 of France were represented by Talleyrand and Great Britain by the Duke of Wellington and Lord Castlereagh. Foremost in the assemblage was Prince Metternich, Chief Minister of Austria. The Congress of Vienna set itself to undo the work of the revolution and Napoleon.

(2) Principles underlying the Vienna Congress :

The Congress of Vienna was based on the following three principles:

(1) Legitimacy and Restoration: Legitimacy and Restoration were the watchwords of the Congress of Vienna. Metternich insisted upon the restoration of the boundaries of States as they had been before the Revolution. Talleyrand championed the cause of legitimate dynasties who had been dethroned by the revolution.
(2) Compensation: Territorial compensations were to be awarded to those who played major roles in defeating Napoleon at the expense of States that had supported Napoleon.
(3) Balance of Power: The Congress attempted to restore the balance of power in Europe which had been upset by the sudden damage to peace on the part of France, the Congress undertook to build strong States around France.
(3) The settlement: The so-called Congress of Vienna was hardly a congress in the usual sense. The delegates met only to sign a general treaty that had been largely determined beforehand by the ‘Big Four’, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. The main work of the Congress was the distribution of the territories that France had been forced to give up.

This Congress of aristocrats hated the ideas of nationality and democracy proclaimed by the revolution. They rearranged Europe according to their desires, ignoring the national sentiments or the historical traditions of the people

(4) Legitimacy and Restoration :

(1) France was reduced to its original boundaries.
(2) The Bourbons were reinstated in France, Spain, and the two Sicilies.
(3) The House of Orange in Holland, the House of Savoy in Sardinia, and the Pope in the Papal States were reinstated.
(4) Several German princes were restored to their former possessions.
(5) In the name of legitimacy, Austria recovered Tyrol and most of the other lands she had lost.
(6) The Swiss Confederation was restored under a guarantee of neutrality.

(5) Compensation and Balance of Powers :

The application of these principles led to the following changes :

(1) Great Britain was awarded most of the French and Spanish colonies.
(2) The Dutch were given the Austrian Netherlands. This transfer of Belgium to Holland compensated the Dutch and also created a strong country on the border of France.
(3) Austria was given a commanding position in Italy and allowed to take Venice, Milan, and Tyrol. Members of the Austrian Hapsburg family were seated on the throne of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena.
(4) Russia was compensated with Finland, Polish territory, and Bessarabia.
(5) Sardinia was strengthened by the addition of Savoy, Piedmont, and Genoa.
(6) Prussia made notable gains by receiving Swedish Pomerania, all of Westphalia, most of the Rhineland, and two-fifths of Saxony.
(7) Sweden was compensated for ceding Finland to Russia and Pomerania to Prussia by being awarded Norway.
(8) In Germany, no attempt was made to resurrect the Holy Roman Empire. The remaining 38 States were into a loose organization known as the German Confederation with a Diet consisting of delegates of various rulers. Austria presided over the Diet and dominated the confederation.

(6) Criticism: In the work of the Congress of Vienna, there was little that was permanent and much that was temporary. The policy of the Vienna Congress was extremely reactionary. The arbitrary settlements made by Congress illustrate the total disregard for national aspirations. Peoples and provinces were bartered away like pawns in a game. The Catholic and Celtic people of Belgium were joined with Calvinistic and Teutonic Holland. Norway, which had been close to Denmark, was added to Sweden. The demands of Italians and Germans for unification were set aside. The aspirations of Poland for freedom were suppressed.

(7) Significance: The German Confederation simplified the political geography of Germany and the strengthening of Prussia made a rival to Austria for hegemony in Germany. The enlargement of Sardinia inspired her to aspire to Italian leadership. By the acquisition of Bessarabia, Russia was drawn into the Eastern Question. Finally, the Congress of Vienna marked the disappearance of the Holy Roman Empire. The greatest achievement of the Vienna Congress was that in spite of its defects, it gave Europe forty years of peace.

Question 11. What were the aims and objects of the Holy Alliance and the Concert of Europe between 1815 and 1825? How far were they realized? Why did the Concert of Europe fail?
Answer:

(1) Introduction: ‘The Holy Alliance’ and ‘The Concert of Europe’ were the first attempts in modern times at international organizations. The wars of Napoleon left Europe satiated with blood. The Statesmen of the age were painfully anxious to devise a form of international Government as a security against the menace of future wars. This experiment was the Concert of Europe which lasted for eight years. Its history and causes of failure convey a profound lesson to future times when the world is put in a similar situation.

(2) The Holy Alliance: The Holy Alliance was sponsored in 1815 by the Czar Alexander I of Russia who was a man of noble ideas. Alexander proposed that the sovereign of Europe should enter into a ‘Holy Alliance’ pledging themselves to govern their people and conduct their relations with one another according to the principle of the Christian religion. They were to regard each other as brothers, and their subjects as children whom they were to rule ‘as fathers of families’.

(3) Criticism: The Holy Alliance was greatly misunderstood. It was regarded at that time as a symbol of reaction, a conspiracy against ‘liberalism’, a league of Princes against their peoples. None of the statesmen of the age took it seriously.

Though it had no practical value, it disclosed the difference of opinion among the powers, which was the cause of the failure of the Concert of Europe. The Holy Alliance failed to draw together the powers because of its vagueness. They were proposed to cooperate for a brief span through the formation of the Quadruple Alliance, which was practical.

(4) Concert of Europe: In November 1815, a quadruple Alliance was signed by Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England for the maintenance of the treaties signed with France and for the consolidation of the intimate relations then uniting the four sovereigns for the welfare of the world.

They agreed to hold periodical meetings of the four signatory powers, either under the immediate auspices of the sovereigns or through their respective ministers, meetings devoted to the grand interest they have in common and to the discussion of measures which shall be judged to the most salutary for the repose and prosperity of the nations and for the maintenance of the peace of Europe.

(5) Congress and Conference: The first congress was held at Aix-la-Chapelle to consider the position of France which had paid the war indemnity by the year 1818. It was decided to withdraw the Allied army of occupation from French soil and to admit her representatives to the Concert of Europe.

At the same time, it set itself to a strict observance of the right of peoples; to give an example of justice, concord, and moderation, to project the art of peace, to increase the prosperity of states, and to awaken those sentiments of religion and morality which had been so much weakened by the misfortune of the time.

But before the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle was dissolved, signs had already appeared of the divergent interests and mutual jealousies, which were to paralyze action and break up the Concert of Europe. First was the question of the rebellious South American Colonies of Spain and second was the Barbary pirates in North Africa. Of the selfishness of the great powers, joint action was not possible.

The second Congress of the Powers held significantly in Austrian territory, first at Troppau in 1820 and then by the adjournment at Libach in 1821, revealed already, the fatal anomalies of the European situation and vital differences of views and interests between the allied States.

But the Congress of Troppau was called practically for the purpose of sanctioning the suppression of the Italian rebellion. Ignoring the opposition of France. and Great Britain, the Troppau Protocol was issued and signed by three eastern powers.

States that had changed Government due to revolution, the result of which threatened other States, ipso facto, to cease to be members of the European alliance and remain excluded from it until their situation gave a guarantee for legal order and stability. If owing to such alteration immediate danger threatens other States, the powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if needed by arms to bring back the guilty State into the bosom of the great alliance. Castlereagh, the foreign minister of England, therefore, strongly demurred and although there was as yet no actual breach of the Alliance, there was the considerable widening of the rift within it.

(6) Causes of failure: The alliance was thus sundered and with the Spanish manifesto, the Congress separated. But one more feeble tribute to the idea of European cooperation was paid in 1825 when Czar Alexander I summoned two conferences at St. Petersburg to consider the eastern question. Yet the Concert of Europe could not be saved. It had gone to pieces on many rocks, chiefly on Great Britain’s withdrawal and on the mutual jealousies of the powers.

But the British assertion of the principle of non-intervention was more than a claim for natural isolation and national liberty; it was a stand against the autocracy of Europe and a protest against the dictatorship and system of Metternich. For the attempted concert of Europe was based upon no league of democratic nations, it was an alliance of monarchs, three at least of whom were autocrats, and an acceptance of the principle of intervention might easily have resulted in the establishment of an intolerable despotism.

Question 12. “Metternich was the champion of reaction’-Discuss. Does Metternich deserve the title ‘Prime Minister of Europe’?
Answer:

(1) Introduction: The period from 1815 to 1848 has been usually called the ‘Era of Metternich’. Metternich was the most famous statesman Austria produced in the 19th century. He was the central figure not only in Austria and German politics but also in European diplomacy.

He became the Austrian Chancellor in 1809 and played a leading part in the formation of the Fourth Coalition against Napoleon and in the Battle of Nations. Metternich was the guiding angel of the Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe. The politics of Europe at this time was so thoroughly dominated by him that his importance is shown in the phrase ‘System of Metternich’.

(2) Metternich as a diplomat: Metternich, the prince of diplomatists, was born into a family of diplomats. He married the granddaughter of Prince Kaunitz, the famous minister of Maria Theresa who engineered the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756. His self-esteem was very great.

(3) The policy of Metternich: The policies of Metternich were frankly conservative. He detested the Revolution and believed in an absolute monarchy. He was the opponent of all struggles for national independence and self-government. He was especially anxious to prevent the recurrence of revolutionary violence and international war. Metternich clearly saw the division of Europe into revolutionary West and reactionary East.

Himself a reactionary, Metternich desired to create a strong reactionary Austrian Empire as a bulwark against the disturbing forces of revolution, and to this end, he championed the principles of Legitimacy and Restoration and re-established old regimes as a man of the status quo. Through his efforts, Metternich succeeded in transferring the leadership of Europe from revolutionary France to reactionary Austria.

(4) His role in the Congress of Vienna: It was due to the recognition of the commanding personality of Metternich that Vienna was chosen as the meeting place of the International Congress. Metternich was the central figure of the Congress and the general principles underlying the settlement were his. It was the restoration of the boundaries and the reigning families of several European countries as they had been before the Revolution of 1789. Metternich secured Austria, Tyrol, and other lands which she had earlier lost.

(5) Metternich and the Concert of Europe: Metternich was anxious to make Vienna Settlement permanent He was anxious to maintain international peace and prevent the outbreak of revolution in the future. For this purpose, the Quadruple Alliance of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain was transformed into an organization for the preservation of the peace and of the status quo by the Treaty of Paris in 1815. This Concert of Europe was sufficient for Metternich who made it an instrument in his duty to stamp out revolution even to the extent of interfering in the domestic affairs of friendly States.

(6) Metternich as the Prime Minister of Europe: During the years 1815 to 1848, Metternich, by direct interference in Germany and Italy and by the pressure of his influence on the sovereigns of Europe, dominated the continent. Thus he can be rightly called the ‘Prime Minister of Europe’.

(7) Metternich and Germany :

(1) In 1817 a liberal movement broke out in Germany. In 1819 Metternich was summoned. a meeting of German statesmen at Carlsbad and secured the promulgation of the ‘Carlsbad Decrees’. Accordingly, university professors and students, and the press were subjected to close supervision. It provided for the establishment of a committee to investigate revolutionary plots.
(2) Revolts in the German States of Brunswick, Saxony, and Hesse Cassel were put down in 1830.

(8) In Italy :

(1) Metternich helped Ferdinand to restore the old regime in Naples
(2) In 1821 he crushed a revolt in Piedmont.
(3) In 1830 revolts of Modena, Parma, and in parts of the Papal States were easily put down.

(9) In Spain:

(1) In 1823 with the approval of Metternich, Louis XVIII of France sent military aid to Spain to suppress a popular rising.
(2) In Russia:(1) Alexander I, Czar of Russia, was a patron of liberal ideas for a few years and attempted to introduce reforms but later, under the influence of Metternich, he withdrew the reforms.

(10) Domestic policy: Within Austria, Metternich mercilessly suppressed the activities of nationalists and liberals. He maintained a strong army and an efficient police system. The press and the Theatre were censored, and education was entrusted to conservative religious orders. He erected a protective wall of tariffs around Austria as a check against the inroads of revolutionary ideas. This, however, proved ruinous to her trade and industry.

(11) Failure of Metternich :

The success of Metternich was only short-lived and his failure was the outcome of the following factors :

(1) The forces of nationalism and liberalism proved to be too strong.
(2) The Concert of Europe broke down with the withdrawal of England.
(3) Great Britain did not subscribe to the idea of interfering in the internal affairs of European States.
(4) The Monroe Doctrine, announced by President James Monroe of the U.S.A., checked Metternich, from restoring to Spain, her colonies in America which had revolted.
(5) Russia defied his policy of non-intervention in the Balkans and actively supported
a resolution in Greece.
(6) In 1830, revolutions broke out in France and Belgium which once and for all, destroyed the system of Metternich.

Question 13. Would you consider the reign of Nicholas I an important chapter in the history of Russia?
Answer:

(1) Czar Nicholas: The Crimean War (1854-1856) was in a sense the watershed of European history—the statement may be with particular force may be applied to Russia. The Russian defeat discredited wholly the system of Nicholas I and set a movement toward democracy which in one form or another has been the principal theme of her internal history from the day to this.

(2) The reign of Nicholas: The thirty-year reign of Czar Nicholas 1(1825-1855) was spent in the defense of autocracy. His training was not in politics or administration but in the army. His mind was practical, narrow, rigid, and exceedingly conservative. He sought to eradicate abuses wherever he discovered them, but in so vast an Empire it was impossible for the Emperor to control efficiently and effectively the detail of the administration. His policy was uncompromisingly absolutistic, both at home and abroad, at home, all kinds of measures were adopted to exclude or suppress liberal ideas.

A stringent intellectual quarantine was maintained upon the western frontiers, foreign literature excluded. Russian subjects were prevented from traveling abroad, the native, press was censored and the writers who did not show themselves “well-intentioned” were silenced. The university was circumscribed with their personnel and curricula, the number of military schools was increased and the police, the third section of Tsar’s chancellory were given arbitrary powers of arresting, imprisoning, deploring, and making away with anyone, whom the chief of the department selected.

Nicholas I’s foreign policy was marked by the same characteristics and made him hated throughout Europe. Nicholas, I suppressed the Polish insurrection of 1830-1831, abolished the Constitution granted by Alexander I, and incorporated Poland into Russia.

He waged two wars against Turkey and interfered decisively to suppress the revolution of the Hungarians in 1848-1849, and in German politics, he was a great factor of importance. His prestige was great after 1849. But the Crimean war in which Nicholas I became involved in 1854 proved the hollowness of his power and prestige. The prestige of Russia was so overwhelming since Napoleon’s flight from Moscow was completely shattered.

Czar Nicholas, I expired on March 2, 1855, and with him fell in ruins the system of. which his personality was everywhere regarded as the incarnation. The European predominance of St. Petersburg, built up by Catherine II and strengthened by Alexander I, had come to an end, but Russia, in some measure at least, was to become Russia of the Russian people. But in this great national humiliation lay the best hope of the future. As Prussia arose and reformed her institutions after Jena, so did Russia after the Crimean war.

That war is a landmark in her history, as it inaugurated a period of extensive reorganization and improvement. The smoldering discontent of the people flared up into open protests against the existing regime and the people demanded radical changes in the social and political organization.

Alexander II, who succeeded his father Nicholas I, tried earnestly to satisfy the aspirations of the people. On the other side, foreign literature of a liberal nature was rigorously excluded. Nicholas encouraged Russian literature in a form that seemed harmless. While his reign was called “the Augustan Age of Russia” rendered notable by the poetry.

Pushkin, the novels of Turgeniff, Dostoievsky, and Gogol. He encouraged research in lines that he considered legitimate and showed his humanitarianism by abolishing capital punishment, except for treason, at a time when the English penal code was barbarous in its severity.

But on the whole the reign of Nicholas I was one of repression and stagnation, and after the fall of Sebastopol, liberal propaganda was circulated by hand in manuscript literature, and satire and appeals were drawn into its service against the Government. Russian society was stirred by as violent a movement and optimism as was France on the eve of the French Revolution.

Question 14. Give an account of the Greek war of Independence.
Answer:

(1) Revival of the National Spirit in Greece: The Greeks of the early 19th century were the degenerate descendants of the noble race of ancient times. But they were the first among the Balkan people to throw off the Turkish yoke and achieve independence. Although the Greeks were permitted to practice their religion, they suffered from Turkish oppression, being subjected to heavy taxation and brutal treatment.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries, there was a revival of the Greek national spirit consequent upon the decline of Ottoman power. Ancient Greek literature was read with an interest in the intellectual glories of their ancestors. It stimulated the national consciousness of the Greeks and they longed for freedom. In 1814, a secret society called the Hetairia Philike was formed at Odessa which aimed at ending Turkish rule in Greece and expelling the Turks from Europe.

(2) The First Rising in 1921: The Hetairia Philike became widespread and powerful and in 1921 the first outburst of the Greeks occurred in Wallachia and Moldavia. The revolt was led by Prince Alexander Ypsilanti. The Greeks failed to receive the Russian and Rumanian help on which they had counted and the revolt was easily crushed by the Turkish armies in Wallachia.

(3) The Greek War of Independence: In 1821, war broke out in the Morea islands. The war of Greek Independence was fought with great ferocity on both sides and was marked by horrible atrocities on each side. The Greeks massacred the Turkish peasantry and the Turks took revenge by hanging the patriarch of Constantinople the head of the Greek Church on Easter Day, 1821. For some, years, both sides carried on the struggle with utmost barbarity.

The European nations sympathized with the Greeks and many of them formed societies for the purpose of assisting the Greeks with men and money. Thousands of volunteers fought for the Greeks and put up an equal first with the Turks in Morea for three years. Further, the Greeks possessed the advantage of being superior to the Turks on the sea. The fireships of the Greeks prevented the Turks from landing reinforcement.

(4) Egyptian Intervention: The whole situation suddenly changed with the intervention of Mahamat Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, on the side of the Porte. At first, the Egyptian intervention seemed to be an omen of utter ruin to the Greeks. The army of Egypt under Ibrahim, the son of the Pasha, overrun Morea and the navy of Egypt dominated the Aegean Sea. The whole population of the Greek mainland stood in danger of destruction.

(5) European Intervention: Western nations could not stand Greece, the most illustrious corner of Europe and the original home of civilization, being subjected to the cruelties of Ibrahim. But the principles of the Holy Alliance could not be applied to Greece, for the reactionary powers under the leadership of Metternich feared that the Greek success would encourage rebellions elsewhere in Europe. Canning, the British Foreign Minister felt that if the Czar intervened on behalf of the Greeks, it would extend Russian influence in the Balkan peninsula. For this reason, he did not wish to see the Ottoman Empire weakened.

As for Russia, Czar Alexander, although he had no sympathy for the rebellion, wished to interfere on grounds of religion, for the Greeks professed the same form of Christianity as the Russians. Canning realized that on the ground of humanity it would not be possible to object to Russia, taking up arms. So, he agreed to a Joint Anglo-Russian action in the Balkans. France approved the Anglo-Russian policy out of sentiment. In 1827, by the Treaty of London, the three Powers agreed to compel the Sultan, by the peaceful naval blockade to grant autonomy to the Greeks. The Treaty of London was the real foundation of Greek independence.

(6) Battle of Navarillo, 1827: The Sultan refused to recognize the autonomy of the Greeks and the members of the Triple Alliance sent their fleets into Turkish waters. A chance shot brought about a battle to the Bay of Navarino and the Turko-Egyptian fleet was destroyed. The battle of Navarino was accidental, but it was decisive. Greek independence, though not achieved yet, was no longer in doubt.

(7) Treaty of Adrianople, 1829: After the battle of Navarino, Great Britain withdrew from participation in Near Eastern affairs. In 1828 Russia declared war on Turkey and a Russian army marched toward Constantinople. The Sultan gave way and signed the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. Greece was recognized as a self-governing State under Turkish overlordship. The provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy and put under Russian protection.

The treaty of Adrianople is a diplomatic triumph for Russia. The Greeks felt that their independence was, in the main, the result of Russian intervention. Russian prestige and influence increased in the Balkan peninsula. Moldavia and Wallachia too felt grateful to Russia.

(8) The Kingdom of Greece: Greece refused to accept the solution to her problem offered by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. Russia preferred the arrangement, for as long as Greece was only an autonomous state, it gave her scope for future interference in the Balkans. But the way was cleared for the recognition of a new Greek State completely independent of Turkey in 1810 when Palmerston who was a liberal came to the Foreign Office in England. A series of conferences were held in London between France, Britain, and Russia. Finally, in 1832, Greece was recognized as fully independent. A constitutional monarchy was set up in Greece in 1833, with Otto, the Bavarian Prince, as king.

(1) Significance of the Greek War of Independence: The tiny kingdom of Greece had in no way altered the balance of power in Europe. Yet the resurrection of Greece was the most significant fact. Greece dealt the first successful blow to the Concert of Europe and took the best step in the dissolution of the Turkish Empire in Europe. Finally, Greece gave the impetus to the modern spirit of nationalism which brought the Austrian Empire to the ground.

Question 15. Examine briefly the rule of the restored Bourbons in France and account for the July Revolution of 1830.
Answer: It is hard to be expected that the history of France, after the violent alternations of the last 25 years from monarchy to regicide, Terror to Empire, victory to defeat, and Bonaparte to Bourbon should be free from oscillation. There was the heritage of the Revolution to be reconciled with the restoration of royalism, the lilies with the tricolor, the natural desire of the returned exiles for restitution with the irrevocable march of time, and the growth of new vested interests.

Louis 18, the uninspired but not vindictive brother of Louis 16, had returned to France with a Constitutional charter granting an elective chamber, personal equality, freedom of religion, and the Press. But he was, however, unable to control the ultraroyalist forces that pressed upon the ministry and the country.

Immediately after the Hundred Days, a popular outburst in the south of France against the Republicans and Bonapartists recalled in the white Terror, the worst excesses of the French Revolution, while a Royalist chamber of Deputies demanded the proscription of the ‘traitors’ of the Hundred Days, even putting to death the indomitable Ney. The reaction was strengthened by the unfortunate murder in 1820 of the Duke of Berrison

Of Comte of Artois. Laurel, the assassin, a Bonapartist soldier, swore that he had no accomplices, but his act was made to recoil upon the liberal party, the King allowed. the country to drift upon the tide of a clerical and anti-liberal reaction, headed by the emigre party which had “learned nothing and forgotten nothing” during its exile.

Opposition began to form and the Napoleonic legend was beginning to hallow the name of the dead Emperor. But Louis 18 died peacefully in his bed. It was the Comte de Artois, raised to the throne in 1824 as Charles X, who drove the opposition to rebellion.

A Government based on the pretensions of the divine right, conducted in the interests of the emigres and Jesuits, carried on by the repression of criticism and free election and at the expense of popular liberty and equality, provoked a furious discontent which not even the participation in the Battle of Navarins and the conquest of Algiers could assuage. Matters came to a crisis when Charles appointed a most reactionary ministry headed by Polignac. In 1830 he attempted what was virtually a royalist coup defeat; the charter was superseded by a series of ordinances issued from St. Cloud.

Under the cover of this provision, Charles issued, on July 25th, three ordinances

(1) Setting aside the recent elections as null and void, and summoning a new Chamber
(2) Narrowing the franchise and,
(3) Silencing the Press. Polignac also announced his determination “to reorganize the society to give back the clergy their weight in State affairs, they create a powerful aristocracy, and to surround it with privileges.” The next day Paris, at to instigation of the journalists, broke out in revolt and erected barricades. While the signal for insurrection was given by journalists, the movement itself was organized by republicans, who had prepared for the day of revolution by establishing secret societies among the population of Paris.

As the significance of the ordinances came to be more clearly seen, popular anger began to manifest itself. Fuel was added to the rising flame by the appointment of Marmont Odious as a traitor to France in 1814, to the command of the troops in Paris. The workmen of the printing establishments, thrown out of employment, began agitating and other workmen joined them. On Wednesday, July 28, civil war broke out. The war lasted three days.

It was the July Revolution, the glorious three days. The ministry, taken by complete surprise, was unable to coerce the capital into submission and a provisional Government was set up at the Hotel de Ville, under the famous revolutionary leader Lafayette. The king now sought to revoke the ordinances, but it was too late, and after a futile attempt to save his dynasty by abdicating in favor of his grandson, he passed into exile.

Question 16. Describe the Revolution of 1830 in France and point out its effects on Europe.
Answer:

(1) Introduction: The Bourbons of France had learned nothing from the Revolution of 1789. The Revolution of 1830 in France was the result of an attempt by Charles X to restore royal absolutism and the privileges of the nobility. In July 1830, he dissolved the Chambers and issued the Ordinance of St Cloud breaking his promises to rule Constitutionally.

Paris rose in revolt, and the King capitulated to his people and abdicated his throne. The crown was offered to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Despite the change of dynasty, the monarchy itself was not overthrown. The French established a constitutional monarchy which was a middle course, between the evils of the absolute monarchy on the one hand and mob rule on the other.

(2) Effects of the Revolution on Europe: The French Revolution of 1830 had far-reaching consequences. It looked as such the system of Metternich was giving way and the forces of the reaction were breaking down. Another wave of liberalism and nationalism once again swept over Europe. Revolts broke out in Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Germany. In Italy and Germany, however, the revolts were quickly stamped out by the members of the Quadruple Alliance.

(3) Belgian Revolt: The Belgian Revolution was the first successful revolution in Western Europe in 1830. The Congress of Vienna had arbitrarily joined Belgium with Holland. The Belgians differed from the Dutch in all ways language, religion, and economic life. The Belgians spoke a language similar to French.

They were Catholic while the Dutch were Protestants. The Dutch were agricultural and commercial people, but the Belgians were only manufacturers. So, the Belgians resented the union with the Dutch. Under these circumstances, the King of Holland attempted to force the Dutch language on Belgium. The French Revolution of 1830 aroused in the Belgians the spirit of nationalism. Revolution spread rapidly on October 4, 1830. Belgium declared its independence. They elected king Leopold of Coburg as their King and he was crowned in 1831.

The reactionary powers were prevented from intervening by the warning of Louis Philippe of France. In 1831, at a conference in London, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England recognized the independence of Belgium. This was the first setback to the forces of reaction.

(4) Poland: The Congress of Vienna had made Czar Alexander of Russia, the King of Poland. Alexander granted the Poles very liberal institutions. However, the Poles were dissatisfied with their limited powers and aspired for an independent and united Poland. The spirit of unrest in Poland was strong.

When the July Revolution broke out, Czar Nicholas I, the successor of Alexander, ordered the Polish army to prepare a campaign for the suppression of the Belgian revolt. The Poles rose in revolt and fought desperately to throw off Russian rule. The revolt was crushed by the Czar who recaptured Warsaw and annexed Poland to Russia. Poland ceased to exist as a separate kingdom. It became merely a province of the Russian Empire.

(5) Italy: Italy also felt the revolutionary wave of 1830. Revolution broke out in the Duchies of Parma and Modena and in parts of the Papal States. The rulers of Modena and Parma were forced to flee. The Italians hoped for the support of Louis Philippe which did not come forth. Austrian troops suppressed the revolts and restored the exiled rulers. Reaction again held sway in Italy.

(6) Germany: In 1830, revolts broke out in Germany, in Brunswick, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, and Hanover. The people of these States secured new constitutions. However, Metternich succeeded in carrying the reaction further and passed new regulations which reduced the freedoms won to the minimum.

(7) Significance of the July Revolution: Except for the birth of Belgium as a new State, the Revolution of 1830 had no achievement to its credit in Europe. Even in France, the Revolution failed to establish a Republic, although it was planned and carried out by democrats. Nonetheless, it would be a mistake to minimize the importance of the Revolution. The significance of the July Revolution, like that of the English Revolution of 1688, was negative rather than positive. No advance was made in the direction of democracy. Thus the Revolution of 1830 was the complement of the Revolution of 1789.

Question 17. Discuss the events leading to the downfall of Louis Philippe. Or, What were the causes of the February Revolution (1848) in France? Or, What were the causes of the downfall of the July monarchy?
Answer:

Causes of the July Revolution: The Bourbons of France had learned nothing from the Revolution of 1789. The Revolution of France was the result of an attempt by Charles X to restore royal absolutism and the privileges of the nobility. In July 1830 he dissolved the chambers and issued the ordinance of St Cloud, breaking his promises to rule constitutionally. Paris rose in revolt, and the King capitulated to his people and abdicated his throne.

The crown was offered to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Despite the change of dynasty, the monarchy itself was not overthrown. The French established a constitutional monarchy which was a middle course between the ‘evils of absolute monarchy on the one hand and mob rule on the other. As the rule of the Orleans began in July (1830), it was known as the July Monarchy.

But the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848), the ‘citizen king’ of France, in due course proved unsuccessful and unpopular. The fundamental cause of Louis Philippe’s unpopularity was his refusal to accommodate himself to the prejudices of the French people and to shape his diplomacy on lines acceptable to the nation at large.

On two occasions it was furnished with an opportunity to satisfy the French yearning for glory, it was the unpardonable offense of the King, that on each occasion and stood between the nation and the satisfaction of its desires. The first Opportunity came at the moment of his accession to the throne. The French Revolution of 1830 convulsed every State and rocked every throne on the continent. The French people demanded that the monarchy should intervene on behalf of the oppressed nationalities.

In 1840 the international situation afforded a second Opportunity to the Orleans monarchy to abandon its pacific policy and identify itself unreservedly with the national aspirations. The military achievements of Mehamet Ali, the Party of Egypt, had aroused the unbounded enthusiasm of the French people, who were carried away by the idea that upon his shoulders had fallen the mantle of Napoleon. France

“became the patron of Mehamet. But she stood alone. The treaty of London (1840) was signed among the great powers excluding France. France became politically isolated. Her Prime Minister Thiers urged the adoption of warlike measures but the King vigorously opposed such proposals which would involve the French of the July monarchy in the greatest danger.

France adopted a policy of peace and the danger of war passed. Thiers resigned and Guizot now became the chief minister. Thus France’s popular approval was withheld from the Government owing to its foreign policy of ‘resistance’ only served to strengthen the opposition.

The July monarchy was a Government of the bourgeoisie, of the well-to-do, of the capitalists. They alone possessed suffrage. They had wrested the fruits of victory out of the hands of the populace which had borne the heat of the struggle and had established the Citizen King on the throne to consolidate their position in the community as the governing class.

The grievances of the working class alone attracted the attention of republicans and accordingly, they began to concentrate upon social and parliamentary reforms, as the starting point of the new order. Year after year the two demands were brought forward in the Chamber; year after year they were voted down by the majority.

Prime Minister Guizot was vehemently criticized for his action. The people of France exceedingly dissatisfied with the existing order, converged in 1848, though unintentionally and unsympathetically, toward the most violent of reckless upheavals France has known since 1789 a movement initiated by the Moderate monarchists rapidly furthered by the Republicans, in the end partly dominated by the socialists. Guizot believed that the demands of the reform were the cry of a few for political gain, and people as a whole were entirely indifferent.

But in 1847 a series of reform bouquets were published by the people with the help of the reformers. They wanted to change the policy of the Government But the king, advised by Guizot, refused to yield.

On the other hand, the leaders of the opposition party demanded the legal right of the people to hold public meetings, to test the right before the courts of law. The opposition arranged a great meeting on Feb 22, 1848. The Government called out the National Guard. It referred to a march against the insurgents. Finally, on February 24, the King abdicated and another French King took the road to England to enter a life of exile.

Question 18. Describe the February Revolution of 1848 in France. What were its effects on Europe?
Answer:

(1) French Revolution of 1848: The reign of Louis Philippe, the ‘citizen king’ of France in due course proved unsuccessful. The Royalists treated him as a usurper, for he was not the legitimate king. He was equally a usurper to the common people because he belied their hopes of a republic. The overthrow of Louis Philippe was precipitated by two questions, viz. foreign policy, and reform. The French people demanded that he should intervene on behalf of the oppressed nationalities of Europe.

Louis refused to involve himself in wars. Louis Blanc began to preach socialism and the opponents of the Government demanded electoral reform. Louis Philippe made no attempt to overcome the movement. He gave way at once and took refuge in England. This was the February Revolution of 1848. The Second Republic was set up in France headed by Lamartine.

(2) Effects of the Revolution in Europe: The French Revolution of 1848 caused the most widespread disturbances in Europe. Revolution broke out from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, from France to the Russian frontier. The system of Metternich crushed in confusion. Revolt broke out in the very heart of Austria, at Vienna, which was the bulwark of reaction. It looked as if the monarchy was coming to an end all over Europe.

Revolts broke out in every part of the Austrian Empire. Austrian Empire seemed to be on the eve of dissolution. But at every point reaction set in and revolution was defeated. All these revolutions aimed at national independence and free constitutions. They were not much concerned with social reconstruction.

(3) Revolution in Austrian Empire :

(1) Vienna: In 1848, Vienna rose in revolt. The immediate impetus came from Hungary. The rising in Vienna was largely organized by students and the working class. Metternich was forced to resign and he fled away to England. A Constituent Assembly met which abolished all feudal abuses and began to draw up a new Constitution.

(2) Hungary: Serious troubles broke out in Hungary led by Louis Kossuth, one of Hungary’s greatest heroes. The revolt in Vienna reacted upon Hungary. In 1848, the Hungarian Diet passed the March Laws, which swept away the old aristocratic political machinery and substituted a modern democratic Government. Feudal dues -were abolished and freedoms of the press religion and trial by jury were established.

(3) Bohemia: The example of Hungary was followed by Bohemia. There were two faces in Bohemia-the Germans, wealthy and educated, and the Czechs, poorer but the majority. The Czechs claimed equality with the Germans and the same things that the Hungarians had demanded. The Emperor conceded them.

(4) Italy: The Italians seized the opportunity created by the general unrest everywhere and. attempted to overthrow Austrian influence in Italy. Lombardy and Venice rose against Austria and they were supported by Piedmont and Sardinia. Revolts also broke out in Tuscany, the Papal States, and Napoleon. Several of these States gained liberal constitutions, Mazzini organized a revolt in Rome and the Pope was driven out. Italy had thus practically declared her independence.

(5) Suppression of the Revolts in Austrian Dominions: By the end of March 1848, the revolution was successful everywhere. But the period of triumph was brief. Prague was occupied and a dictatorship was established in Bohemia. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, was defeated by the Austrians at Custozza and Novara. Venice and Lombardy were crushed.

The Catholics of France swept away the Mazzini’s Republic of Rome. In Hungary, racial rivalries broke out between the Magyars on one hand and the Serbs, Croatians, and Rumanians and the other. Austria exploited the situation and fanned a civil war. At last in 1849, Austria with Russian aid, defeated the Magyars at Vilagos, Kossuth fled to Turkey and the Hungarian War of Independence was over.

(6) Germany: In 1848 not satisfied with the powers granted by Frederick William IV of Prussia, the people of Berlin revolted. William IV pacified the revolt by granting a Constitution and liberal reforms. But the news of the suppression of the revolt in Vienna encouraged the King of Prussia to undo the reforms he had introduced.

With the aid of his army, he dissolved the assembly. Next under the presidency of Prussia, a federal Constitution was drawn up for North Germany. Austria opposed it by re-establishing the Federal Assembly of Frankfurt. Prussia humiliated itself by surrendering her claim to Austria at Olmutz. Thus Austria seemed to dominate Germany.

(7) Significance of the Revolt of 1848: The Revolution of 1848 was another great leap forward on the path of nationalism and liberalism in Europe. Another striking feature was that it constituted an epoch in political democracy and economic democracy.

The Revolution of 1789 was directed against the arbitrary monarchy, the Revolution of 1830 against aristocratic privilege, and the Revolution of 1848 against middle-class Government. In other words, legal equality was established in 1789, social equality in 1830, and political equality in 1848. The Revolution of 1848 introduced manhood suffrage in France which destroyed the political power of the bourgeoisie. Political power was now extended to the people.

The Revolution was also remarkable for an experiment in socialism which was exhibited in the national workshops and ended in failure. The watchword of the Revolution was ‘the right to work’. A new and potent force was brought to life—the Proletariat.

Question 19. Compare and contrast the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848.
Answer:

The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848: The French Revolution of 1830 was a constitutional movement. The French Revolution of 1830 was a protest against the reactionary policy followed by Charles X of France. It was the outcome of the growing liberal tendencies of the time and it aimed at securing a constitutional form of Government. It was not republican in spirit; it was not directed against the monarchy. It sought to put an end to autocracy.

The expulsion of Charles X was not followed by the establishment of a republic but by the accession of another king who professed more liberal views. The result was that a despotic monarchy was supplanted by a constitutional monarchy. The Revolution of 1848 was, on the other hand, a distinctly republican movement, strongly colored by socialistic ideas. It was the joint product of political and economic causes. The people demanded an enlargement of the franchise. Side by side with this demand arose the demands of the socialists who aimed not merely at the.

Extension of political power, but at the reconstruction of satiety in the interest of the working classes. Socialism and republicanism would not brook monarchy and so the expulsion of Louis was followed by the establishment of a republic. Thus the aims and objects of the two Revolutions were different.

Both revolutions found their echo in almost all the countries of Europe. However, the movements that followed the July Revolution of 1830 were democratic. They aimed at securing constitutional governments. The only exception was the case of Belgium where the movement was distinctly nationalist.

However, the outbreaks that followed the French Revolution of 1848 were in most cases national movements. They aimed at securing merely a constitutional Government but a Government that should represent the nation’s will., This was especially the case in Germany, Italy, and Hungary.

As regards results, the two Revolutions were somewhat alike. Both ended in failure. The only success which attended the Revolution of 1830 was the independence of Belgium. But that was largely due to the intervention of foreign powers who were actuated more by considerations of self-interest than by a desire to support liberalism. The Revolution of 1848 was likewise attended with scanty success.

Only two states, Prussia and Sardinia, obtained constitutions. But one point should be noted, i.e., that these constitutions were the free gifts of rulers and not extorted from them. This shows that not merely the people but some of the rulers had realized the necessity of a constitutional form of Government. In this respect, the Revolution of 1848 marks a distinct advance in the direction of liberalism and so may be looked upon as more successful than that of 1830.

Question 20. Explain the characteristics of the period from 1815 to 1850 in the history of Europe.
Answer:

(1) A period of struggle between liberalism and conservatism: The period 1815-1848 was one of a struggle between the antagonistic forces of liberalism and conservatism. It opens with the meeting of a Congress in Vienna where the diplomats of Europe sought to bridle the new forces unleashed by the French Revolution.

The diplomats assumed that the storm which had recently raged over Europe for nearly a quarter of a century was only a passing event that had temporarily disorganized Europe. So they ignored its challenge and sob to work to restore pre-revolutionary conditions so far as practicable.

The revolution, however, had left behind its heritage of ideas and influences–the unsettling forces of democracy and nationalism. These forces, though impalpable, were strong and intoxicating enough to take a firm hold on the minds of the people.

They became the creed of a new political group! and the people clung to them with almost religious ardor. Hence the attempt of the diplomats of Vienna to put back the hands of the clock clashed with the newly awakened aspirations of the people. As the result, the period witnessed several popular outbreaks, which on two occasions became epidemics in 1830 and in 1848.

(2) A new experiment in international government: At the beginning of this period an interesting experiment, the first of its kind, in international or congressional government was made. The settlement of Vienna was placed under the collective guarantee of four great powers, viz. Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain bound themselves in a Quadruple Alliance to maintain the territorial arrangements as made by Congress.

At the same time, they proposed to meet in periodical Congresses to discuss common interests and such measures as would contribute to the maintenance of peace in Europe. It was this proposal for periodical meetings that gave birth to the so-called Concert of Europe. Four such meetings were held, at Aix-Ia-Chapelle in 1818, at Troppau in 1820, at Laibach in 1921, and at Verona in 1822. Under the guidance of Metternich, the Concert increasingly became an instrument for the suppression of liberalism and revolution.

Castlereagh, although an ardent promoter of the congressional Government, protested against its policy of intervention in the internal affairs of other states. His successor in the British Foreign Office, Canning, went further and ended this hazardous experiment by taking a firm stand against the policy of binding Europe in chains.

(3) Dominance of Metternich: During this period Mettemich was the central figure of European diplomacy. So strong was his influence that the King of Prussia and Czar Alexander of Russia followed his lead. He was, however, the reactionary genius of Europe, an implacable enemy of liberalism. His policy was to preserve the peace of Europe and to maintain its status quo. But to him, the preservation of peace meant the preservation of autocracy.

He was responsible for the Carlsbad decrees which laid Germany under the iron heels of reaction. In Italy, his influence was successfully exerted to suppress all liberal and nationalist aspirations. At a time when the heroic struggle of the Greeks for freedom aroused sympathy all over Europe.

Metternich stood for his principle of legitimacy and looked upon the Greeks as rebels against established authority and held back the Czar from coming to their help. For Europe tired and timid after the onslaughts of the French Revolution, he was a necessary man but he became an anachronist when he was growing old and the whole world was renewing its youth.

(4) Results of the revolutions: In the struggle of the people to realize their liberal and national aspirations, the victory was for a time on the side of the autocratic powers. The revolutions were suppressed and the reaction was triumphant. Thus the period was one of aspiration rather than solid achievement Only two states, Sardinia and Prussia, were, by the pressure of events, compelled to grant constitutions. As regards nationalism, it scored only two victories, one in Greece and the other in Belgium. Thus, judged by tangible results, the achievement so far was very meager.

Nevertheless, it should be noted that autocracy everywhere had received a staggering blow and significant breaches had been made in Metternich’s system. The rulers began to realize that it was not safe to disregard the wishes of the people.

Besides, the strength and force of the passionate efforts of the people, the enthusiasm evoked by their devotion and heroism, did not perish altogether. The revolutions of 1848, though crushed, left their marks everywhere to inspire future generations. The sense of national unity in Germany and Italy was checked, but in no sense destroyed. In no distant future, both countries achieve national unity under better auspices and abler guidance.

Question 21. Assess the role of Metternich in the history of Europe from 1815 to 1848. Or, Explain the principal features of the system of Metternich and discuss the causes of its final overthrow. Or, What is understood by the term Metternich system? Or, Form an estimate of the role played by Metternich in the history of Europe from 1815 to 1848.
Answer:

(1) Prince Metternich (1773-1859): Prince Metternich was the most important and the most outstanding personality in Europe between 1815 and 1848. The European diplomacy during this period centered around his person and so great was his importance that this period in European history is often called the Metternich Era or the System of Metternich. Autocratic European monarchs sought his advice, and revolutions trembled at his sight. He was a Prince among diplomats. At the age of thirty-six, he became the Chancellor of Austria.

For forty years he ruled the country with a stern hand. Metternich had an inborn hatred for democratic institutions. He was an avowed enemy of the French Revolution. He struck Napoleon at the right time. Austria joined the campaign of 1814 and brought about the fall of the great conqueror.

(2 Metternich at the Congress of Vienna: Metternich presided over the Congress of Vienna and as such he was the main architect of the new Europe, carved out in Vienna. He succeeded to a great extent in bringing back to their former glories the absolute Princes of Europe, who had earlier fled before the tide of popular revolutions.

He gave up the distant and risky provinces of the Austrian Netherlands and got in exchange the nearer Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. Germany was left divided under the Austrian grip. Thus, at the Congress of Vienna, Metternich proved to be the embodiment of reaction.

(3) Metternich and the Concert of Europe: To hold his system intact, and to preserve peace and order in Europe, Metternich proposed periodic conferences of the great powers, and thus signed the Quadruple Alliance in November 1815, between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain. France was allowed to join this brotherhood in 1818. Metternich’s idea was to have an international police force to help maintain law and order in Europe.

The Quadruple Alliance powers agreed to meet from time to time to discuss the problems facing them and thereby maintain the peace of Europe. These periodic conferences of the powers were to be the beginning of the Concert of Europe. The first of a series of Conferences took place at Aix-La-Chapelle in 1818. France was admitted to the Alliance and agreed to the use of force by the rest of the four powers in case of a revolution within her territory.

Two years later, the Alliance powers met at Troppau in 1820 to take stock of the situation created by the disorders in Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, and Greece. Austria, Russia, and Prussia signed a protocol and declared their intention not to recognize any change in the status quo of Europe and to meet any revolutionary changes by force. This conference was a great triumph for Metternich. Another conference took place at Laibach in 1821.

Austria was chosen to be the executioner in Italy and France was to help to restore the autocratic rule of Ferdinand in Spain. The fourth and last conference was held at Verona in 1822. It dealt exclusively with the problem of Spain. Ferdinand VII was restored to his absolutism with the help of French bayonets. Thus Metternich had succeeded in keeping the European States tied up to his order and system. His name had become a terror in European Capitals.

(4) Metternich and Austria-Hungary: The suppression of all liberal ideas and free thinking was the keynote of the policy of Metternich. He did not want to take any risks in matters of law and order. The preservation of the status quo was his greatest aim. He believed that the circumstances demanded a very strict and extreme reactionary policy. The racial admixture in Austria—Hungary did not allow any loosening of the grip, or else the empire would be in danger of dismemberment. To avoid any complications for the administration, prevention at an earlier stage was better than a cure later. Thus a reign of tyranny and repression was let loose in Austria.

Strict censorship was imposed on the press of the country. Universities were brought under strict control of the Government and no liberal thinking and teaching were allowed therein. A regular spy ring was established at these educational institutions. No foreign literature of liberal views was allowed to be imported into the country. Foreign travel was not encouraged. In fact, an attempt was made to shut out and segregate Austria from the rest of the world.

The Government did not bother and care for the economic development of the country. The result was that trade sickened and commerce lagged. Emperor Francis I of Austria was in complete agreement with the policy of his Chancellor and backed him up in his methods of dealing with the people. In short, Austria-Hungary from 1815 to 1848 was in the iron grip of Metternich and the people had to wait patiently for any relief for this monster to meet his doom.

(5) Metternich and Germany: Germany had come out of the Vienna settlement with thirty-eight sovereign states, loosely united together in the German confederation under the leadership of Austria. This again was a triumph for Metternich. Prussia remained weak—unable to do anything for German unity. The small states of Germany were jealous of one another and Metternich took full advantage of this mutual jealousy.

He established his system in the Germanies as well, where freedom of any kind for liberal thinking was not allowed, The German Diet was persuaded in 1819 to enact the famous Carlsbad decrees. According to those laws, liberty of any Kind ceased to exist in most of the German States. A commission was appointed for the purpose of tracing out the secret organizations and conspiracies. Such unsocial activities were to be vigorously crushed. An elaborate spy system was established. Liberal teaching was forbidden at the universities.

(6) The Metternich System in Italy :

Metternich had succeeded in keeping. Italy was a “geographical expression” at the Vienna settlement. His greatest aim after 1815 was to preserve what he had achieved in Italy. The Habsburg rulers of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, who had run away, were restored to their thrones with all the evils of their despotism. Further, he guaranteed the rulers of Naples and Sicily a despotic rule and Austrian help in the name of a revolution. Other rulers of Italy too were encouraged to be despotic and curb liberals. Thinking in their dominions. True to his word, the Austrian Chancellor despatched Austrian troops to the aid of the King of Naples, when there was a popular uprising there in 1820. A similar revolt was crushed in Piedmont in 1821. Insurrections broke out again in Italy in 1831 and 1832 against the despotic regimes there. But once again these revolts were suppressed with Austrian assistance. Lombardy and Venetia were ruled directly by Austria as her provinces, and the rest of the Italian States were subject to the tyranny of Metternich.

(7) Metternich and Spain :

Spanish people had forced their King Ferdinand VII to grant them a constitution. This was, however, not to the liking of Metternich. When Ferdinand appealed to him for help against his own people, Metternich at once decided to come to the rescue of the Spanish King in restoring his autocracy over his dominions. Consequently, the Congress of Verona (1822) commissioned France to lead an army into Spain. The French armies invaded Spain and the absolutism of Ferdinand was restored. Thus Metternich succeeded in establishing his system in Spain too.

(8) Metternich and Tzar Alexander of Russia :

The young Tzar Alexander I of Russia was an idealist and a liberal. He disliked Metternich at the Congress of Vienna and regarded him as a hypocrite and a liar. Later events changed his views and made him rather a disciple of Metternich. The revolt of the Polish people against him had been the most disgusting thing to him. In his own country, the liberals were out to trouble him. He could not remain an idle spectator to these developments under his very nose. Thus he was convinced of the efficiency of his methods of Metternich in dealing with these problems.

(9) An estimate of Metternich :

There is not much that could be said in praise of Metternich except that he preserved the peace of Europe for a sufficiently long time with his system of restraint. He was at the same time the most detestable personality on the continent and if the suffering multitudes of Europe prayed and asked for anything, it was for his exit.

Question 22. Briefly explain the Italian war of liberation from 1815-1848.
Answer:
(1) Secret societies instigate plots and revolts :

The political arrangement of Italy as made by the Congress of Vienna left her prey to disunion, despotism, and foreign domination. Austria was allowed a predominant influence in Italy. She directly controlled the two richest provinces, Lombardy and Venice, while the Duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany were well within the orbit of her influence as their rulers were connected with her imperial House. Naples was also a satellite as its ruler Ferdinand II had undertaken not to introduce a form of government inconsistent with the Austrian system. Thus to all intents and purposes, Austria was for a space the arbiter of Italian destiny.

The country was parcelled out into a number of petty states whose rulers were all petty despots hostile to the forces of liberalism and nationalism. But the impulse towards liberalism and unification given by the Napoleonic regime in Italy could not be wiped out. The autocratic rulers indeed banned all public manifestations of liberalism, but the movements were kept alive by secret societies, of which the most important was the Carbonari. These societies spread all over Italy, fostering the ideals of nationalism and tormenting insurrections. It was owing to their activity that in 1820 a revolution broke out in Naples, and another in Piedmont in 1821, but both were suppressed by Austrian troops. Liberalism was cowed. In 1830 a few small outbreaks occurred in the Papal States and in Parma and Modena. Austria again intervened and extinguished the flames of insurrection. The risings were local and spasmodic and were rather protests against the existing conditions than signs of a new age.

(2) Mazzini, the prophet of Italian nationalism :

With the appearance of Mazzini, an ardent idealist, in the field of Italian politics, there came a great change in the outlook of the people. Mazzini was caught by the vision of a free and united Italy and became the most eloquent prophet of her regeneration. In 1831 he founded a society called “Young Italy” with the motto “God and the People.” It was to be an educative body seeking to found the new Italian nation on the gospel of duty. He infused into the Italian movement a moral fervor that it so long lacked, kindled the enthusiasm of the people, and kept alive the spirit of insurrection. Mazzini’s great achievement was in the realm of ideas. He held up before the people the ideal of national unity and liberation and made it into a popular movement. As a consequence, what was before? only the passionate cry of a few became the creed of the masses.

(3) Pope Pius IX gives an impulse to reform :

Thus in the forties of the century, there was a great ferment of thought in Italy. The people received a fresh impulse in 1846 when Pius IX, a man of liberal views, was elected to the Papal chair. His first act was to issue an amnesty for political prisoners, and this was followed by other liberal reforms such as the relaxation of the censorship of the press, admission of laymen to certain posts in the Papal states, and the modification of the ecclesiastical character of the Government. These measures were received with unbounded enthusiasm ‘and Pius IX became immensely popular. The hopes of the people ran high and liberalism raised its head everywhere in Italy, especially in Tuscany and Piedmont. Metternich was, however, much alarmed and sought to coerce the Pope by occupying Ferrara. This measure caused a wave of indignation to sweep all over Italy. It intensified the demand for reform and at the same time produced a strong current of anti-Austrian feelings in 1847. The next year was the year of revolution in Europe and it also broke out in Italy.

The first outbreak of the people occurred at Palermo in Sicily. They demanded Sicilian autonomy and constitutional reforms. The movement spread to the mainland of Naples. Ferdinand II was frightened into granting a constitution both to Naples and to his island kingdom of Sicily. The success scored by the people in the south of Italy was a signal for democratic risings all over the country even before the outbreak of the revolution in France. Demands for reform were made everywhere and demonstrations in favor of a constitution occurred in Piedmont, Tuscany, and the Papal States. In all these principalities the rulers had to grant constitutions and parliamentary Governments. So far the movement was a democratic one and it met with temporary success.

(5) The revolt develops into a struggle for Italian liberation :

But the democratic movement soon developed into a struggle for national independence. The news of the rising in Paris, followed by the news of the revolution in Vienna and the flight of Metternich, sent a thrill of hope throughout Italy. Milan rose against the bated rule of Austria and after five days of street-fighting, the Austrian troops were compelled to withdraw from the city. A similar movement followed in Venice where the people, led by a liberal patriot named Manin, drove out the Austrian troops and proclaimed a republic. A universal impulse stirred all of Italy. Volunteers poured into Lombardy all quarters to strike a blow against Austria.

There arose wide demand for war to terminate Austrian domination, and Cavour, the young editor of Risorgimento, wrote a stirring appeal to Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont to lead the national war against Austria. Urged on by his own subjects and the Lombards alike, Charles Albert declared war against the Austrians in 1848. King Leopold of Tuscany followed his example, while the Pope and Ferdinand of Naples were forced by their subjects to lend support. The struggle was no longer a revolutionary insurrection, it assumed

The aspect of a national war led by an Italian Prince and supported by contingents from all of Italy. But the impulse to unity was shortlived. The Pope, torn by conflicting sentiments, declared his opposition to a war with a Catholic power, while Ferdinand of Naples recalled his army to put down a revolt in his capital. The defection of the Pope and Ferdinand sealed the fate of the war. Charles Albert was defeated by the Austrian commander Redetzky at Custozza and was forced to sign an armistice and withdraw from Lombardy (1848). The Italian revolution had received a decisive check.

(6) Republic set up in Rome by Mazzini :

The withdrawal of the Sardinian King and Pope Pius IX from the national struggle gave a new turn to the Italian movement. Hitherto it was a constitutional and monarchical movement; it now took on a republican character. Serious disturbances occurred in Rome and the people there overthrew the temporal power of the Papacy and proclaimed a republic under Mazzini’s leadership. The Pope in fear fled from Rome. Tuscany followed Rome’s example and set up a republic. The fate of Italy hung upon the attitude of Charles Albert of Piedmont. Yielding to popular pressure he once more braced himself for the task of liberating Italy. He denounced the armistice with Austria and crossed the frontier for a fresh dash at Milan. But at Novara, he was completely defeated by the Austrians (1849). Sick at heart, Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II. The defeat at Novara shattered the hopes of the Italians and marked the beginning of the reaction.

(7) Fall of the Roman Republic:

The flight of the Pope from Rome caused a stir in the Roman Catholic world. Louis Napoleon, the newly elected President of the French Republic, desired to make a counter-demonstration against the power of Austria in Italy, and so took up the cause of the Pope. He desired to please the powerful Catholic party in France, which viewed the overthrew of the Papal Government with horror. So he sent an army against Mazzini’s republic in Rome. After a brilliant defense conducted by Garibaldi for over two months, Rome surrendered to the French troops. Louis Napoleon thus won the prestige of restoring Papal supremacy in Rome. Pins IX returned to the Vatican, cured of any suspicion of liberalism.

(8) Collapse of the struggle:

Thus collapsed the premature struggle for Italian independence. Austria regained her position in Lombardy and Venetia. Absolutism was restored in the collapse of all the States except Piedmont were Victor Emmanuel II remained loyal to the constitution which his father had granted. The failure of the nationalist movement, was due in part to the confusion of aims, in part to a lack of sound leadership. No great leader arose to guide the movement into the right channel. Mazzini could inspire, and Garibaldi could fight but neither of them had that sound statesmanship that alone could utilize the forces of the time to its own advantage.

(9) Significance of the Italian revolution of 1848:
But though a failure, the struggle of the Italians was not altogether fruitless. For the first time, they had combined for a common cause, and in the name of nationalism.

Question 23. Write a note on the story of the unification of Italy.
Answer: The unification of Italy in the 19th century is an important landmark in the history, of Europe. Italy was divided into a number of small kingdoms. Taking advantage of this, big powers like France, Austria, and Spain dominated Italy. ’ Risorginena literary, meaning resurgence or re-birth, was the term used to give a call to the Italians for their unity and liberty. The Risorgimento was successful in achieving of unification of Italy.

Role of Carbonari :

The Italian terrorists, known as the Carbonaries, fired the first shot in the Italian movement for unity and liberty. The Carbonaries were so-called .as they used to burn charcoal Carbonari, the secret society sprang up in Naples and spread throughout Italy. The risings were organized by the Austrian troops. Its chief value lay in its keeping the revolutionary spirit alive among the common people. It was the only organization of the patriots of Italy which was composed of people of all classes. They expressed their discontent through acts of violence. Thus, though Carbonari failed, their contribution to Italian unification can’t be ignored.

Role of Mazzin :

Giuseppe Mazzini founded a youth organization called Young Italy in 1831. He created the mental climate that was so necessary for building a new united Italy and it is for this that he is remembered rightly as the pioneer in the movement for a united independent Italy. The mass uprising organized by young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure.

The objectives and program of Young Italy were as follows:-
(1) Italy should be unified as one nation.
(2) Austria should be driven out of Italy.
(3) Republic should be established in Italy.
(4) In the war against Answertria foreign help was not taken.
(5) Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only.

Role of Cavour :

After the failure of the Young Italy movement, the leadership of the Italian unification passed on to us. Camillo Cavour.

His objectives were as follows:-
(1) Cavour wanted to make the problem of the unification of Italy a European question.
(2) Cavour decided to drive out Austria from Italian soil with the help of foreign powers.
(3) He believed that-the Italian unity was possible only under the leadership of Piedmont – Sardinia. Thus, when Victor Immanuel II, king of Piedmont Sardinia, appointed Cavour as the prime to his dream of a united Italy following principal stated above.

Role of Garibaldi :

Garibaldi was a famous patriot of Italy. He played a vital role in the unification of Italy. He was highly influenced by the ideas of Mazzini and he joined Young Italy. Meanwhile, with the outbreak of a mass uprising in 1860 in Sicily against their king Francis. Garibaldi appeared there with his one thousand volunteers called red shirts. As the volunteers used to wear red shirts, they were called the ‘red shirts’ On 5th May 1860, the Redshirts under the leadership of Garibaldi went to Sicily. It was called ‘Expedition of the thousands’. It seemed that the campaign would fail, for the king of Naples had 24,000 troops in Sicily and about 1,00,000 in Naples. But fortune favored Garibaldi.

Italy united :

Defeated at the Battle of Sadowa (1866) Austria had to leave Venice for Italy. Again, in 1870 after the defeat of France in the Battle of Sedan (1870), she was compelled to pull her forces out of Rome. Thus, if finally a united Italy was born out of the battle of Sedan.

Question 24. Give an account of the unification of Germany. Or, Estimate the contribution of Bismark to the unification of Germany.
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

In Germany as in Italy, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 had torn into pieces Napoleon’s work of stitching Germany together. Germany once more became a collection of patches. Nevertheless, the seeds of democratic and national ideals were stirring in their beds.

(2) Earlier attempts at unification :

(1) Carlsbad Decrees :
In 1817, the students of Jena University held the patriotic demonstration of the Wartburg Festival to celebrate the battle of Leipzig. This created panic in the Governments of Germany. Metternich successfully worked upon their fears. The Federal Diet passed the famous Carlsbad Decrees which inaugurated an era of repression and despotism in Germany for 30 years.

(2) French Revolution of 1830 :
When the success of the Paris Revolution of 1830 reached Germany, it had repercussions. In Bavaria, a monster meeting was held to celebrate the Dawn of Liberty and of German Unity. Metternich, the Policeman of Europe, summoned a Diet of the princes and rulers of Germany and rushed through a number of repressive decrees to silence public opinion.

(3) French Revolution of 1848 :
It was Paris again that gave the signal in 1848 and everywhere in Germany, the people shouted for a ‘German National Parliament’.

(4) The Frankfurt Parliament :

The rulers and Princes of Germany gave way and a Parliament was summoned in 1848 at Frankfurt The Frankfurt Parliament formally offered the crown of ‘United Germarfy’ to King Frederick William IV of Prussia. The King of Prussia refused it because it was offered to him by the people.

(5) Convention of Olmutz, 1850 :

Having refused the crown from the revolutionary assembly, Frederick William IV proposed the formation of a confederation united under the hegemony of Prussia and he was forced to accept the humiliating Convention of Olmutz in 1850. By this, the Union was dissolved and the old Bund was established with a Diet at Frankfurt to control it

(6) Bismarck appears on the scene :

In 1861, Frederick William IV was succeeded by his brother king William I. This was a turning point in the history of Germany. He believed that Prussia’s destiny depended upon the army. Prussia’s army needed strengthening, but the Prussian Parliament would not grant the necessary money. A deadlock ensued. As a last experiment, he called Otto Von Bismarck who was appointed Minister-president or Chancellor of Prussia in 1862. He boldly denied Parliament the control of the purse and the army reforms were carried through. The Prussian army was made the strongest military engine in Europe.

(7) The views of Bismarck :

Bismarck was distinguished for his strong monarchical sentiments. He believed that it was Prussian kings, nor the Prussian people who made Prussia great. He realized that one great obstacle to German unification was Austria and Austria was to be driven out by the strength of Prussian arms. Germany was to be united, with Prussia at the head of it He would effect the union of Germany not by ‘speeches’ but by the sword, ‘blood and iron’ as he called it To this end, he would follow any means however unscrupulous. Bismarck was a man of action and the most successful statesman of his age.

(8) War with Denmark :

Bismarck achieved the unification of Germany in three wars. The first of these was the war with Denmark which was precipitated by the question of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. They belonged to the King of Denmark. The people of these Duchies were predominantly German and desired a union with Germany. In 1853, against their wish, King Charles IX of Denmark incorporated Schleswig in Denmark. Bismarck saw the situation as an opportunity for a quarrel with Austria. He induced Austria to cooperate and the two powers, Austria and Prussia easily defeated Denmark which was forced to cede the Duchies to them jointly.

(9) The Austro-Prussian War :

As expected and desired by Bismarck, Austria picked up a quarrel about the future of the Duchies. Bismarck did not want any compromise and Austria played into his hands by not yielding. He isolated Austria by winning over Russia, Italy, and Napoleon III of France. War broke out in 1866. The Austro-Prussian War or the Seven Weeks’ War was short and decisive. Austrian forces were routed at Sadowa and Austria was expelled from German Confederation. By the treaty of Prague, she was to cede Venetia to Italy but to lose no other territory. France gained nothing and was dissatisfied. Thus the Austro-Prussian war led to the Franco – Prussian War. In other words, Sadowa led to Sedan.

(10) Franco-Prussian War :

Prussian victory over Austria was regarded by the French as the defeat of France. The opposition press in France attacked the Government. Napoleon III hoped to avoid the situation by getting compensation from Germany for neutrality in the Austro-Prussian War. No expectation could be more futile. Compensation could be obtained in one way only—at the point of the sword. Bismarck on his part desired war with France and manipulated public opinion in both countries to fever heat. But the famous Ems Telegram on the question of Spanish crown France, through her ambassador Benedict, demanded that Prussia should never revive the claims of.

Leopold was a relative of King William 1 of Prussia to the Spanish throne. William, I refused. When this news reached Bismarck he sent out a telegram to the press in such as to indicate that the French ambassador was insulted by the Prussian Emperor. Bismarck intended Ems Telegram to be a red rag to the French. But Napoleon III declared war on Prussia. Bismarck defeated him at Metz and at Sedan he was taken captive in 1870. Bismarck wrested Alsace-Loraine from France by the Treaty of Frankfurt.

(11) The German Empire :

The King of Prussia was made the President of the North German Confederation in 1867 by Bismarck. After the battle of Sedan and before the capture of Paris in 1871, Bismarck arranged the ceremony of inaugurating the German Empire. The King of Prussia has crowned German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors in the grand palace of Louis XIV at Versailles.

Question 25. Analyze the main features of the foreign policy of Bismarck up to 1878.
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

The Frankfurt fiasco of 1848 was a triumph for Austria, but to no one did it give greater satisfaction than to a Prussian subject. The man destined to fame as the cheater of German unity, Count Otto Von Bismarck. In 1862, William, the Emperor of Prussia appointed Bismarck as his minister. In the meantime, Bismarck had not only gained much experience of German affairs at Frankfurt but as ambassador at St. Petersburg from 1859 to 1862 and for a few months at Paris had acquired first-hand knowledge of the main lines of European diplomacy.

At Paris he had taken the measure of Emperor Napoleon III, his experience at Frankfurt had made him realize Austria’s bitter hostility to Prussia, his sojourn at St. Petersburg had convinced him that “Prussia must never let Russia’s friendship grow cold”, and that as Russia’s interest was concentrated on the east, she was naturally of Prussia. The Polish insurrection in 1863 gave him the opportunity at once. manifesting his friendship with Russia and frustrating the attempt of the poles to regain independence. Bismarck was a hater of democracy, he believed in the principle of “blood and iron” and he was a royalist to the core.

(2) Bismarck’s Policy :

The German empire is the result of the policy of blood and iron as carried out by Prussia through three wars which crowded in the brief period of six years the war with Denmark in 1864, with Austria in 1866, and with France in 1870-1871, the last two of which were the result of Bismarck’s will and diplomatic ingenuity and unscrupulousness and the first of which he exploited consummately, for the advantage of Prussia.

The first of these grew out of one of the complicated issues that have ever perplexed diplomatists and statesmen about the future of Schleswig and Holstein after the death of Frederick II, King of Denmark in 1863. Moreover, Bismarck saw in the situation a chance for the eventual aggrandizement of Prussia and a possible future quarrel with Austria. Denmark could not resist the combined attacks of Austria and Prussia, and soon a war broke out between the two German powers over the future of the two Duchies Schleswig and Holstein. In the meantime, Bismarck came to terms with Napoleon III at Biarritz (1865) and promised Venetia Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (1866).

In 1866 war broke out between Austria and Prussia and within six weeks Austria was defeated. The Germanic Confederation was dissolved, Austria was expelled from the Germanic body and gave Venetia to Italy, and in 1867 the German States north of Maine were virtually annexed by Prussia. After Austria, it was the turn of France. Moreover, Napoleon III had fallen on troublous days. From a successful war with France, Bismarck might not only expect a restoration of Alsace-Lorrain but the completion of the Imperial edifice of Germany and the transference of European hegemony from Paris to Berlin.

With the victory at Sedan (1870), Bismarck consummates his life’s work. Terms of union between north and south Germany had already been arranged and on January 18, 1871, King William I of Prussia accepted the Imperial Crown from his fellow prices and proclaimed Versailles as the first German Emperor. But the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) left behind its embittered memories. The French people refused to accept the verdict of Sedan as final, their hopes for
the future was expressed in the single word ‘revenge’.

In these circumstances, Bismarck put all his energies into the task of isolating France from Europe. In 1872 he built up another Holy Alliance, popularly known as Dreikaiserbund, by which Germany, Austria, and Russia united to crush liberal movements. But the reopening, of the Eastern question in 1875 introduced a new factor in the situation. At the Congress of Berlin (1878), Germany co-operated with Austria, and Russia was violently incensed at the ingratitude of the power to whom she had rendered signal services in 1870. The entente of the three Emperors was rudely shattered and Bismarck turned closer to Austrian friendship.

Question 26. Compare and contrast the unification of Italy with that of Germany.
Answer:
The two unifications present points of resemblance as well as difference.
(1) Resemblance :
(1) Both had the same end in view; the one sought the unity of Germany and the other unity of Italy.
(2) To both Italy and Germany, the first requisite was the expulsion of foreign domination, namely that of Austria.

(2) Difference :

(1) Cavour was a liberal, whereas Bismarck was a reactionary.

(2) Cavour followed constitutional and legitimate methods. The monarchy in Italy went hand in hand with the popular movement. But Bismarck believed in Prussian despotism and followed methods of ‘blood and iron’ and vile diplomacy and aggressive policy.

(3) Bismarck, unlike Cavour whose aim was not Piedmont but Italy, believed in unification with Prussian hegemony. He did not allow Prussia to be dissolved into Germany, but the rest of Germany was absorbed into Prussia. Italy absorbed Piedmont whereas Prussia absorbed Germany.

(3) Criticism :

The German Empire was the result of the policy of blood and iron carried out by Bismarck in three wars. Thus it rested upon the sword. When Cavour died, his work was substantially complete. But Bismarck, as Lipson points out, left behind problems that involve uncertainty as to the destiny of the structure he created. Later events were to prove that he gave wholly a false direction to German political development.

Question 27. Give an account of Bismarck’s internal policy.
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

The appearance of Bismarck marks the beginning of a new epoch in European history. Bismarck was one of the most original and remarkable characters of his century. He was one of the greatest men in action with an iron resolve and the most successful statesman of his age. Bismarck ranks in history as one of the few great founders of the States.

(2) The views of Bismarck :

Bismarck was distinguished for his strong monarchical sentiments. He hated democratic ideas and the anarchy left loose by the Revolution in France. To his end, Bismarck devoted all his energies. After having achieved the unification of Germany in three wars he turned his attention to the internal consolidation of the German Empire.

(3) Consolidation of the German Empire :

(1) The Constitution of the new German Empire was put into force in 1871. It was a federal constitution with the King of Prussia ipso facto the German Emperor.

(2) The Imperial Legislature: The Bundesrat :
This was the most powerful institution which possessed legislative, executive, and judicial functions. It represented the states in the federation, but representation to states was most unequal, out of 58 members Prussia alone was given 17. The Bundesrat was not a deliberative body but acted according to the instructions from the home government.

(3) The Reichstag :

The Reichstag was the popular body elected by adult suffrage. But it was powerless and little more than an advisory body. Thus, Bismarck created a staunchly monarchical confederation under Prussian hegemony. The main spring of power was the Bundesrat and the Kingdom of Prussia.

(4) The Prussian Government :

When the Prussian Government came into conflict with the royal power, Bismarck flouted it and trampled it underfoot. The Parliament of Prussia possessed no controlling voice in the state. The executive was not subject to it. The executive in Prussia was the King as Emperor, he gained his great power from the fact that he was the King of Prussia. Bismarck was known as the ‘Tamer of Parliament’.

(5) Conflict with the Church :

The New German Empire had to face a fierce religious conflict called Kultur Kampf or war in defense of civilization, for many years. It was a contest between the State and the Roman Catholic Church. The religious hatred in Germany between the Catholics and the Protestants was intensified by Prussian victories over Austria and France. They were Victories of a Protestant state over two strong Catholic powers. The Catholics won a good number of seats in the Reichstag. Bismarck did not like the appearance of the clerical party in the political arena. He believed that Church should keep out of politics.

(1) The Kultur Kampf :

The Kultur Kampf was a quarrel among the Catholics themselves. In 1870, the Vatican Council proclaimed the new dogma of Papal infallibility. The large majority of Catholic princes in Germany accepted it, but some refused. There the majority demanded that those who had not accepted it should be removed from their positions in universities and schools. The Prussian Government refused to remove them. A religious war broke out.

(2) The Falk :

The Prussian legislature passed the Falk or May Laws which forbade Catholic priests from intervening in civil affairs. The state exercised control over the appointment and dismissal of priests. A law was passed making civil marriages compulsory. The Government took repressive measures like fines and imprisonment to enforce these laws. The nation’s life was disturbed.

(3) Compromise :

The religious policy of Bismarck failed and he was forced to compromise. The anti-clerical legislation was gradually repealed except that concerning civil marriage. The only permanent result of the religious conflict was the strengthening of the Catholic party in Germany.

(6) Suppression of Socialists :

In 1878, Bismarck turned his attention to the socialist party which was founded by Ferdinand Lassalle. The socialists demanded political and civil freedoms, economic and social reforms, and humanitarian measures in the interests of the working class. Bismarck who hated the Socialists adopted two methods in dealing with them:

(1) stern repression of socialist agitation, and

(2) concessions to the working class. First came repression. In 1878 he passed a law of great severity which forbade all socialist associations, meetings, and publications. It also made provision for the promulgation of Martial Law. But repression failed to check the socialists. Bismarck tried the second method. He tried to improve the condition of the working class by adopting the policy of State Socialism Sickness. Accident, Old Age Insurance laws were passed. In this legislation, Bismarck was the pioneer in Europe. The Socialists denounced these laws as inadequate. Thus both his methods failed and the socialist party steadily increased in Germany.

(7) Army Reforms :

To safeguard the new Germany, Bismarck turned to both diplomacy and military preparedness. The German military machine was always growing, never shrinking, after 1871 Bismarck introduced compulsory military service.

(8) Judicial Reforms :

The whole judicial administration was reorganized and a uniform code of procedure was introduced for the whole empire. A Supreme Court was established at Leipzig.

(9) Economic Measures :

Bismarck brought about a thorough change in the financial and industrial policy of Germany. In the interest of the development of German manufactures, he adopted in 1879, the policy of protection by introducing high tariffs. For the same purpose in 1884, he introduced the vigorous colonial policy. Germany was thoroughly industrialized. The iron mines of Lorraine as well as the coal mines or the Ruhr were fully exploited. Steel and Textile industries were promoted and Railway was extended. The Reich Bank was established and the coinage was improved.

(9) “Dropping of the Pilot” :

In 1888, Frederick William I was succeeded by his ‘son, William II. The new Kaiser could not break the controlling influence of the great chancellor. Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890. The removal of Bismarck was a great loss to Germany as shown in the phrase “dropping of the pilot” which is applied to describe it.

Question 28. What were the aims of the foreign policy of Bismarck from 1861 to 187]?
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

The appearance of Bismarck marked the beginning of a new epoch in European history. Bismarck who entered the stage of European politics in 1861, was one of the most original and remarkable characters of his century. He was one of the greatest of the diplomats and men of a Nation with an iron resolve. Like Napoleon, he was a destroyer but unlike Napoleon, he has never led astray on ambition. Bismarck was a realist and the most successful statesman of his age. A great diplomat, he struck at the right moment.

(2) The aims of Bismarck’s foreign policy :

Bismarck was distinguished for his strong monarchical sentiments and his hatred of the anarchy of democracy let loose by the Revolution. His sole aim was the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony. He aimed at making Prussia the strongest and the greatest power in Europe. To this end, he followed any means however unscrupulous. He would achieve the unification of Germany not by ‘speeches’ but by the sword, “blood and iron” as he called it. His foreign policy was aggressive. He did it under the protection of self-defense, forcing his opponents to take the initiative. Bismarck possessed the wonderful skill of making friends and dividing his enemies. Bismarck’s policy was aggressive nationalism but not aggressive imperialism as his second master Kaiser William II mistook it for.

(3) Foreign policy before unification :

(1) The war against Denmark and the Austro-Prussian War :

Before the unification of Germany, Bismarck’s foreign policy aimed at the expulsion of Austrians from the Germanic Confederation. He realized that the main obstacle to the unification of Germany was Austria. He induced Austria to cooperate with Prussia in a war against Denmark over the question of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck could foresee the aggrandizement of Prussia as well as a chance to quarrel with Austria, both of which he desired, for the greatest glory of the country. Denmark was defeated and Austria picked up a quarrel on the question of the future of the duchies. Bismarck, by clever diplomacy, isolated Austria by winning the friendship of Russia and Italy and securing the neutrality of France. Having thus isolated Austria, he forced Austria to take initiative and declare war. Austria was defeated at Sadowa and expelled from Germany.

(2) The Franco-Prussian War :

The traditional policy of France was to keep Germany disunited. So, Bismarck desired war with France. France also felt wounded for receiving no compensation for the neutrality in the Austro-Prussian War. Bismarck again set to work and this time to isolate France. He secured the support of Austria in the Treaty of Prague at the end of the Austro-Prussian War. He made public the aggressive designs of Napoleon III for Belgium, Luxembourg, and Palatinate and thereby caused a breach between France and Britain. Italy nourished a grudge against Napoleon III for his betrayal of her cause in the unification of Italy and for

his having wrested Savoy and Nice. Russia was secretly encouraged to violate the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. Thus having rendered the isolation of France complete, she defeated her at Sedan. By the Treaty of Frankfurt, Bismarck secured for Germany the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine from France. He proclaimed the King of Prussia as the German Emperor in the French Palace of Mirror at Versailles. The French never forgave these two things, and revenge upon Germany became the whole concern of France in the years to come.

Question 29. Critically examine the foreign policy of Germany from 1871 to 1890.
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

The France-Prussian War left behind embittered memories. France was bent upon revenge and recovering the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine. Hence, Bismarck was forced to follow the policy of isolating France from Europe and conquering her weak so that she might not be a danger to Germany. With this end in view, he formed the League of Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund) in 1872.

(2) The League of Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund), 1872 :

Bismarck invited the Emperors of Prussia and Austria, the possible allies of France to Britain. He convinced them of the common danger from Revolutionary France to all monarchs alike. Thus, the three Emperors of Russia, Austria, and Prussia formed an alliance.

(1) The Congress of Berlin :
The League of Three Emperors was not to be destined to last, for Austria and Russia were rivals in the Balkans. The actual break-up took place with the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Bismarck, who played the honest broker, supported the claims of Austria against Russia in securing Bosnia and
Herzegovina which was claimed by Serbia is an ally of Russia.

(2) The Dual Alliance :
Having lost the friendship of Russia, Bismarck made up for the loss through a closer alliance mth Austria. Austria and Germany signed the Dual Alliance.

(3) The Triple Alliance :

The Dual Alliance was converted into a Triple Alliance by admitting Italy into it. Italy was offended by the French occupation of Tunis and threw in her lot with the Central Powers. The isolation of France was made complete. This alarmed France. She gradually patched up her differences with Russia and Britain and formed the Triple Entente to counterpoise the Triple Alliance. Thus the policy of Bismarck led to the division of Europe into two rival camps.

(3) Colonial Policy :

One of the important features of the closing years of Bismarck’s political career was the beginning of a German colonial empire. In 1871, he refused to demand as a prize any of the French colonial possessions. He believed that Germany should consolidate and should not risk the hostility of other nations by entering the path of colonial rivalry. But after 1880, Bismarck was attracted by the activities of energetic merchants from Hamburg and Bremen who established trading. Stations in Africa and the islands of the Pacific. He adopted the policy of protection and the development of German manufacturers to the utmost and aspired for new markets for German products. In 1884, he adopted a vigorous colonial policy and took part in the scramble for Africa. Germany acquired Cameroon, Togoland, German South-West Africa, German East Africa, and also a part of New Guinea.

(4) Criticism :

In 1888, Kaiser William 1 was succeeded by his son William II. The new Kaiser could not break the control of the great Chancellor. Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890. The German Empire that Bismarck established rested upon the sword and its foundations were a series of contacts between different governments. As such, it required delicate and skillful handling. With the ‘dropping of the pilot’ in 1890, all political wisdom vanished in Germany. Diplomacy gave place to tactless aggression. The military engine created by Bismarck became a menace to Europe until it was blown up in the flames of World War I. Thus, it will be seen that Bismarck gave a wholly false direction to German political development.

Question 30. “Alexander II may be regarded as the Czar Liberator.” -Discuss.
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

The Crimean War was in a general sense the watershed of European history; the statement may be with particular force applied to Russian defeat which discredited wholly the system of Nicholas I and set on foot a movement toward democracy, which in one form or another, has been the principal theme of her internal history from that day to this.

(2) Alexander II :

The way to reform in Russia was prepared by the death of Czar Nicholas I at the beginning of 1855 and by the accession of Alexander II. He was a man of kindly and humane instincts, with none of his father’s love of soldiering. He was a great lover of Russia, deeply sensitive to her humiliations and conscious of his own responsibility. The reforms upon which he embarked at the beginning of his reign, were not the emanations of democratic conviction.

(3) The Treaty of Paris :

The new Czar Alexander II who succeeded Nicholas I made peace with the Allies in 1856, known as the Treaty of Paris. The treaty did not refer to the petty quarrel on which the war broke out, but it attempted to reach a settlement of the Eastern Question.
(1) Conquests made during the war were to be restored.
(2) Moldavia and Wallachia were declared autonomous. Russia lost its protectorate over them.
(3) The Black Sea was neutralized and its ports were thrown open to the merchant ships of all nations.
(4) The Russians undertook not to fortify Sebastopol.
(5) To Moldavia was ceded southern Bessarabia by Russia.
(6) Kars was returned to Turkey.
(7) Russia was given back Crimea.
(8) Their freedom was guaranteed by the Great Powers.
(9) The powers collectively guaranteed not to interfere in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire and to preserve its territorial integrity.
(10) The Sultan promised to introduce liberal reforms in the Balkan states.
(11) Turkey was admitted to the ‘European concert’ and the Sultan was empowered to send representatives to the future congress of the powers.

(4) Criticism of the Treaty :

There were nearly 45 million serfs forming about half of her population, 23 million belonged to the crown, and the rest to the private lords and church. Those in the royal domain were far better off than those in the private ‘and. The Edict of Emancipation of Alexander II a measure not only of profound moral but also of greatest economic importance—was based on four main principles. The first was embodied in the concession of full civic rights. The serf became a free peasant freed from bondage to his master.

Secondly, the serf was to be given not only freedom but land and the noble was to lose not only his labor but some of his property. Otherwise, the landless peasants would create a greater number of social and economic problems than had been removed by liberation.

The third principle enjoined that the land was not to be bestowed upon the peasant in personal ownership, but in communal ownership upon the village group or ‘mir’ to which he was attached. The mir held the land and the mir was collectively responsible for certain yearly payments which were to be given to the lord. Lastly, the Government was to help the village groups to redeem the annual dues to the former owner of the soil by lending them sums of money equal to the capitalized value of the land. The practical effects of emancipation on the land-owning classes varied in different parts of the country. But to the peasant, it brought deep disappointment. On the surface the edict was revolutionary, in practice, it affected little economic improvement in their condition. They found that the authority of the mir was as irritating as that of the lords.

(5) Other Reforms :

The emancipation of the serfs, the greatest of Alexander’s reforms, was speedily followed by others. The disabilities were removed from the universities and from foreign travel, the press censorship was considerably modified, the army and navy reorganized and important changes were introduced into the judicial administration and into local government. The Judicial system was full of abuses and it was rotten to the core with wholesale corruption. An entirely new judicial structure was set up, modeled on English and French lines.

The administrative and judicial functions have separated the independence of the magistrates and promoted oval procedures of trial by jury established. A new penal code was introduced and civil and criminal cases were simplified. Justices of the peace, chosen by popular election, were instituted to deal with minor affairs, and more important suits were reserved for regular tribunals composed of trained judges supported by the crown.

The Crimean War has shown the inefficiency of the administration and. radical changes were introduced in the Moscow provinces, in the direction of decentralization and local autonomy. New Councils or Zemstvos were set up representing the classes of the community. The councils were of two kinds, the district council elected by popular suffrage, and the provincial council elected by the District Council. But their powers were restricted by the right of veto over their decisions possessed by the Governor of the province and by the lack of their inadequate financial resources.

(6) Conclusion :

Through the wide reforms, Alexander II performed a great service as Peter the Great in bringing Russia into line with western nations. A new spirit began to pervade Russia, new literature and economics and philosophy and politics sprang up and a marked impulse was given to education and the press swarmed with Utopias. The concession and local autonomy was merely a preface to the grant of complete political self-government. Russia was to imitate the nations of the West.

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century  Introduction

In the early years of the 20″ century, the political atmosphere of the European continent was quite tense. Europe was in the throes of a devastating war—the First World War (1914-18).

Never before had a war been fought over an area which was nearly as wide as the world. It was fought between the Allied Powers comprising Britain, France, Russia, and Serbia and the Central Powers comprising Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Turkey. With the surrender of Germany in 1918, the First Wold War came to an end.

Learn and Real all  WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

As an answer to all European problems the President of America, Woodrow Wilson. came up with peace proposals known as the Fourteen Points. The defeated Germans expected a peace settlement to be based upon the Fourteen Points.

The Treaty of Versailles. This treaty imposed unjust and humiliating terms on defeated Germany. Naturally, Germany continued to nourish grievances about the treaty.

The next major event of 20th century Europe was the establishment of an established after the First World War. Its aim was to prevent armed conflict and to establish honourable and just relationships among different nations.

The next historical event was the establishment of dictatorial governments in different parts of Europe. After the First World War, the situation in Italy was very serious.

Prices soared high and poverty and insufficiency stalked the land. Mussolini’s party became the dictator of Italy. The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles brought in a host of evils like unemployment, price rise and taxation.

The Weimar Republic in Germany failed to solve the economic problems. Hitler fully exploited the discontent of his countrymen. and became a dictator.

Another epoch-making event of the 20th century was the outbreak of the Russian Revolution (1917). Various socio-political, economic and intellectual causes were responsible for the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Revolution had a tremendous impact on the Russian and non-Russian nationalities. It ushered in a great socialist movement and created panic in the capitalist world. The revolution era of nationalist struggle against colonial rule. The Russian Peasants stood against the Czarist rule due to the legislation of 1861.

Russia witnessed a series of revolts between 1861 be and 1863. In this concern, the names of the Nihilist and Narodnik movements are worthy to be mentioned.

Narodnik:

The most important political movement that gained prominence in Russia in the 60s of the 19th century was the Narodnik (or Narodniki) Movement. The Russian word ‘narod’ means the ‘People’ of course during the nineteen 19th century the term narod was used to denote the peasants rather than common people.

One who sought to help the people (peasantry, i.e., narod) take the road of revolutionary struggle for a just and happy life was known as a narodnik. Hence, their movement is known as the Narodrik Movement. The peasants were tortured humiliated and exploited in many ways.

Aims and Method :

(1) Overthrow of the Tsarist autocracy
(2) Destruction of the prevalent social structure
(3) Its repacement by an agarian socialistic society

As an ideological movement, the Naodnik were not a homogeneous body. Its leaders like Bakunin, Labrov, Peter Teacher, etc. had the same objective but they adopted different methods. For example, Bakunin advocated a revolutionary struggle, and Lavrov believed in propagating consciousness among the peasants about revolutionary struggle.

Result: The Narodrik Movement was crushed and ended in failure. It failed to evoke interest among the peasantry. Anyway, after the failure of Narodnik, a section of the formed

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century 1 Mark Questions And Answers:

Multiple Choice Type :

Question 1. The Paris Peace Conference took place in
(1) 1919
(2) 1920
(3) 1921
(4) 1922

Answer: (1) 1919

Question 2. ‘Fourteen Points’ were put before Germany by
(1) Lloyd Gorge
(2) Orlando
(3) Woodrow Wilson
(4) Clemenceau

Answer: (3) Woodrow Wilson

Question 3. Name the country which did not join the League of Nations.
(1) America
(2) Germany
(3) Spain
(4) England

Answer: (1) America

Question 4. The Bolshevik Revolution broke out in Russia in
(1) 1915
(2) 1916
(3) 1917
(4) 1918

Answer: (3) 1917

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 5. Mussolini’s party came to be known as
(1) Fascist Party
(2) Socialist Party
(3) Nazi Party
(4) Communist Party

Answer: (1) Fascist Party

Question  6. The formation of Union of the Soviet Socialist Republic was formally declared in
(1) 1920
(2) 1921
(3) 1922
(4) 1923

Answer: (3) 1922

Question 7. The Bolsheviks captured power in Russia by the
(1) November Revolution
(2) July Revolution
(3) February Revolution
(4) October Rovolution

Answer: (4) October Rovolution

Question 8. Lusitania was
(1) A country in Europe
(2) The name of a ship
(3) The name of a captain
(4) The name of an island.

Answer: (2) The name of a ship

Question 9. The American President during World War I was
(1) Woodrow Wilson
(2) Abraham Lincoln
(3) George Washington
(4) George Barlow

Answer: (1) Woodrow Wilson

Question 10. A special secret police was formed by the Bolsheviks called
(1) Duma
(2) Cheka
(3) Soviets
(4) Aurora

Answer: (2) Cheka

Question 11. President Wilson belonged to
(1) Britain
(2) China
(3) America
(4) Japan

Answer: (3) America

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 12. The First World War broke out in
(1) 1912
(2) 1915
(3) 1913
(4) 1914

Answer: (4) 1914

Question 13. The First World War came to an end in
(1) 1919
(2) 1918
(3) 1913
(4) 1914

Answer: (2) 1918

Question 14. Who of the following was most active in the establishment of the League of Nations?
(1) Lloyd George
(2) Orlando
(3) Clemenceau
(4) Woodrow Wilson

Answer: (4) Woodrow Wilson

Question 15. The League of Nations was formed after
(1) First Balkan War
(2) World War I
(3) 2nd Balkan War
(4) World War II

Answer: (2) World War I

Question 16. What was the date and year of Bloody Sunday?
(1) 9 January 1905
(2) 12 January 1905
(3) 4 April 1906
(4) 9 August 1906

Answer: (1) 9 January 1905

Question 17. Rasputin was a
(1) Minister
(2) Czar of Russia
(3) Mystic Saint
(4) Close relative of Czar

Answer: (3) Mystic Saint

Question 18. The Bolshevik Revolution was led by
(1) Stalin
(2) Lenin
(3) Trotsky
(4) None of them

Answer: (2) Lenin

Question 19. Nazism cropped up after the First World War in
(1) Italy
(2) Spain
(3) Russia
(4) Germany

Answer: (4) Germany

Question 20. Hitler became the Prime Minister of Germany in
(1) 1931
(2) 1932
(3) 1933
(4) 1934

Answer: (3) 1933

Question 21. Who was known as ‘Czar the Liberator’ ?
(1) Czar Alexander II
(2) Czar Nicholas II
(3) Czar Alexander III
(4) Czar Nicholas III

Answer: (2) Czar Alexander II

Question 22. Hitler concluded the Non-Aggression Pact with
(1) England
(2) France
(3) Russia
(4) Italy

Answer: (3) Russia

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 23. Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated in
(1) Bosnia
(2) Sarajevo
(3) Herzegovina
(4) Poland

Answer: (2) Sarajevo

Question 24. The leadership in the march to St. Petersburg by the workers was given by
(1) Stalin
(2) Father Gapon
(3) Trotsky
(4) Lenin

Answer: (2) Father Gapon

Question 25. The Great Depression of 1929 first started in
(1) Germany
(2) America
(3) France
(4) Spain

Answer: (2) America

Question 26. The members of the Fascist party were known as
(1) Red Shirts
(2) Brown Shirts
(3) Black Shirts
(4) Blue Shirts

Answer: (3) Black Shirts

Question 27. Swastika was the symbol of the
(1) Nazi Party
(2) Fascist Party
(3) Communist Party
(4) Socialist Party

Answer: (1) Nazi Party

Question 28. The leader of the Spanish Civil War was
(1) Goebels
(2) Hitler
(3) General Franco
(4) Himmler

Answer: (3) General Franco

Question 29. The Central Powers of World War I were
(1) France, Britain and Russia
(2) Russia, Italy and Romania
(3) Germany, Austria and Turkey
(4) Italy, France and Britain

Answer: (3) Germany, Austria and Turkey

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 30. Germany was declared a ‘republic’ by the provisional Government set up under
(1) The leadership of Hitler
(2) The Chancellorship of Ebert
(3) The viceroyalty of Mussolini
(4) The Chancellorship of Lenin

Answer: (2) The Chancellorship of Ebert

Question 31. The Russian Revolution of 1917 brought an end to
(1) The autocratic rule of the Czar
(2) The rule of the Fascists in Russia
(3) Monarchical rule in Russia
(4) Democracy in Russia

Answer: (1) The autocratic rule of the Czar.

Question 32. A parallel Government was set up in St. Petersburg by
(1) The Kerensky Government
(2) Social Democratic Party of Russia
(3) The Mensheviks
(4) The Bolsheviks

Answer: (4) The Bolsheviks.

Question 33. The Treaty of Brest Litovsk was signed between Germany and
(1) The federal Government of Russia
(2) The independent Government of Russia
(3) The communist Government of Russia
(4) The democratic Government of Russia

Answer: (3) The communist Government of Russia

Question 34. USSR joined the League of Nations in 1934 but was expelled
(1) For aggression in 1939 when it invaded Finland
(2) When it invaded Abyssinia
(3) Because it lacked the power to solve disputes
(4) It was the root of the Great Depression

Answer: (1) For aggression in 1939 when it invaded Finland

Question 35. The immediate cause of the First World War was
(1) The formation of secret and diplomatic alliances among the European powers
(2) The rise of the feeling of ultra-nationalism
(3) The problem of Bosnia-Herzegovina
(4) Because the murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand

Answer: (4) Because the murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand

Question 36. The League of Nations was established
(1) To find a way to maintain peace
(2) To end the First World War
(3) To try and improve the condition of the labourers
(4) To settle the dispute that arose between Sweden and Finland

Answer: (1) To find a way to maintain peace.

Question 37. One characteristic feature of the New Economic Policy of Lenin was
(1) Encouragement to artisan industry
(2) Emphasis on large-scale heavy industry
(3) A special detachment sent to collect foodgrains
(4) Industrial establishment factory committee formed

Answer: (1) Encouragement to artisan industry

Question 38. America joined the First World War because
(1) American ships were destroyed by Germany
(2) Germany conquered America
(3) Germany joined France against America
(4) England pressurised America to join

Answer: (1) American ships were destroyed by Germany.

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 39. By the Treaty of Versailles Germany was demilitarised
(1) To establish balance of power
(2) To take control of German arms
(3) So that Germany could not disturb peace in future
(4) So that Germany would not declare war against the Allied powers

Answer: (3) So that Germany could not disturb peace in future.

Question 40. Which policy shows that appeasement does not always prevent war?
(1) United States policy towards Cuba in the early 1960s
(2) Iraqi policy towards Iran in the 1980s
(3) British policy towards Germany during 1930 s
(4) French policy towards Indo-China in the 1950s

Answer: (3) British policy towards Germany during 1930 s

Question 41. The harsh conditions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles after World War I helped to lay the foundation for the
(1) Uprising during the French Revolution
(2) Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
(3) Rise of fascism in Germany
(4) Division of Korea along the 38th parallel

Answer: (3) Rise of fascism in Germany.

Question 42. One reason the Fascist Government of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini came to power in Italy and Germany was that these nations
(1) Supported the civil liberties of people
(2) Faced economic and political difficulties
(3) Were threatened by the United States of America
(4) Failed to join the League of Nations

Answer: (2) Faced economic and political difficulties

Question 43. A major cause of the Russian Revolution of 1917 was the
(1) Appeal of Marxism to the Russians
(2) Defeat of Germany in Russian campaign
(3) Existence of sharp economic differences between social classes
(4) Marriage of Czar Nicholas II to a German princess

Answer: (3) Existence of sharp economic differences between social classes

Question 44. The Russian peasants supported the Bolsheviks in the Russian Revolution of 1917 because the Bolsheviks promised to
(1) Redistribute the land owned by the nobility
(2) Introduce modern technology to Russian farms
(3) Redistribute the land owned by the Government
(4) Establish collection farms

Answer: (1) Redistribute the land owned by the Government

Question 45. A significant cause of the Great Depression of 1929 was that
(1) Some banking policies were unsound and had led to the over-expansion of credit
(2) Consumer goods were relatively inexpensive
(3) A wave of strikes had paralysed the industries
(4) A decrease in protective tariff opened America to competition from abroad

Answer: (1) some banking policies were unsound and had led to the over-expansion of credit.

Question 46. During the First World War the Emperor of Germany was
(1) Charles X
(2) Kaiser William II
(3) Frederick William IIT
(4) Kaiser William IIT

Answer: (2) Kaiser William II

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 47. After the First World War, the humiliating treaty which was imposed on Germany was the Treaty of
(1) Brest-Litovsk
(2) Versailles
(3) Lussane
(4) Sevres

Answer: (2) Versailles

Question 48. People of the Weimer Republic lost confidence in the democratic
(1) Alliance
(2) Parliamentary
(3) Values
(4) Attitude

Answer: (2) Parliamentary

Question 49. After the First World War; the new Republican Government of Germany was established in
(1) Berlin
(2) Weimer
(3) Brussels
(4) Sicily

Answer: (2) Weimer

Question 50. By the October Revolution of 1917 the captured power in Russia.
(1) Mesheviks
(2) Bolsheviks
(3) Communists
(4) None of the above

Answer: (2) Bolsheviks

Question 51. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed between Germany and
(1) Britain
(2) Italy
(3) Russia
(4) Spain

Answer: (3) Russia

Question 52. The Red Army was organised by
(1) Stalin
(2) Trotsky
(3) Lenin
(4) Engels

Answer: (2) Trotsky

Question 53. The New Economic Policy of Lenin was a compromise between Socialism and
(1) Capitalism
(2) Communism
(3) Nazism
(4) Fascism

Answer: (1) Capitalism

Question 54. The Great Depression was a period of
(1) Political crisis
(2) Economic crisis
(3) Religious crisis
(4) Global Crisis

Answer: (2) Economic crisis

Question 55. General Franco was the dictator of
(1) Netherlands
(2) Sardinia
(3) Sicily
(4) Spain

Answer: (4) Spain

Question 56. The SAAR Valley was put under an international commission for
(1) 13
(2) 14
(3) 15
(4) 16
Answer: (3) 15

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 57. The Treaty of St. Germain was signed between the victorious allies and defeated Austria in
(1) 1916
(2) 1918
(3) 1919
(4) 1920

Answer: (3) 1919

Question 58. The Revolution of 1905 in Russia broke out during the reign of
(1) Czar Alexander II
(2) Nicholas I
(3) Peter the Great
(4) Catherine II

Answer: (1) Czar Alexander II

Question 59. The Treaty of Portsmouth was signed between Japan and
(1) China
(2) France
(3) Russia
(4) Italy

Answer: (3) Russia

Question 61. ‘Pravda’ was the mouthpiece of the party.
(1) Menshevik
(2) Bolshevik
(3) Communist
(4) Socialist

Answer: (2) Bolshevik

Question 62. formed the paramilitary force known as ‘Storm Trooper’.
(1) General Franco
(2) Mussolini
(3) Hitler
(4) Tojo

Answer: (3) Hitler

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 63. The Treaty of contained the seeds of the Second World War.
(1) Trianon
(2) Neuilly
(3) Versailles
(4) Portsmouth

Answer: (3) Versailles

Question 64. Morocco is in
(1) Africa
(2) America
(3) China
(4) Japan

Answer: (1) Africa

Question 65. The two factions of the Social Democratic Party are the Bolsheviks and
(1) Communists
(2) Mensheviks
(3) Socialists
(4) Bonapartists

Answer: (2) Mensheviks

Question 66. Czar showed his liberalism by releasing the Dekabrists.
(1) Alexander I
(2) Alexander II
(3) Nicholas I
(4) Nicholas II

Answer: (2) Alexander II

Question 67. The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was signed in
(1) 1932
(2) 1933
(3) 1934
(4) 1935

Answer: (1) 1932

Question 68. Kaiser William II abdicated the throne in
(1) 1916
(2) 1917
(3) 1918
(4) 1919

Answer: (3) 1918

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 69.  The Weimer Republic was established in
(1) 1915
(2) 1916
(3) 1918
(4) 1919

Answer: (4) 1919

Question 70. The U.S.A. entered the First World War in
(1) 1917
(2) 1918
(3) 1919
(4) 1920

Answer: (1) 1917

Question 71. Herbert Hoover was the President of
(1) Britain
(2) America
(3) France
(4) USSR

Answer: (2) America

Question 72. Archduke Francis Ferdinand was the heir to the throne of
(1) Spain
(2) Austria
(3) Bosnia
(4) Herzegovina

Answer: (2) Austria

Question 73. was called the ‘Father of the League of Nations’.
(1) Llyod George
(2) Woodrow Wilson
(3) Gorky
(4) Clemenceau

Answer: (2) Woodrow Wilson

Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 74. ‘War Communism’ was introduced by
(1) Trotsky
(2) Lenin
(3) Franco
(4) Hitler

Answer: (2) Lenin

Question 75. In the American share market crashed.
(1) 1928
(2) 1929
(3) 1930
(4) 1932

Answer: (2) 1929

Question 76. is known as the Black Day in the history of the U.S.A.
(1) 24 October 1929
(2) 26 October 1929
(3) 22 October 1939
(4) 25 June 1930

Answer: (1) 24 October  1929

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century Introduction Very Short Answer Type

Question 1. By which Treaty the First World War came to an end?
Answer: Treaty of Versailles, 1919 brought to an end World War I.

Question 2. Who were the ‘Big Four’ at the time of the Treaty of Versailles?
Answer: Among the leading Allied Powers, Great Britain was represented by Lloyd George, France by Clemenceau, Italy by Orlando and the United States of America by President Wilson. They were the ‘Big Four’ who for several months made the principal decisions.

Question 3. When was the Armistice between Germany and the Allied Powers signed?
Answer: On November 11, 1918, the Armistice between Germany and the Allied Powers was signed.

Question 4. Who was known as “The Tiger’?
Answer: M. Clemenceau of France is known as ‘The Tiger’.

Question 5. Who was the President of the Peace Conference of Paris?
Answer: M. Clemenceau was the President of the Peace Conference of Paris.

Question 6. On which day was the Treaty of Versailles signed?
Answer: On June 4, 1920, the Treaty of Versailles was signed.

Question 7. Name the treaties which were signed with the Axis Powers.
Answer:

The terms of the peace were embodied in five main Treaties: Of Versailles with Germany, of St. German with Austria, of Trianon with Hungary, of Neuilly with Bulgaria and of Sevres with Turkey.

Question 8. Which treaty was imposed on Russia by Germany during World War I?
Answer: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 9. What was the name of the final treaty concluded between Turkey and the Allied Powers?
Answer: The Treaty of Lausanne, July 9, 1923, was concluded between Turkey and the Allied Powers.

Question 10. When was the League of Nations formed?
Answer: January 13, 1920.

Question 11. Where was the headquarters of the League of Nations?
Answer: Geneva, Switzerland.

Question 12. Name the main organs of the League of Nations.
Answer: The General Assembly, Council, Secretariat, Permanent Court of International Justice and International Labour Organisation were the main organs of the League of Nations.

Question 13. Where was the headquarters of the Permanent Court of International Justice located?
Answer: The headquarters of the Permanent Court of International Justice was at the Hague, Netherlands.

Question 14. Who was the Czar of Russia when the Russian Revolution, of 1917 broke out?
Answer: Czar Nicholas II was the Czar of Russia when the Russian Revolution broke out in 1917.

Question 15. What do you know of Rasputin?
Answer: Gregory Rasputin was a Russian monk who possessed a great influence on the court of Czar Nicholas II.

Question 16. What do you know of Benito Mussolini?
Answer: Mussolini was born in Italy in 1883 and died in 1945. He was the founder of the Fascist Party and Dictator of Italy from 1923 to 1943. He was better known as Duce.

Question 17. What plans were formulated to have separation from Germany?
Answer: Dawes Plan and Young Plan.

Question 18. When did the Spanish Civil War start?
Answer: In 1936 Spanish Civil War started.

Question 19. Who was Venezoles?
Answer: Venezoles was the Prime Minister of Greece. He represented Greece the Peace Treaty of Paris in 1919.

Question 20. When did the Second World War start?
Answer: On September 1, 1939, when Hitler invaded Poland without any declaration of war, the Second World War started.

Question 21. What was the period of the First World War?
Answer: The period of the First World War was 1914-1918.

Question 22. Which country declared war on Serbia in 1914?
Answer: Austria declared war on Serbia in 1914.

Question 23. What is the ‘Polish Corridor’?
Answer: According to the Treaty of Versailles (1919), a 27-mile-wide corridor through Germany was given to Poland to reach the Baltic Sea, which is known as the ‘Polish Corridor’.

Question 24. When did the Paris Peace Conference meet?
Answer: The Paris Peace Conference met in 1919.

Question 25. Name the treaty that was concluded after the end of the First World War.
Answer: The treaty that was concluded after the First World War was the Treaty of Versailles.

Question 26. Which treaty contained the seeds of the Second World War?
Answer: The Treaty of Versailles contained the seeds of the Second World War.

Question 27. Between whom was the Battle of Jutland fought?
Answer: The Battle of Jutland was fought between England and Germany.

Question 28. In which year was the Treaty of St. German signed?
Answer: The Treaty of St. Germain was signed in 1919.

Question 29. What was achieved by the Treaty of Bucharest?
Answer: By the Treaty of Bucharest the Second Balkan War came to an end.

Question 30. What was the Russian Parliament called?
Answer: The Russian Parliament was called the Duma.

Question 31. What is ‘Narodnia Volya’ ?
Answer: Narodniya Volya was a secret society of Russia.

Question 32. Why did the Narodnik movement fail?
Answer: The Narodnik movement failed due to the repressive measures of Czar Alexander III.

Question 33. What were the revolutions which broke out during the reign of Czar Alexander II?
Answer: The Revolution of 1905 and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 broke out during the reign of Czar Alexander II.

Question 34. Between whom was the Treaty of Portsmouth signed?
Answer: The Treaty of Portsmouth was signed between Japan and Russia.

Question 35. What were the two groups into which Russia’s ‘Social Democratic Party’ came to be divided? 
Answer:

Russia’s ‘Social Democratic Party’ came to be divided into two groups:

(1) The Bolsheviks and
(2) The Mensheviks.

Question 36. Which incident marked the end of the Romanov dynasty of Russia?
Answer: The Romanov dynasty of Russia ended after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.

Question 37. Who was Queen Alexandra?
Answer: Alexandra was the queen of Czar Nicholas II.

Question 38. Which incident led to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)?
Answer: The conquest of Manchuria and Korea by Russia led to the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War.

Question 39. Which revolution is known as the ‘Socialist Revolution’?
Answer: The November Revolution of 1917 in Russia is known as the Socialist Revolution.

Question 40. What is ‘Pravda’?
Answer: Pravda was the mouthpiece of the Bolshevik Party.

Question 41. When did Czardom come to an end in Russia?
Answer: Czardom came to an end in Russia on 13 March 1917.

Question 42. Who was the Czar of Russia when the Bolshevik Revolution broke out?
Answer: Nicholas II was the Czar of Russia when the Bolshevik Revolution broke out.

Question 43. Who was Leni?
Answer: Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik Revolution and the first President of Soviet Union.

Question 44. Who was Trotsky?
Answer: Trotsky was a leader of the Bolshevik Revolution and the first foreign minister of the Soviet Union.

Question 45. What was the new name of Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution?
Answer: The new name of Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution was the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic.

Question 46. What is the full name of Lenin?
Answer: Lenin’s full name is Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov.

Question 47. In which year did the Bolshevik Revolution break out?
Answer: The Bolshevik Revolution broke out in 1917.

Question 48. Name the leader who led the procession of workers to the Winter Palace.
Answer: The leader who led the procession of workers to the Winter Palace was Father Gapon.

Question 49. Into how many classes was Russian society divided in the 19th century? What are these?
Answer:

The Russian society was divided into two classes in the 19th century. These were:

(1) The aristocrats and
(2) The peasants.

Question 50. Who established the Bible Society and when?
Answer: The Bible Society was established by the Russian Czar Alexander I in 1812.

Question 51. What is the ‘Third Section’?
Answer: The ‘Third Section’ or the secret police was a body vested with unlimited powers to arrest, imprison, exile and even execute people.

Question 52. Name two intellectuals of Russia who demanded the abolition of serfdom.
Answer: Two intellectuals of Russia who demanded the abolition of serfdom were Tolstoy and Turgenev.

Question 53. What is the most remarkable contribution of Czar Alexander II?
Answer: The most remarkable contribution of Czar Alexander II was the abolition of serfdom.

Question 54. Who announced the ‘New Economic Policy’ (NEP) in Russia?
Answer: Lenin announced the ‘New Economic Policy’ in Russia.

Question 55. What does the Russian word ‘Narod’ mean?
Answer: The Russian word ‘Narod’ means ‘the people’.

Question 56. What does ‘NEP’ stand for?
Answer: ‘NEP’ stands for New Economic Policy.

Question 57. What were the two factions of the Social Democrats of Russia?
Answer:

The two factions of the Social Democrats of Russia were:

(1) The Bolsheviks and
(2) The Mensheviks.

Question 58. Name the reigning Czar of Russia when the Revolution of 1917 broke out.
Answer: The reigning Czar of Russia during the outbreak of the Revolution of 1917 was Nicholas II.

Question 59. Who was Rasputin?
Answer: Alexandra, the queen of Czar Nicholas II, was enamoured by a fake priest named Rasputin who charmed the Queen to such a degree that his voice became the ultimate commanding force in the Government.

Question 60. What is the importance of 1917 in the history of Europe?
Answer:

The importance of 1917. in the history of Europe are :

(1) Fall of Czardom in Russia
(2) Under the leadership of Lenin Bolshevik Revolution broke out in Russia;
(3) Russia emerged as the first socialist state in the world.

Question 61. Name one Russian philosopher who helped to create the climate for the outbreak of the Russian Revolution.
Answer: The Russian philosopher Gorky contributed to preparing the climate for the outbreak of the Russian Revolution.

Question 62. When and where was the ‘Social Democratic Party’ established? What were its two factions?
Answer: The ‘Social Democratic Party’ was established in Russia in 1898.

Its two factions were:

(1) The Bolsheviks and
(2) The Mensheviks.

Question 63. Who announced the ‘April Thesis?
Answer: Lenin announced the ‘April Thesis’.

Question 64. Mention any one of the principles of NEP (New Economic Policy).
Answer: One principle of NEP introduced by Lenin was that henceforth peasants could sell their surplus produce freely in the open market according to market prices.

Question 65. Who was ‘the Father of the Russian Revolution?
Answer: Lenin was the ‘Father of the Russian Revolution’.

Question 66. In which year did Hitler occupy Austria?
Answer: Hitler occupied Austria in 1938.

Question 68. What do you mean by the October Revolution in Russia? Or, What do you mean by the November Revolution in Russia?
Answer: The Bolshevik Revolution of 7th November (common calendar) took place on 25th October according to the old Russian calender. That is why the Boshevik Revolution of Russia is known as both the ‘November’ and ‘October’ Revolutions.

Question 69. What was the name of the Bolshevik Party’s newspaper?
Answer: The Bolshevik Party’s newspaper was Pravda.

Question 71. Who set up a republican Government after the fall of monarchy in German?
Answer: Fredrick Elbert set up a republic Governement after the fall of monarchy in Germany.

Question 72. In which year did Kaiser William II of Germany abdicate the thron?
Answer: Kaiser William II of Germany abdicated the throne in 1918.

Question 73. What do you mean by ‘Storm Troopers’?
Answer: Hitler formed a paramilitary force with unemployed youths known as ‘Storm Troopers’. They used to manhandle opposition leaders and disturb meetings convened by the opposition parties.

Question 74. What is ‘Gestapo’?
Answer: A secret police force organised by Hitler was known as Gestapo. The main function of which was to arrest those persons whose activities were found doubtful and against the principles of Nazism.

Question 75. Mention two similarities between Nazism and fascism?
Answer:

Two similarties between Nazism and Facism were :

(1) Both were against
(2) Both generated hatred against communication

Question 76. In which year and by whom was the ‘Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis’ signed? Or, Mention the names of the Axis powers.
Answer: The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was signed in 1932 between Italy, Germany and Japan.

Question 77. What was the two opposite blocks in Europe before the outbreak of the Second World War?
Answer:

The two opposite blocks before the outbreak of the Second World War were :

(1) Allied Powers: Britain, France and Soviet Union.
(2) The Axis powers: Italy, Germany and Japan.

Question 78. In which year was the Weimer Republic established?
 Answer: The Weimer Republic was established in 1919.

Question 79. What were the territories Hitler occupied before the Second World War?
Answer: Before the outbreak of the Second World War Hitler, the Chancellor of Germany, occupied Saar region (19350), Rhineland (1936), Austria (1938), Czechoslovakia (1938), etc. After this when he invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, the Second World War started.

Question 80. Who was Mussolini?
Answer: Mussolini was the leader of the Facist Party and the dictator of Italy.

Question 81. Which part of Poland was demanded by Hitler?
Answer: Danzig was demanded by Hitler.

Question 82. Who was General Franco?
Answer: General Franco was the leader of the Spanish Civil War.

Question 83. Which war is known as the ‘Little World War’?
Answer: The Spanish Civil War is known as the ‘Little World War’.

Question 84. Which day is known as the “Black Day’ in the history of the U.S.A?
Answer: 24 October 1929 is known as the Black Day in the history of U.S.A.

Question 85. What new weapons were manufactured during the First World War?
Answer: During the First World War many new weapons were manufactured, such as machine guns and tanks, and German-made submarines called U-boats; ‘poison gas’ was used for the first time as were chloramines, mustard gas and phosgene.

Question 86. Which period is known as the period of armed peace?
Answer: 1871-1913 is the period of armed peace.

Question 87. Who was murdered in Sarajevo and when?
Answer: Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne and his wife Sophia were murdered in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914.

Question 88. Who was responsible for the murder at Sarajevo?
Answer: Naverilo Princep, a member of the terrorist organisation ‘Black Hand’ was responsible for the murder at Sarajevo.

Question 89. Who received the ‘Polish Corridor’ according to the Treaty of Versailles?
Answer: Poland received the ‘Polish Corridor’ according to the Treaty of Versailles.

Question 90. What was the amount of reparation imposed on “German?
Answer: The amount of reparation imposed on Germany was 660 crore pounds.

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century 2 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. What do you know of Agadir Incident?
Answer: In 1911 France sent an army to Fez, the capital of Morocco. Thereupon Germany sent a gunboat, the Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir to exert her right in that area. At the result of this, a highly critical situation developed between France and Germany. At last the situation was calmed by the intervention of England.

Question 2. When was the Archduke of Austria murdered? What was the significance of the murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand?
Answer: Francis Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria was murdered in the Bosnian Capital Europe ablaze and the World War I began.

Question 3. What were the outstanding results of the World War I?
Answer:

(1) Victory of Nationalism
(2) Rise of Democracy, and
(3) Rise of Dictatorship were the outstanding results of the World War I.

Question 4. Who announced the famous ‘Fourteen Points’ ?
Answer: President Willson of U.S.A. In January, 1917, President Willson of U.S.A. made a statement of the war aims of the Allies in his address to the Congress. In his famous ‘Fourteen Points’, he had outlined the basis of a peace settlement and given expression of his ideal of establishing a lasting peace among the war scared nations of the world.

Question 5. What was the Appeasement policy of Chamberlain British Prime Minister, in regard to Germany?
Answer: When Hitler came to power he pledged to recover for Germany the position of power and importance which she had-held before the First World War, his first significant step was to withdraw from the disarmament Conference and announce a programme of conscription.

Next he left the League of Nations and openly flouted it by occupying the demilitarised Rhineland. England and France timely acquiesced in the violation of treaty obligatons and Hitler was encouraged to take large risks.

In the cases of Austria and Sudetenland Hitler became successful only for the weakness of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. This policy of appeasement paved the way for the World War II.

Question 6. What do you know of Hitle ?
Answer: Hitler was born in,1899 and died in 1945. He rose from the rank of a corporal to become a dictator of Germany (1933-1945). He was appointed Chancellor of the Reich in 1933 and became Fuehrer in 1934.

He involved his country in the World War II and was defeated in 1945. He is presumed to have committed suicide when the Russians encircled Berlin on April 30, 1945.

Question 7. What is Fascism?
Answer: The word Fascism is derived from the term ‘Facis’ which means a bundle of rods. Mussolini developed unit communistic anti-liberal anti-democratic system based on extreme nationalism and militarism known as fascism.

Question 8. What is Nazism?
Answer: The Nazi Party was’ an abbreviated from National Socialist Party. Nazism could be defined as ‘Fascism Plus Racialism’. It was totally dictatonal in charcter.

Question 9. Which peace treaty was known as the ‘dictated peace’?
Answer: The Peace Treaty of Versailles, 1919 is known as dictated peace.

Question 10. What do you mean by NEP ? :
Answer: The New Economic Policy introduced by Lenin is known as NEP. Its novel feature was to improve the economic condition through planning. The Bolsheviks wanted to construct a new social order by improving the lot of the people by NEP.

Question 11. What do you know of Lenin ?
Answer: Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov, better known as Lenin (1870-1924), was the founder of the Bolshevik communism in Russia and was by far the greatest single driving force behind the Soviet Revolution of November 1917.

Question 12. Who were the authors of the Geneva Protocol? What was the aim of the Geneva Protocal of 1924?
Answer: Mr. Macdonald, Prime Minister of England and M. Herriot, Prime Minister of France were the authors of the Geneva Protocol of 1924. The Geneva Protocol required its members to renounce all war and to take offensive measures against any nation which went to War by refusing to accept League arbitration.

Question 13. When was the Locarno Pact signed? Why was the Locarno Pact concluded?
Answer: In 1925 Locarno Pact was signed by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Italy. The treaty provided that any dispute arising among the signatory States would by settled either by diplomatic conferences or by a tribunal or by the International Court of Justice.

Question 14. When did the Spanish Civil War start?
Answer: In 1928 Kellong Briand Pact was signed. The main object of the treaty was to outlaw war.

Question 15. When was the Munich Pact signed? What was its significance?
Answer: The Munich Pact was signed in 1939. By the terms of the Pact Hitler was allowed to annex Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia to Germany. It was signed England, France, Italy and Germany. Daladier of France, Chamberlain of England, Mussolini of Italy and Hitler of Germany were the signatories of the Pact. By this Pact the independece of Czechoslovakia was left at the mercy of Germany.

Question 16. Why did Russia sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
Answer: As a result of the Revolution of Russia in November 1917, the Czar Nicholas II was expelled from the throne and the power soon passed into the hands of the Bolsheviks. Anarchy followed and the army was demoralised and disorganised:

Question 17. Who was the author of the ‘Main Kampf’? What was the importance of the book?
Answer: The author of Main Kampf is Adolf Hitler. The book was written when the author was in prison. The book lays stress on the sovereignty and greatness of the German people. The author also discusses vividly in this book the aims and ideals of the Nazis. So, Main Kampf is also called the Bible of the Nazis.

Question 18. Who signed the Treaty of Rapallo (1922)?
Answer: In 1922 Soviet Russia and Germany signed the Treaty of Rapallo. By the treaty Soviet Union was officially recognised by a great European Power. Here also, in embryo, was the future Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939, heralded the Second World War.

Question 19. What is the Anti-Commintern Pact ? Who concluded it?
Answer: At Berlin on November 25, 1936, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Commintern Pact. It was concluded to oppose the growth of communism, especially the influence of Soviet Russia.

Question 21. What do you know of Washington Conference?
Answer: The first concrete step towards disarmament was taken at the Washington and the United States. Japan’s strength in capital Ships was fixed at 60 percent of the British and American figures. The French and Italian quotas were 35 percent. There were substantial measures, but their scope was limited to naval power only.

Question 22. What were the immediate effects of the Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact?
Answer: From the theoretical point of view Hitler made an important concession; he had to swallow all his anti-communist utterances. From the practical point of view Hitler gave Russia an opportunity to exploit strategic adventages in the Baltic States over the eastern half of Poland to Russia.

In turn he secured a free hand in dealing with the western half of Poland and Lithuania including Vilna. Hitler also felt assured that Russia would not assist the Poles against a German invasion. He also felt assured that he would not have to fight simultaneously on two fronts; in the east against Russia and in the west against France and Britain.

Question 23. What were the effects of Spainsh Civil War, 1936?
Answer: In Spain, Franco’s victory did not give Fascism the politics dividend which they expected. Spain observed neutrality throughout the Second World War; Franco did not consider it necessary to assist his partrons— Italy and Germany. But the immediate effect of his victory was to raise the prestige of Facism in Europe.

Another consequence was that the no-intervention policy of Britain and France drove a further wedge between Soviet Russia and the Western Powers. This was indirectly helpful for Hitler in his diplomatic reapproachement with Stalin.

Question 24. What do you mean by ultranationalism?
Answer: During the late 19th century and the beginning of 20th century there was the development of ultranationalism in different countries of Europe.

The ultranationalists loved their own country only. They thought of the interests, aspirations and urges of their own nation. They regarded their country as the best nation in the world. This feeling of ultranationalism was indeed an alarm of danger for world peace and internationalism.

Question 25. Give two examples of insatiated nationalism before the outbreak of the First World War.
Answer:

Two examples of insatiated nationalism before the outbreak of the First World War were :

(1) Italians of Trieste, Trentio and Tyrol who were under the rule of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary wanted to join Italy.

(2) Ambition of Alsace and Lorraine which was under German occupation to join France.

Question 26. What were the two rival contending parties in the First World War?
Answer:

In the First World War the two rival contending parties were :

(1) On one side was the Triple Entente of twenty-three countries including France, England and Russia. Later on Italy (which was a member of Triple Alllance), Romania, Japan, China, Portugal joined the Triple Entente. They were known as Allied Powers.

(2)On the other side were the members of Triple Alliance-Germany/ Austria, Turkey, Bulgaria, etc. They were called ‘Axis Powers’ or ‘Central Powers’.

Question 27. What was the Bosnia-Herzegovina problem before the outbreak of the First World War?
Answer: Before the First World War Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed by Austria. This injured the nationalistic feelings of the people of these two places as they desired to unite with Serbia. The people supported by Serbia Government rose in revolt against Austria.

Question 28. What is Moroccan crisis?
Answer: France had vital colonial interests in Morocco in north Africa—a region rich in mineral resources and dominated by the Muslims. Kaiser William Il of Germany protested against the supremacy of France in Morocco and appeared in the port of Tangier in 1905.

He provoked the Sultan of Morocco against the French and declared that he would support Moroccan independence against France. This led to a war situation between France and Germany. This is known ‘as Moroccan Crisis (1905).

Question 29. What was Agadir Crisis?
Answer: In 1911 in Morocco in North Africa some Europeans lost their lives during a tribal movement. Under this circumstance France occupied a part of Morocco. Germany protested against this and the German gunboat ‘Panther’ was sent to the port of Agadir in Morocco with the ulterior motive of establishing German claim in Morocco. England in support of France sent warships to Agadir. This led to a war situation which is known in history as the Agadir crisis.

Question 31. Mention three territorial clauses of the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer:

Three territorial clauses of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) were:

(1) The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were taken away from Germany and were given back to France.

(2) The Saar Valley on the western frontier of Germany was handed over to France for fifteen years, after which the fate of the region was to be settled by a plebiscite.

(3) The port of Danzig was also snatched away from the possession of Germany and was declared a free port under the League of Nations.

Question 33. Mention three military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer:

Three military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles were:

(1) The German board of staff or generals of the army was dissolved
(2) The universal compulsory military service was dissolved
(3) Germany had to surrender her fleet to the Allies

Question 32. What were the economic implications of the Treaty of Versailles (1919)?
Answer: In the First World War Germany was defeated and the Treaty of Versailles was imposed upon Germany. The heavy burden of compensation imposed upon Germany brought in a host of evils like unemployment, taxation and hyperinflation. The hyperinflation combined with the effects of the Great Depression underminedthe stability of the German economy and destabilized the Weimer Republic and paved the path for Hitler’s rise to power.

Question 33. Why is the Treaty of Versailles known as a ‘dictated peace’?
Answer: The treaty of Versailles has been called a ‘dictated peace’ because the treaty was imposed upon defeated Germany by the victorious powers of World War |. The delegates of Germany were not invited to the Conference of Paris and the treaty was not based on mutual negotiation. The German representative was forced to sign the treaty on threat of aerial bombardment of Germany.

Question 34. When did Russia withdraw her self from the First World War?
Answer: Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in 1918. After signing the Treaty Russia withdrew herself from the First World War.

Question 35. Why was the new republican Government set up in Germany after the First World War known as the Weimer Republic?
Answer: After the defeat of Germany in -the First World War there were protests from the industrialists, intellectuals and the common people. As Berlin, the capital of Germany was a hotbed of discontent, the new republican Government began to function from nearby Weimer. This is why the Republic was called Weimer Republic.

Question 36. What was the main cause of the failure of the Weimer Republic?
Answer: After the First World War there was an acute economic crisis in Germany. The main cause of the failure of the Weimer Republic was its inability to solve the economic crisis of the post-war period.

Question 37. Why did the United States of America join the First World War?
Answer: The United States of America joined the First World War due to the aggressive policy of Germany. The U.S.A suffered great losses when American ships were destroyed by Germany. America asked Germany not to attack the vessels of neutral countries and the American ships in the open seas but Germany paid no heed to this. So the U.S.A joined the First World War.

Question 38. What is Fascism?
Answer: Fascism means autocracy or dictatorship where all the powers of the state are vested in one person only and nobody can question, criticise and oppose that authority. It denies individualism, democracy and socialism.

Question 40. What kind of political system did Mussolini set up in Italy?
Answer: Mussolini established a totalitarian state with himself as ‘The leader’ or ‘Il Duce’. He controlled everything in the state, including the Fascist Party. Political liberty was abolished, censorship and espionage were introduced and all associations were placed under the Fascist Party. Fascism was directed against individualism, democracy, socialism and international peace. As for the political system, majority rule was rejected in favour of dictartorial rule.

Question 41. What kind of racial segregation was practised by the Nazis?
Answer: Once in power, the Nazis in Germany quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial community of pure Germans by physically eliminating ll those who were seen as ‘undesirable’ in the extended empire. The Nazis wanted a society of only pure healthy Nordic Aryans who were considered ‘desirable’. This meant that even those Germans who were seen as impure or abnormal had no right to exist

Question 42. Mention two instruments through which Czar Nicholas I followed a policy of repression.
Answer:

Two instruments through which Czar Nicholas I followed a policy of repression were:

(1) The Board of Censorship kept a close watch on the people. The universities, the schools and the press were particularly controlled by it.

(2) The Third Section or the secret police was a body vested with unlimited powers to arrest, imprison, exile and even execute people.

Question 43. Mention two important contributions of Czar Nicholas I.
Answer:

Two contributions of Czar Nicholas I were:

(1) His reign was marked by the emergence of industrial revolution in Russia. There was tremendous growth of light industry and particular progress in cotton textile and beet sugar industries.

(2) Study of literature was encouraged by him so that people might forget politics.

Question 44. Give some examples of the withdrawal of the repressive policy by Czar Alexander II.
Answer: Czar Alexander II withdrew fe repressive Asters existing in Russia.

(1) He showed his liberalism by releasing the Dekabrists from the prison and calling back the others from exile, who had been punished by his father 30 years ago for revolting against him.
(2) He relaxed the censorship.

Question 45. What was the total number of serfs in Russia at the time of emancipation?
Answer: At the time of emancipation there were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising about 50% of the total population. Of the total number of serfs, 23 million belonged to the crown and the rest to the private lords.

Question 46. Name the important movements which broke out during the rule of the Russian Czars.
Answer:

The important movements which broke out during the rule of the Russian Czars were:

(1) Russian literary movement (1840’s)
(2) Nihilist movement (1860’s)
(3) Populist ,or Narodnik movement (1870’s)
(4) The Revolution of 1905 and (v) ane Botshevik Revolution of 1917.

Question 47. What is ‘October Manifesto’ ?
Answer: After the violent incident on 9 January, 1905 (Bloody Sunday), Czar Nicholas ll of Russia bowed down to the storm and purchased peace by introducing certain liberal reforms published in a document known as October Manifesto.

Througn this Manifesto he granted:

(1) Freedom of speech
(2) Freedom of press
(3) Freedom of public meetings
(4) Legislative powers to the Duma,
(5)That a new legislative assembly would be elected on the basis of universal suffrage.

Question 48. What was the condition of the serfs during the rule of the Czars?
Answer: During the rule of the Czars the condition of the serfs was miserable. They were like the personal possessions of the lords and had no freedom. They lived on small portions of land assigned to them and had to work four to five days per week in the lord’s manor without any wage. The law did not acknowledge or protect their rights. Their masters treated them as animals. They could be auctioned and they were subjected to physical punishment.

Question 49. What do you understand by the term ‘War Communism ?
Answer: During the civil war in Russia the Bolshevik Government faced a major problem of production and supply of necessary articles due to the occupation of food-producing and industrial areas by the opponents or the ‘whites’. To tide over the situation, Lenin introduced ‘War Communism’ which meant total control of state over every aspect of economic activity.

Question 50. How did economic crisis begin in U.S.A?
Answer: In U.S.A economic crisis began with the crash of the Wall Street Exchange in 1929, when U.S.A could not recover back loans. Fearing a fall in price, people made frantic efforts to sell their shares. On a single day, 13 million shares were sold. Factories were shut down, banks became bankrupt, exports fell, farmers were badly hit, leading to unemployment.

Question 51. Why is 24 October, 1929 known as the ‘Black Thursday’?
Answer: 24 October, 1929 is known as the ‘Black Thursday’ because on this day the American share market crashed. As the share holders were traumatised, millions of shares had been sold on this fateful day.

Question 52. Why is the share market crash of 24 October, 1929 known as Wall Street Crash?
Answer: On 24 October, 1929 the American share market crashed because on this day the panicked shareholders sold millions of shares. The crash is known as Wall Street Crash because Wall Street in New York, U.S.A was the location of the principal share market.

Question 53. What was the effect of the Great Depression of 1929 on U.S.A?
Answer: The Great Depression of 1929 had profound effect on U.S.A. Over the next three years, between 1929 and 1932, the national income of the U.S.A fell by half. The speculators withdrew their money from the market. Factories shut down, exports fell, farmers were badly hit and millions of workers lost their jobs.

Question 54. Was the Treaty of Versailles (1919) based on Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’?
Answer: The Treaty of Versailles made between the victorious powers and Germany was not purely based on Fourteen Points. Throughout the Paris Peace Conference there was a conflict between Wilson’s idealism and nationalist realism. In fact, the Fourteen Points of Wilson was given only lip service. Wilson had to make a compromise between Clemenceau’s practicalism and Lloyd George’s opportunism. The Fourteen Points did not provide for any partition of German territory.

Question 55. What do you know about ‘Bloody Sunday’ ? Or, Who was Father Gapon?
Answer: In 1905, on 9 January Sunday about 6000 industrial workers under the leadership of Gapon assembled in front of the Winter Palace at St. Petersburg to present a petition to Czar Nicholas II.

The demands of the workers were:

(1) Release of the political prisoners
(2) Summoning of a representative assembly
(3) Eight hours of work a day for the workers.

The peaceful assembly was headed by Father Gapon, a priest who was in reality a secret police agent. Nicholas II ordered his troops to open fire on the workers. The firing caused the death of about one thousand workers and more than 2000 were injured. This incident is known in history as the Bloody Sunday as January 9 (1905)was a Sunday.

Question 56. When did the Nihillist movement break out in Russia? What did the Nihilists believe in?
Answer: The Nihilist movement broke out in Russia during the reign of Czar Alexander II (1855-81).

They believed in :

(1) Total destruction of the Old Order and to create a vacuum so that only then-a new civilisation could grow.
(2) Liberty and freedom of thought and action as the starting point of liberty.
(3) What is real and useful to the people.
(4) War against the Czardom, the orthodox church, the feudalism, the aristocracy, the existing values of society.

Question 57. Name two repressive measures introduced by Czar Alexander III.
Answer:

Czar Alexander Ill or Russia introduced the following repressive measures:

(1) Russification of minorities.
(2) The administration of the Mirs or village communities were put under the control of the landed proprietors who were appointed by the Central Government.

Question 58. What was the impact of the Bolshevik Revolution on Europe and the world?
Answer: The Bolshevik attempts to bring about a global socialist revolution through the Third International formed in 1919 ended in failure. But as years went by the ideal of socialist Government became popular. As a result, several states in North, Central and Eastern Europe like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania and East Germany set up communist governments. Outside Europe the most successful country with a communist regime is provided by the People’s Republic of China. Cuba in South America is another country that is a communist state.

Question 59. With what aims was the League of Nations founded?
Answer: After the First World War (1914-18), an international organisation known as the League of Nations was established in 1920 with

The following aims in view :

(1) To prevent armed conflict and to promote international peace and cooperation;
(2) To establish honourable and just relation among different nations
(3) To implement the provisions of the treaties registered at the Paris Peace Conference;
(4) To promote international disarmament in order to reduce tension and to find out ways and means for peaceful settlement of international disputes.

Question 60. Mention two problems faced by the Weimer Republic.
Answer:

The problems faced by Weimer Republic were the following :

(1) The infant Weimer Republic was forced to pay for the sins of the old empire. The republic carried the burden of war guilt and was financially crippled by being forced to pay compensation.
(2) There was the economic crisis of 1923. Prices of goods soared high.

Question 61. How far was the Great Depression of 1929 responsible for the rise of Nazism?
Answer: The Great Depression of 1929 was to a large extent responsible for the rise of Nazism: The German Government faced economic problems like mass unemployment and inflation.

The American investors recalled their short term loans from Germany. One of Germany’s joint stocks bank collapsed in 1931. When America withdrew he loans from Germany her export trade and production declined considerably. The number of unemployed people rose. Faced with economic crises the Germans lost their faith in the Republican Government.

The Nazis promised to nationalize the big businesses, provide employment for all workers and implement land reform for peasants. It is not surprising that the people turned to Nazism for a remedy.

Question 62. Name two agencies which Hitler used to suppress all opponents and create total Nazi domination?
Answer: Hitler used different agencies to suppress all opponents and create total Nazi domination.

(1) Hitler formed a para-military force with unemployed youths known as “Storm Troopers’ who manhandled opposition leaders and disturbed the meetings convened by the opposition parties.
(2) He also organised ‘Youth Brigade’ and ‘Girl Brigade’ who constantly shouted ‘Hail Hitler’ and silenced all criticism against him.

Question 63. What was the effect of the Great Depression of 1929 on Germany?
Answer: The Great Depression of 1929 had profound effect on Germany. The German economy was the worst hit by the Great Depression. By 1932, industrial production was reduced to 40% of the 1929 level. Workers lost their jobs or were paid reduced wages.

The number of unemployed people touched an unprecedented 6 million. On the roads of Germany men could be seen with placards around their necks saying, ‘Willing to do any work’. Unemployed young men played cards. or simply sat at street corners or desperately queried up at the local employment exchange. As the young men had no jobs, they took to criminal activities.

Question 64. Write about the foreign policy of Hitler.
Answer: In foreign affairs Hitler, after coming to power in 1933, sought to implement four principles.

These were as follows:

(1) Rejection of compromise and the reliance on force, and to restore and increase the armed strength of Germany
(2) Rejection of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles as the Germans called its a ‘dictated peace’
(3) To build up a vast German Empire (Third Reich) to include all the Germans.
(4) Hitler also aimed at conquering Eastern Europe to provide the Germans Lebensraum (living space). It is obvious that the implementation of such foreign policy objectives would involve aggressiveness.

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century 4 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. What were the “fourteen points” of Woodrow Wilson?
Answer: Woodrow Wilson of America had been genuinely stunned by the savagery of the Great War. He could not understand how an advanced civilisation could have reduced itself so that it had created so much devastation. He had already written about what he believed the world should be like in his

“Fourteen Points.” The main points in this document were:

(1) No more secret agreements (Open covenants openly arrived at).
(2) Free navigation of all seas.
(3) An end to all economic barriers between countries.
(4) Countries to reduce weapon numbers.
(5) All decisions regarding the colonies should be impartial.
(6) The German Army is to be removed from Russia. Russia should be left to develop her own political setup.
(7) Belgium should be independent like before the war.
(8) France should be fully liberated and allowed to recover Alsace-Lorraine.
(9) All Italians are to be allowed to live in Italy. Italy’s borders are to “along clearly recognisable lines of nationality.”
(10) Self-determination should be allowed for all those living in Austria-Hungary.
(11) Self determination and guarantee of independence should be allowed for the Balkan states.
(12) The Turkish people should be governed by the Turkish Government. Non- Turks in the old Turkish Empire should govern themselves.
(13) An independent Poland should be created which should have access to the sea.
(14) A League of Nations should be set up to guarantee the political and territorial independence of all states. :

Question 2. Write a note on the other peace settlemens besides the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer:

The other peace settlements : Austria-Hungary had to sign two peace settlements indicative of the fact that this state was shortly to be divided into two :

(1) Austria signed the Treaty of Saint Germain
(2) Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon

Austria and Hungary were treated as two completely new countries after these treaties were signed. Both lost land to neighbouring countries; the new state of Czechoslovakia was effectively created out of this carve up of land; large blocks of land went to Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia.

Part of Austria went to Italy. Both new countries had to reduce their military capability and both states had to pay reparations for war damage. However, the figures involved were nowhere near as high as the figure imposed on Germany.

Bulgaria had to sign the Treaty of Neuilly. Bulgaria lost land to the new state of Yugoslavia, had to reduce her military capability and had to pay reparations. Turkey or the Turkish Empire, to be, sprecieg, had to sign the Treaty of Sevres.

Turkey lost :

(1)most of her land in Europe. Turkey was left with but a toe hold on what is considered Europe.

(2)The Turkish Straits was put under the control of the League of Nations at a time when it was dominated by Britain and France. the land held by Turkey in Arabia was made into a mandate.

(3)The land was ruled by the British and French until the people of the areas were ready to govern themselves. Syria and Lebanon went to France while Iraq, Transjordan and Palestine went to Britain.

Armies from Britain, France, Greece and Italy occupied what was left of Turkey, the area known as Asia Minor. The treaty only served to anger the nationalist Turks who sought to overturn it. This they started to do it in 1921.

Question 3. What were the causes of Russian Revolution?
Answer: Like the other revolutions of the world, the Russian Revolution was also the result of various accumulated factors. The causes of Russian Revolution may be classified under following groups.

(1) Political Causes: The political condition of the country was unstable. Censorship was notorious and the police system ruthless. Nicholas was, however, well intentioned and patriotic but was extremely weak. He was under the influence of his queen Alexandria who exercised a baneful influence upon the day-to-day administration of the country.

She herself was again under the hypnotic influence of a Siberian monk, named Rasputin. Nicholas was compelled to grant his people a parliament called Duma.

(2) Social Causes: Social inequalities were one of the main reason behind the Russian Revolution. The wealthy class, nobles, and aristocracy enjoyed all the privileged. The majority of people were deprived of social facilities.

Out of every 1000 Russians, there were 17 nobles, 125 merchants and more than 800 peasants. The lands belonged to the community and peasant had no right on it. Thus, the social condition in Russian during the pre-revolutionary period was worst in- Europe.

(3) Economic causes : Marxist historians think that un equal distribution of wealth was one of the main reasons behind Russian Revolution. The peasants were tortured, humiliated and exploited.

The industrial workers were forced to work in the factories in unhygeinic condition for more than 12 hours. Strikes were suppressed with force. Trade unions were broken.In 1905 there were many6 strikes and rights in cities of Russia including St. Petersburg and Moscow. All these prepared road to the Russian Revolution.

(4) Intellectual class: Just as French Revolution was result of influence of philosophers, similarly the Russian philosophers and Marxist writers had profound impact on Russian people. The writers like Gorky, Tolstoy, etc. inspired the Russian People. The writing of Bukanin, Karl Marx, reidrich Engels and the ideal of a society free from exploitation inspired the Russian people significantly.

(5) Conclusion: Thus, the above-mentioned factors prepared road to the Russian Revolution. In fact, the Revolution of 1905 was a dress rehearseal of Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.

Question 4. What were the consequences of the Balkan Wars?
Answer: The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 had many consequences.

(1) The Balkan nations for the first time defied the great powers and tried to settle their fate by themselves. The hegemonistic attitude of the great powers no longer paid any dividend.

(2) By the Treaty of Bucharest all the terms of the Treaty of London were revised by them except Albanian terms.

(3) The territorial gains for Serbia were great. Rumania got some strategic positions.

(4) Turkish empire in Europe vanished. The vacuum caused by Turkish withdrawal was fatal. Austria and Russia tried to fill the vacuum. This led to bitter Austro- Russian rivalry in which Germany became involved too.

(5) Serbia’s relations with Austria became most critical. Serbia demanded restoration of Bosnia and Herzegovina from Austria which contained predominantly Serbian population.

(6) Bulgaria changed her policy of seeking protection from Russia. She turned to Russia’s enemies Germany and Austria. As a result Serbia changed her allegiance. She now became a pro russian power tied to Russia by alliance.

(7) Last of all, the Russian Government found that she failed to wipe out Art. 65 of the Treaty of Berlin, closing the straits to her fleet during the Balkan wars. Unless a great war did upset all previous treaties, she had no hope to fulfil her ambition. She took a more assertive and aggressive role of power politics. Thus the Balkan wars prepared the way for the outbreak of the First World War.

Question 5. What were the German objections against the Versailles Treaty ?
Answer: Germany criticised the Versailles Treaty as grave injustice done to her. She used choicest words to express her contempt for the treaty. In her opinion it was “dictated peace”, because it was imposed on Germany by the victorious allies. She was not invited to join the Peace Conference. She was not permitted to discuss the terms of the treaty. Her delegates were given the option of either to sign the treaty or face aerial bombardment on Germany.

(1) Having no other way, the German delegates signed the treaty under protest. Hence Germany protested that the treaty was one sided and unjust. It was a Machievellian treaty written by the blood of Germany.

(2) She had no moral obligation to respect the treaty imposed on her without her consent.

(3) Germany objected that a grave injustice was done by partitioning her frontier areas and transferring them arbitrarily to her neighbours. German population as a result was separated from their fatherland and compelled to live as minorities in neighbouring countries. Germany coal, iron mines and fertile tracts were handed over to her neighbours. This was highly unjust because it violated the Wilsonian doctrine of one nation one state.

(4) Germany further protested that gravest injustice was done to her on the Eastern front.

(1) West Prussia, Posen, Danzig which were exclusive German territories, were transferred to Poland.
(2) The Polish corridor separated German East Prussia from German mainland.
(3) Silesia, an exclusive German territory, was partitioned and Sudetenland was given to Czechoslovakia. All these arrangements violated the one nation one state principle of Wilson.

(5) The Versailles Treaty as a whole was a departure from the fourteen points of Wilson. The fourteen points did not mention eB enAy OR But Germany had to accept reparation demand.

(6) Wilson spoke of general disarmament. But only Germany was forced to disarm. France and England remained fully armed. Germany was only decolonised while France and Britain multiplied their colonies.

Question 6. What were the merits of the Treaty of Versailles ?
Answer: It is said, the merits of the Versailles Settlement should not be over looked.

(1) The settlement washed out the old order of dynasties of Europe. The hereditary dynasties held Europe under their feet and prevented the progress of nationalism and democracy. The Romanovs, the Kaisers, the Hapsburgs were replaced and in their place came parliaments and elected democracies.

(2) Europe was reshaped mainly on the basis of one nation, one state. The familar picture of modern Europe was drawn at Versailles which has survived even to-day.

(3) Kaiser’s militarism and welt politics were buried. The League of Nations laid down a new world order based on security and independence of all nations.

(4) The Versailles Settlement sought to give Europe a protracted period of peace by disarming German militarism. No longer sword was the arbitrer of all questions. The League of Nations tried to solve international disputes by peaceful means.

(5) Nation states grew by the Versailles Settlement A long standing problem that plagued Europe was solved.

(6) International rivalries and the problem of Franco-German, Austro-Serbian rivalries were buried by the Versailles Settlement.

Question 7. What was the impact of the Great Depression on Germany?
Answer: Germany: After the Treaty of Versailles, a Republican Government came to power in Germany in 1919 by a general election. The National Assembly met at a place called Weimar because Berlin was still torn by political unrest.

The Weimar constitution gave its name the Weimar Republic. This Republic lasted till 1933 when it was destroyed by Hitler. From the very beginning, the Republic was unpopular because it had accepted the humiliating treaty of Versailles.

The German people never forgave it for that reason. The Republic faced serious economic problem from the very beginning. In 1919 Germany was very close to bankruptcy because of huge war expenditure. Moreover, the payment of reparation instalments made the situation worse.

French occupation of the Ruhr industrial area and sub sequent German policy of passive resistance also weakened the economy. The inflation crisis became a serious one. The lower middle class suffered most. Inflation wiped out pensions, savings and insurance.

This class never recovered from this blow and became bitter towards the Republic. It was from this class of Germans that Hitler got his fanatical followers.

Question 8. Briefly narrate the rise of Mussolini.
Answer: Mussolini, son of a blacksmith, was born on July 29, 1883. He taught at a school for some time. In 1902 he went to Switzerland, engaging in Socialist journalism. Expelled from Switzerland, he returned to Italy in 1904 to serve in the army.

His subsequent participation in Socialist agitation cost him an imprisonment in 1908. Shortly afterwards he went to the Austrian district of Trent (Trentino) where he edited a newspaper in support of revolutionary socialism of Italian cause. After his expulsion from Trent, he returned to Italy.

He denounced the parliamentary system of Government and advocated violence. In 1911 he was jailed by the Italian Government for his attacks upon government policy in North Africa.

In 1912, he became the editor of Awanti, the official paper of the Italiarr Socialist Party. But when he began to propagate the idea of nationalism and urge intervention in the war, he was made to resign from Awanti. Thereupon Mussolini founded his own paper, at Milan and campaigned for, intervention. He served in the army from 1915 to 1917. After being wounded, he returned to patriotic journalism.

Mussolini observed the weakness of parliamentary Government after the war. In March 1919 he founded at Milan the fasci (bundle) which gave rise to a network of similar fasci all over Italy. The new organisation was at first more a movement than a party. Unemployed war veterans, passionate nationalists and exploited peasans – all joined the Fascists. After September 1920, the Fascists took the lead in a violent campaign against Socialists and communists.

They broke up Socialist and Communist mettings and burned trade union halls. By these actions, the Fascists won the sympathy of employers and others who feared revolution. In April 1921 some 35 Fascists were elected to the Chamber of Deputies.

In the November of the same year, the Fascist political party was organised with a graded hierarchy and rigid discipline. Fascists wore black shirts in imitation of Garibaldi’s Red Shirts. The Fascist militia, squadristi, bound by an oath to Mussolini, was founded.

‘The Fascist movement gathered momentum during 1921-22 while its opponents Liberals, Socilist and Catholic remained divided. The Government, first led by Bonomi and then by Facta, failed to form a stable ministry. In August 1922 the Socialists declared a general strike which irritated the public who was tired of strikes.

The Fascists declared open war on socialism and destroyed all Socialist and union headquarters in Genoa and other key cities. Conditions were ripe for Mussolini’s bid. In October 1922 Mussolini held a party conference in Naples at which he demanded that the Government be turned over to him.

Other wise he would march on Rome and seize control. Then as the Liberal Prime Minister, Luigi Facta resigned on October 27, 1922, Mussolini marched with his followers on Rome. King Victor Emmanuel III asked Mussolini to form a ministry. The Fascist dictatorship of Italy had begun.

Question 9. Write a short note on the organisation of Nazi Party.
Answer: The advent of the Great Depression in 1929 served to bring about the weakness of the Weimer Republic. Adolf Hitler who had established the National Socialist or Nazi Party in 1920, found his opportunity in an atmosphere of discontent and frustration. In 1923 having failed to seize political power he went to jail and wrote Mein Kampf in which he told how Germany‘s wrongs would be righted.

On emerging from prison, Hitler rebuilt his party of National Socialists, called Nazis in short. The party had a number of organs, like the political organisation which looked after foreign affairs, labour relations, agriculture, justice, and national economy. There was also a separate propaganda division in which Hitler took prominent interest, a department to study defence questions and a youth organisation.

He organised the party’s paramilitary forces, the Schutzstaffel or S.S. Originally designed as a personal bodyguard of Hitler, this body found its permanent chief in-Heinrich Himmler. They adopted a brown shirt uniform and the emblem of a black swastika on a red field.

At the head of the elaborate organisation stood Hitler himself. He maintained his control of the party by the sheer strength of his will. Most of his close associated  Hess, Goebbels, Goering regarded him with awe and veneration. Hitler sought to strengthen his influence among the people, especially the middle class youths who turned to National Socialism after 1929.

After a slow growth during the years 1925-29, the party gained considerably after 1929. The economic depression and the growing unemployment generated a sense of frustration among the people who sought salvation in National Socialism. In the elections of 1930, the Nazis made their first breakthrough by winning 107 seats to become the second largest party after the Socialists.

Question 10. How did the German attack on Poland trigger the Second World War?
Answer: On March 21, 1939 Hitler seized from Lithuania the port of Memel. In April, Italy occupied albania. Simultaneously, Hitler demanded from Poland Danzig and the narrow corridor that separted East Prussia from the rest of Germany.

Poland refused to accept these terms. She was fortified by the British offer of an Anglo- French guarantee against aggression, which Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, made in the House of Commons on March 31. On April 6, Poland accepted the mutual obligation and one week later Britian and France guaranteed the independence of Greece and Rumania. In May, Britain signed with Turkey a mutual assistance pact.

As things were looking ominous, Britain introduced conscription. Germany countered this by denouncing the Anglo-German Naval agreement of 1935. Germany also drew closer to Italy, On May 22, 1939 Foreign Ministers Ciano and Ribbentrop signed a ten-year alliance at Berlin, the so-called ‘Pact of Steel’, It provided for immediate military aid in case either signatory became involved in hostilities. On the following day, Hitler confidentially reported to his chief advisers that Poland must be attacked ‘at the first suitable oppotunity’.

After concluding a Non-Aggression Pact with Russia on August 23, 1939, Hitler proceeded swiftly. On August 25, Britain signed a formal alliance with Poland. On August 31, the German Government broadcasted a sixteen-point proposal for the settlement of all German-Polish differences. At dawn on September 1, Germany without declaring war, sent its army and plane to Poland. Both Britain and France sent warning notes to Berlin on the 1.

Fifty hours later, on September 3, 1939, after a German refusal to withdraw from the territory it had already occupied, Chamberlain declared war against Germany. Within a few hours France also declared war. Thus, twenty-five years after the outbreak of the First World War, Europe entered the Second World War.

Question 11. Write a short note on Lenin’s New Economic Policy.
Answer: In 1921, Lenin proclaimed a New Economic Policy  generally known in the abbreviated form as the NEP. It was a temporary halt in the revolutionary policy of socialism, a step back in order to move two steps forward later. The policy of forced grain collections was abandoned. The peasant was allowed to trade on the open market with whatever surplus he might have.

This measure was supplemented bothers to restore a limited market economy in food and other consumer goods, to permit revival of the handicraft and cottage industries, and to make possible the operation of small industrial and commercial enterprises. The state retained complete control of banking, foreign trade and large-scale industry.

The NEP served its purpose successfully. By the end of 1922, Soviet Russia made so called ‘Scissors Crisis’ developed in the Soviet economy. Industrial prices rose dramatically at the expense of agricultural prices. At the twelfth Party Congress in April 1923, Trotsky produced a diagram which showed how the ‘scissors’, representing the blades of agricultural and industrial prices, had opened more and more widely.

In October the ratio of industrial prices to agricultural prices was three times as high as in 1913. The crisis was overcome by the establishment of a system of price controls, under which prices on industrial goods were brought down.

By the summer of 1924, a growing confidence was visible in Soviet economy. Therecovery of Russian agriculture in the years of the mid-twenties was destroyed. Industry steadily revived. The currency reform was completed in March 1924, when the gold-based currency was adopted, and the old Soviet rouble notes withdrawn.

Foreign trade, managed by a separate commissionariat, reached favourable figures for the first time in the year 1923-24. Of exports, 75 per cent were agricultural products, including grain; of imports, nearly 75 per cent were taken by industry.

Question 12. What was the nature of the Tsarist rule in Russia?
Answer: Tsardom or the Tsarist Rule : The Government under the Tsars was a pure and simple autocracy. The Russian emperor was an absolute autocrat. There was none to check on his exercise of power. The selection of ministers and Governmen to fficials was solely decided by the Tsar.

National policies were also formulated by him. A word from the Tsar was enough to change or abolish any existing institution or law. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries attempts were made to introduce some kind of reforms that would control the unlimited power of the Tsar.

But none of these was successful. It was not before the revolutionary distrubances of 1905 that Nicholas II, the last Tsar of Russia, was compelled to grant certain concessions.

For example, he agreed to hold elections to the legislative assembly called Duma; political parties were legalized, a set of Fundamental Laws were promulgated, etc. Inspite of such concessions the form of Government remained basically absolute autocracy. The combination of representative assembly and the autocracy of the Tsar and his reforms were impractical and so it eventually failed.

Question 13. Narrate the circumstances in which Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the throne.
Answer:

Russia in 1917 Due to of Russia’s participation in the World War I the Russian people were exposed to great hardships. Meanwhile, the dignity and popularity of the royal family of Russia was totally lost due to the undue influence of Tsar’s wife, Empress Alexandra and Rusputin, a Siberian monk. At the beginning of the year 1917, a series of strikes were called in Petrograd (later renamed Leningrad), the capital city. Troops were called in to disperse the mobs roaming the streets.

Abdication of Nicholas II During the turmoil the representatives of the workers organized an assembly known as the Petrograd Soviet. They took the cooperation of the rebel troops. Thus, the Petrograd Soviet was able to take control of the city. On 1 March 1917, a Provisional Government was formed that sent messengers to Tsar Nicholas II urging him to step down from the throne. On 12 March Nicholas II fearing form being dethroned resigned as the Tsar.

Question 14. Would you say that in the process of peace-making after the First World War there was a conflict between realism and idealism?
Answer:

Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points The United States of America did not wish any territorial gains but entered into the war to ‘make the world safe for democracy’ and to end the wars. Woodrow Wilson, the then President of the USA, in a document called Fourteen Points issued in January 1918, enunciated his goals for keeping peace in future.

The Fourteen Points were :

1. Abandonment of secret diplomacy and negotiation
2. Freedom of the seas
3. Removal of tariff barriers
4. Reduction of armaents
5. Absolutely impartial adjustment of colonial claims
6. Providing for the lost territories of Russia
7. Restoration of Belgium
8. Restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France
9. Readjustment of the Italian frontiers
10. Accepting of the principle of self-determination
11. Central Powers to evacuate the Balkans
12. Autonomy for all non-Turkish nationalities and opening of the Dardanelles to the ships
13. Creation of an independent state of Poland
14. Creation of an association of nations to guarantee the independence of all nations.

Idealism versus Realism : While some points of Wilson’s Fourteen Points coincided with the aims of the Allies, the spirit of it was different from the spirit of the secret treaties executed by the Allies. The spirit of the Fourteen Points was betrayed more in their breaches.

Yet the Fourteen Points were accepted by the Allies for being the basis on which peace could be made. The problem of the peace making was to be the problem of reconciling the selfish revengeful ambitions of the Allies with the idealism propounded by the Fourteen Points.

Question 15. Write about the revolutionary tradition in Russia?
Answer:

Revolutionary Tradition in Russia :Revolutionary forces had been active in Russia since when the foundations of the Romanoff dynasty were laid. In fact, the Romanoffs who were wiped away by the Revolution of 1917, themselves had ascended the throne by way of revolution.

However, the early revolts were not specially directed against the Tsar, or precisely, against the autocracy as an institution. The first open attempt at revolutionary change was the ill-fated Decemerist Revolt (so called after the date of the insurrection on 14 December) of 1825.

It was only after the Emancipation Statute of Tsar Alexander II that any practical revolutionary activity took place. The political movement having tremendous importance that gained prominence in the 60s of the nineteenth century was the Narodnik (or Narodniki) movement.

The Narodniks were ‘populists’ who sincerely believed peasantry to be the leading figure in the liberation struggle in Russia. But the movement was unsuccessful. After the failure of the Narodnik movement a fraction of them formed a terrorist organization called Narodnaya Volya (meaning People’s Will).

One of its members is said to have committed the assassination of Tsar Alexander III. But in the economic sector he effected regeneration by the industrialization of Russia. At the same time, by doing so a situation was created which provided incentive to the spread of mass discontent expressed in workers’ strike, working class consiousness, agitation and propaganda of revolutionary activities. Among these were some who were attracted towards the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

Question 16. What were the economic implications of the Treaty of Versailles ?
Answer:

The Economic Implications of the Treaty of Versailles: The economic implications of the Treaty of Versailles signed by the Allies with Germany was a matter of grave concern for the Germans. In the pre-armistice terms Germany had agreed to compensate for all the damage done to the civilian population of the Allies and also the property damaged due to her aggression by land, sea and air.

Since the Allies could not agree upon a fixed amount to be charged from Germany, the fixation of the final amount was postponed for the time being. A Reparation Commission was to be established to determine the German obligation. The Commission assessed the debt as high as 660 crores of Sterling Pound.

Meanwhile Germany was responsible to deliver large quantities of coal to France, Belgium and Italy for 15 years. A large number of horses, cattle, sheep, etc. was to be delivered to France and Belgium by Germany. For 5 years the Allies were given concessions on certain imports into and exports from Germany. Besides, various other demands were pressed on Germany that disrupted the German economy.

(1)Under the strain of the post-war economic problems German monetary system collapsed.

(2)The result was disastrous. The German currency Mark (Deutsch Mark) was not worth the paper it was printed on. The German shopkeepers refused to accept money in exchange for goods. In such asituation the German people were forced to resort to the ancient system of barter to get the goods they required. This was the period of ‘hyperinflation’.

(3)Before the war most countries of Europe used coins made of gold. But after the war the gold coins were replaced by paper currency.

(4)In Germany where money was in great shortage the Government began to print more and more currency notes. This resulted in a decrease of the value of money.

(5) Reduction in the value of money ruined those who depended on wages and salaries paid in cash. As their life savings and hopes vanished in front of their eyes, they became ready to listen to anyone who would promise them a better future.

Question 17. Comment on the rise of General Franco?
Answer:

Rise of General Franco : In the elections of February (1936) a ‘Popular Front’ which was a political term, consisting of members from the republicans, socialists and communists, won and formed the Government. The new Government was opposed by the right-winger Falange or the Spanish Fascist Party (founded by Jose Antonio).

Gradually Spain was once again in the grip of chaos and confusion. Strikes, burning of churches, assassinations and such other social disorder became absolutely common. It became clear to everybody that the Government had lost ontrol over the country. In such a disastrous situation General Franco, a soldier of military ability, organized a revolt that ultimately assumed the proportions of a civil war.

Question 18. How did the Treaty of Versailles lead to the growth of aggressive nationalism?
Answer: The Settlement of Versailles and the Growth of Aggressive Nationalism: The Treaty of Versailles Allied Powers singed the with Germany after her defeat in the World War | The Germans called the treaty a ‘dictated peace’ because they had had no voice in its drafting.

The treaty caused great bitterness among the Germans especially because of the war-guilt clause, which stated that the Germans accepted the full responsibility for having caused the war. First World War was one cause of the the strong feeling of nationalism prevailing in different European countries. The

Germans felt betrayed by the treaty presented to them. Because of all this every political party in Germany condemned the Treaty of Versailles as ‘unjust and unacceptable’. In a situation like this Germans were attracted to aggressive or extreme nationalism.

The aggressive nationalism found expression in the Nazi ideology which developed out of the particular circumstances of Germany. The Versailles treaty . needed to be cancelled; the lost territories had to be restored to Germany. But the aggressive nationalism appealed for more than a mere restoration of the 1914 frontiers.

This meant creation of an empire to include all the Germans who lived beyond the territorial limits of Kaiser William’s Germany (i.e., before the World War |). This meant the Austrian Germans, the Sudeten Germans, Germans living along the Baltic coast all were to be included within the Greater German empire.

However, the Nazi national aims hadonly just begun there. The aggressive nationalism of the Nazis under Hitler dreamt of a Germany that would be a superpower and compete with the British Empire and the USA. Such an objective could be fulfilled only by a territorial expansion on a greater scale.

The aggressive nationalism of the Nazi variety was not original. As pointed out by Geoff Layton, the every aspect of the Nazi thinking as produced by Hitler got reflected in the nationalist and racist writings of the nineteenth century. In fact, his nationalism was an extension of the fervour generated in Germany in the years between Prussia’s struggle against Napoleon and the unification of Germany in 1871.

Question 19. What were the causes of victory of the Allied Powers in the First World War ?
Answer: The First World War ended in 1918 with the victory of the Allied Powers and defeat of the Central Powers.

The causes of victory of the Allied Powers are discussed below:

(1) The Allied Powers had greater manpower and resources than Germany.

(2) The entry of U.S.A. in the war turned the tide in favour of the Allied Powers.

(3) The Allied Powers had greater manpower than Germany.

(4) The democratic countries like England, France got the support of the people than an autocratic country like Germany.

(5) The Allies by opening two fronts in the war forced Germany to meet the challenge from two sides. Germany could not continue the war because Germany had neither the war equipment nor financial resource to continue the war for long on two frontiers.

(6) One important reason for the victory of the Allied Powers was their superiority in naval strength compared to Germany and her associates.

Question 20. Justify the Treaty of Versailles (1919).
Answer:
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed on Germany by the victorious Allied Powers has been justified on the following grounds:

(1) According to the principles laid down by President Wilson, the League of Nations was established with the avowed aim to establish permanent peace and order in the world.

(2) When the frontier areas of Germany were partitioned, the principal and integral part of Germany was kept united under a sovereign Government.

(3) The colonies of Germany were divided among the Allies on the basis of the Mandate system.

(4) Germany was not asked to pay the whole expenses of war. She was asked to pay only the damages suffered by the civilian population of the Allied countries due to the German aggression.

(5) According to the principle of nationalism and self-determination, many new states were created, viz. Poland, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Lithuania, etc. It was. for the first time, when the principle of nationalism was enforced on a large scale. As a result of this, only three percent people of the total population of Europe remained under the yoke of the foreigners.

Question 21. Comment on the international significance of the Russian Revolution?
Answer: The Revolution of 1917 is an epoch-making event in the history of the world. Marx and Engels visualised the proletarian revolution sweeping all over Europe. By a systematic appeal to peace, the Bolsheviks hoped to lead the European masses towards a general revolution. The example and propaganda of the Bolshevik Revolution helped to found Communist parties in different countries.

These were federated in 1919 in a Third International (Comintern) with headquarters at Moscow. Through the Comintern, Russia directed the policies and activities of Germany, France, Italy and most other countries on the European continent.

The Indian Communist Party was formed in 1925 and Manabendra Nath Roy (M.N. Roy) was the first Indian to be elected to the Communist International. The Bolshevik Revolution ushered in a great socialist movement and created panic in the capitalist world.

As a matter of fact, the Fascist revolution after 1920 was the outcome of the hatred and fear of Communism. The impact of the Bolshevik Revolution was felt not only in western Europe but also in the colonial world. It opened an era of nationalist struggle against the colonial rule. By propagating the doctrine that the last of capitalism in imperialism, the Bolshevik Revolution became an eloquent champion of racial equality and freedom. The Bolshevik Revolution influenced the Chinese nationalist revolution.

The example of the Bolshevik success inflamed imaginations everywhere. European labour became militant and tried to forge the unity of workers as whole. Socialism, as opposed to imperialism, emerged as a great force for order and stabilisation in Western and Central Europe. Moreover, the success of Russia’s economic planning gave great encouragement to various countries of the world to reach the goal of economic progress.

22. Briefly describe the causes of the failure of the League of Nations?
Answer: After the First World War (1914-18) an international organisation, known as the League of Nations, which was formed to promote

International cooperation andpeace failed due to various reasons :

(1) The League was never able to make itself truly ‘representative of the entire world’. Countries like U.S.A, Russia, Germany, Japan and Italy were not members of the League at different stages and no international organisation can be really successful if some of the Great Powers remain outside its orbit.

(2) Mere protests could not check the aggressive policy of the members of the League. Effective economic and military sanctions were necessary but military sanctions were left to the discretion of the members. Without military punishment the aggressor could not be checked.

(3) The League had no army, navy or airforce of its own nor was it in a position to apply economic sanctions without the cooperation of the great powers. But the great powers looked after their own interests instead of fulfilling their obligations to the League. (iv) The rise of dictatorship in different countries in the third decade of the 20th century frustrated the peace-making efforts of the League.

Question 23. Briefly describe the reasons for the rise of the Nazis to power.
Answer:
The reasons for the rise of the Nazis were as follows :

(1) In the First World War (1914-18) Germany was defeated and the humiliating Treaty of Versailles was imposed upon Germany in 1919 and the rise of Nazis is traced to the severity of the terms imposed upon Germany by this shameful Treaty of Versailles.

(2) The heavy burden of compensation imposed upon Germany brought in a host of evils like unemployment, price rise and taxation.

(3) Democracy in Germany remained as weak as it could be and the suffering of the people knew no bounds. Hitler cleverly exploited the discontent of his countrymen and his theory of the superiority of the German race restored confidence in the people.

(4) His oratory, uniform (Brown Shirt of the Nazi members), the swastika flag, use of violence—all together appealed to many classes of the German people.

(5) The Nazis provided an outlet for the military leanings of the German youths. The German minds reacted favourably to dictatorial movements. (vi) Moreover, due to the fear of a communist revolution, the opponents of communism supported the Nazis and it was under these circumstances that Nazism gained ground in German soil.

Question 24. Write a note on Paris Peace Conference.
Answer: The First World War came to an end with the surrender of Germany in 1918. The Great Powers decided to convene a conference at Paris to find out the possibilities of the establishment of peace and to conclude the treaty with the defeated nations.

The main aspects of the conference were:

(1) The Big Four Thirty-two nations sent their spokesmen to assemble at the Paris Peace conference and effect a territorial resettlement of the war-torn. world. The leaders of the conference, the Big Four, were President Woodrow Wilson of the U.S.A, Clemenceau of France, Lloyd George of Great Britain and Orlando of Italy.

(2) Foundation of the League of Nations Wilson, the President of America, joined the Paris Peace Conference with the aim of establishing such an organisation which might work effectively to prevent wars in future and to establish permanent peace in the world.

(3) Five Treaties The terms of the Peace Settlement were embodied in five main treaties:

(1) The Treaty of Versailles (1919) between Allied powers and Germany
(2) The Treaty of St. Germain (1919) between Allied powers and Austria
(3) The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) between Allied powers and Bulgaria
(4) The Treaty of Sevres (1920) between the Allied Powers and Turkey and the
(5)Treaty of Trianon (1920) between the Allied Powers and Hungary

Question 25. What were the treaties signed in the Paris Peace Conference (1919)?
Answer: The First World War came to an end in 1918 with the surrender of Germany. In the Paris Peace Conference (1919) the following peace treaties were concluded

(1) The Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles was concluded in 1919 between the victorious allies (comprising Britain, France, Russia, Serbia) and the
defeated Germany after World War I.

(1) Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine to France, Upen, Malmedy, Morisnet to Belgium, Memel to the Allies, west Prussia and most of Posen to Poland. She handed over the province of Schleswig to Denmark.

(2) Danzig was made a free port.

(3) The Saar Valley was put under an international commission for 15 years.

(4) Germany was required to surrender her colonies, navy and coal mines.

(5) Germany had to pay heavy war reparations.

(2) The Treaty of Saint Germain :This treaty was signed between victorious Allies and defeated Austria in 1919. By this treaty

(1) the old House of Hapsburg was abolished and(2) Austria had to accept the true existence of Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia.

(3) The Treaty of Neuilly : This treaty was signed between the victorious allies and Bulgaria in 1919. According to this treaty

(1) Four provinces of Western Bulgaria were given to Yugoslavia and
(2) The strength of Bulgarian army was reduced to ten thousand.

(4) The Treaty of Trianon : The Allied powers concluded this treaty with Hungary in 1920. By this treaty

(1) a large portion of territory was taken away from Hungary and
(2) the strength of the Hungarian army was reduced.

(5) The Treaty of Sevres : The victorious Allies concluded this treaty with Turkey in 1920. By this treaty

(1) The Turkish empire was abolished and
(2) Turkey had to give up her rights over Egypt, Cyprus, Morocco, Palestine, Arabia and Mesopotamia. Turkey’s army was also reduced.

Question 26. Criticise the Treaty of Versailles Or, “The Treaty of Versailles contained the seeds of the Second World War”.Discuss.
Answer:

(1) The Treaty of Versailles has been called ‘a dictated treaty’ which was imposed upon by the defeated Germany by the Allied powers. The delegates of Germany were not invited to the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and the treaty was a vengeful treaty.

(2) The Treaty did not adhere to the principle of self-determination. The right of self-determination was not applied for Sudetenland which was transferred to Czechoslovakia, It led to a loss of balance of power in Europe.

(3) While England and France increased their colonies, German colonies were confiscated in the name of good government.

(4) Germany was saddled with a huge reparation amount by the Treaty which was impossible for her to pay.

(5) According to Wilson‘s Fourteen Points, it was decided that all the states would reduce their war armaments. But this clause was only applied to Germany. Humiliated Germany was looking forward to another war as an opportunity to avenge her defeat. It is thus said that the Treaty of Versailles contained the seeds of the Second World War.

Question 27. What do you mean by Great Economic Depression ? What were the causes of the economic depression of 1929 ?
Answer: The Great Economic Depression was a severe worldwide economic crisis in the decade preceding World War II that affected most of the developed world except Soviet Union throughout 1930. The causes of the Great Depression in America or world economic crisis were as follows:

(1) After the First World War there was overproduction of industrial goods in America. The surplus goods could not be sold in the domestic market or across the Atlantic.

(2) After the First World War different European countries increased their industrial production. As a result demand for American goods dropped leading to economic
crisis.

(3) During the First World War farmers produced far more food than the population consumed. Farmers expanded their production to aid the war effort. After the war as demand

dropped with increasing supply, the prices of products fell and farmers suffered. They fell into debt.

(4) On 24 October, 1929 the American share market crashed. As the shareholders were panicked millions of shares had been sold on this fateful day.

(5) America imposed high rate of tariff on goods imported from different European countries. The European countries also adopted the same policy. As surplus goods could not be sold in the market America’s foreign trade suffered. Many industries were closed and the people became jobless.

Question 28. What was the Narodnik Movement  ? What was the aim of the movement  ? Was the movement a failure?
Answer: The most important movement in Russia in the 50s of the 19% century was the Narodnik movement. The Russian word ‘Narod’ means the ‘people’, One who sought to help the people (peasants, i.e., narod) take the path of revolutionary struggle for a just life was known as Narodnik.

The aim of the Narodnik movement was :
(1) overthrow the rule of the autocratic Czars in Russia
(2) destruction of the prevalent social structure and
(3) agrarian socialist society to be established.

The Narodniks failed to motivate the peasants with their ideology. Their movement, though a failure, made the doctrine of socialism known to the people. People were trained for future revolution.

Question 29. What were the causes of Russian Revolution?
Answer: The Russian Revolution of 1917 is a very important event in world history. It brough t an end to Czarist autocracy and established socialist Russia.

The causes of the Russian Revolution are as follows:

(1) The Czars were corrupt. There was absolutely no progress in any aspect of life’ of the common Russians. Though the life of the people was miserable, no effort was made to remove their grievances. Naturally the Russians desired the fall of Czarist rule.

(2) The mental climate for the outbreak of the revolution was prepared by philosophers like Gorky, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy and others.

(3) The Russian army was inefficient. Russia was defeated in the Crimean War (1854-66) and the Russo-Japanese War (1905). This exposed the weakness of the Czarist rule.

(4) Russian society was divided into the ‘Haves’ and the ‘Have-nots’. The ‘Haves’ were those who were very rich. The ‘Have nots’ were poor farmers and labourers. This created a feeling of class struggle among the people.

(5) The Industrial Revolution was another factor contributing to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution. Owing to the use of machines the labourers were thrown out of employment and were forced to live in miserable conditions.

(6) The bureaucracy of Russia was also responsible for the outbreak of the Russian revolution. Most of the high officers belonged to rich families. They had no sympathy for the common people and always exploited them. The people of Russia were thus firmly determined to bring about a thorough change in the system of administration. Thus the Russian Revolution broke out.

Question 30. What was Lenin’s ‘April Thesis’?
Answer: Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik party in Russia, was the pioneer of the October Revolution. The Menshevik thesis was rejected by Lenin. The people were attracted to the Bolshevik when they promised bread to the workers, peace to the army and land to the peasants. Yet the people could not decide their future plan. In early April 1917 Lenin returned from his exile in Switzerland and announced his famous ‘April thesis’ titled “What is to be done”.

In his thesis he said :

(1) History has given a very opportune time to the Bolsheviks.
(2) The provisional republic is yet out of roots. Once it wins a general election it will be impossible for the Bolsheviks to overthrow it. So Lenin put forward his idea of ‘Now or Never’.
(3) Since the Bolsheviks were the aipehiettc of the 1917 revolution, they have every right to hold a government lawfully.
(4) The bourgeoisie and the proletarian revolution—both will happen simultaneously and the proletarian will overthrow the bourgeoisie system.
(5) The Russian peasants and soldiers will offer their allegiance to,the Soviet only and those who will not do so will be punished.
(6) In the villages and towns workers will capture power and they will defy the provisional republican Government.
(7) The war with Germany launched by the Provisional Government was an imperialist war—the Russian people had no sympathy for it.

Question 31. Write a note on the Spanish Civil War and progressive movements in India.
Answer: After the First World War the political, social and economic condition of Spain was not stable. In 1931 general elections were held in Spain in which the monarchists were defeated. Democratic Republican Government was established in Spain. But the newly established republican Government could not work successfully. General Franco attacked the republican Government and overthrew it. Thus a civil war broke out in Spain.In this civil war Italy and Germany helped General Franco.

The attitude of India was different In the Faizpur session of the Indian National Congress (1936) Jawaharlal Nehru, a leader of the Indian freedom movement, in his presidential address said that the civil war in Spain was not simply a war between Franco and the republican Government or a war between Fascism and democracy.

He called it a war between reactionary and progressive forces. He remarked, “The struggle today is fiercest and clearest in Spain and on the outcome of that depends war or peace in the world in the near future”.

An association was established in London by the Indians in support of the republican Government in Spain. This association also raised a fund to support the republican Government in Spain in 1937. During the Spanish civil war Jawaharlal Nehru visited Spain in June 1938. In this year on 13, October Mahatma Gandhi sent a message to the Prime Minister of Spain telling him that his full sympathy was with them.

Question 32. Write a note on Hoover’s Moratorium ?
Answer: Herbert Hoover became the President of the U.S.A in 1929. He said, “We in America are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land”. But very soon came the economic crash of 1929.

Total industrial production fell by 48 percent, the result being a rapid growth of unemployment. The business houses faced a great deal of losses. In order to speed up economic revival, However proposed an international moratorium from mid 1931 to mid 1932. To meet rising unemployment, the Government allotted large sums for the constructionof public buildings and highways.

The threatened insolvency of many banks and many railways forced the Government to underwrite the credit structure. A Reconstruction Finance Corporation was created which was authorised to lend money . for three years for financing commerce, industry and agriculture and for exportation of agricultural and other products.

All these measures to solve the economic depression of the country failed. By 1932 over five thousand banks collapsed and the number of unemployed people rose to over 12 million. The Americans turned with hope to the new leadership of Franklin Roosevelt.

Question 33. What is the ‘New Deal’ of Roosevelt ?
Answer: When Franklin Delano Roosevelt became the President of U.S.A in 1933 the country was on the verge of complete collapse. He prophesied that U.S.A would ‘revive and prosper’ and he promised a New Deal for the American people.

The New Deal was a series of domestic programme enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938 and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term (1933-37) of President Roosevelt.

The programme were in response to the Great Depression and focussed on what historians call the 3R’s- ‘Relief, Recovery, Reform’, that is Relief for the unemployed and poor, Recovery of the economy to normal level and Reform of the finances.

In the realm of Relief the Government gave federal loans to rich business. It inaugurated a programme of public works in order to stimustimulate business and provide employment. It set up elaborate system of conservation of nature resource.

The New Deal reopened banks under strict supervision of the Government. It controlled the selling of stocks and bonds and other securities. The New Deal paid particular attention to agriculture, labour and social security.

Question 34. What were the reasons that led to the substitution of Europe by the U.S.A as the power centre of the world ?
Answer: In the beginning of the 20th century the centre of power of the world was shifted from Europe to U.S.A due to the following reasons:

(1) With the entry of U.S.A into the First World War in 1917 a new chapter area in world history. Her participation changed the course of the war and enabled Britain and France to win the war.

(2) At the Paris Peace Conférence (1919) President Wilson was one of the Big Four who laid the foundation of the world peace organisation, the League of Nations. U.S.A‘s prestige was raised and she became a prominent power in the world.

(3) U.S.A’s emergence as a world power was also caused by her economic prosperity. The economic depression of 1929-33 affected not only U.S.A but also other countries of the world. President Roosevelt of U.S.A helped other countries to tide over this economic crises and U.S.A‘s prestige was raised as a first class world power.

(4) U.S.A rendered military and material help to the allies and totally changed the course of the war. U.S.A forced Japan to surrender in 1945 and played a leading role in the Second: World War. She made her the arbitrer of international politics.

(5) U.S.A’s advancement in science and technology especially in weapons of mass destruction raised her status. She was the first to invent atom bomb and the successful dropping of it in Japan made her the most prominent power in the world.

(6) U.S.A took the lead to counteract Russia’‘s influence. She took the initiative of extending economic assistance to Europe, especially through the Marshall Plan. U.S.A helped to restore all economies and modernise the armed forces of western Europe and became the centre of world politics.

(7) The Second World War (1939-45) weakened Britain and France. Britain’s economic crisis after the war was relieved to some extent by loan from the US which heightened the prestige of U.S.A.

Question 35. What was the impact of World War I on Europe?
Answer: There was left a great impact on Europe of the World War 1.

Some of them are as follows:

(1) End of great powers:  The major Europen empires, i.e., Germany, Russia, Turkey and Austria-Hungary were destroyed.

(2) Development of Nationalism: The feeling of nationalism developed in many countries. Poland, Ireland, Turkey, Yugoslavia witnessed the emergence of Nationalism.

(3) Establishment of Democracy: The declining monarchy paved the way for democracy such as Weimer Republic was established in Germany. The Sultan of Turkey was dethroned and a democratic Government was established there under the leadership of Kamal Pasa.

(4) Emergence of autocracy:
 As the democratic Government failed to solve the socio-economic problems like price rise, unemployment, food crisis, etc. the emer- gence of autocracy took place in Europe. For example, Hitter gave rise to Nazism in Germany and Mussolini to Fascism in Italy.

(5) Formation of League of Nations: The 14 points programme of U.S. Presi- dent Wilson led to the formation of League of Nations.

(6) Decline in the position of Anglo-French powers: Though the Anglo-French powers won the World War I, their prestige and position declined to some extent. Russia and America emerged as big powers.

(7) End of hegemony of Europe: The hegemony of Europe had in the world trade and in industrial production in the pre war years came to an end after the end of World War I.

(8) Spread of Trade Union Movement: Trade Union Movement gained strength in the post war days.

(9) The Great. Depression: The most important economic feature in the post war years was the Great Depression (1929) in U.S.A. Each and every country of the world felt the burnt of it.

(10) Internationalism: spread as an upshot of the World War I. Eagerness for nternational co-operation gave birth to the League of Nations.

Question 36. To what extent did imperialist rivalry lead to the outbreak of the First World War?
Answer: Commercial and colonial rivalry among the European nations was a major cause of the First World War. The Industrial Revolution resulted in a huge rise in production in most European countries. Native industrialists and capitalists became more prosperous with a large capital which they wanted to invest in new markets.

The search was on for colonies which would serve as markets for products, sources of raw materials and as investment opportunities; pressures were mounted on governments for urgent colonisation.

Since Industrial Revolution happened early in England, France, Russia, Portugal and Spain, their colonising drive took off earlier too in the underdeveloped countries of Asia and Africa. The Industrial Revolution arrived much later in Germany and Italy. But soon German industries made a marked progress, especially during the reign of Kaiser William II and Germany too felt the need for colonisation to secure markets and raw materials.

Pressure was exerted on the Government by German capitalists in this regard. But by this time, England, France, Russia, Portugal and Spain had consolidated their control over most of the countries of Asia and Africa and very little was left for Germany, Austria and Italy. With an object to expand trade in the Middle East, Kaiser planned to build the Berlin-Baghdad railway. England.

Opposed the plan from security concern for the Indian empire. The Kaiser tried to interfere in the French colony of Morocco. At this time, Italy was busy to colonising Tripoli in north Africa, Russia in Middle East and Far East, and Japan had imperialist schemes in the Far East Europe was thus caught in feuds over colonisation and the natural outcome was the First World War. Lenin, in his booklet, “Imperialism – the Highest Stage of Capitalism”, points at this economic reason behind the First World War.

Question 37. What is imperialism? State its causes?
Answer: By imperialism is generally meant “the domination or occupation of one country by another, going against the people”. New imperialism is a total concept which engulfs the economic, cultural and social life of the colonies. The period between 1870-1914, points out David Thomson, “has come to be known in some specially significant and discreditable sense, as the age of imperialism”.

Causes:

The most prominent causes of imperialism are as follows :

(1) The industrial advancement of most of the european countries led them to look for markets beyond Europe, in Asia and Africa.
(2) Political domination would secure markets in the two continents.
(3) Besides market, the import of raw materials also lay behind imperialism.
(4) Imperialism was considered necessary for safety of investment.
(5) Strategic consideration was an important factor in imperialist domination.

38. What was the economic condition of European countries at the end of the First World War ? Account for the failure of democracy in Italy and Germany. Which political party rose to power in Italy?
Answer: The First World War which was longest for about 4 years, both the parties faced a huge loss of wealth. As a result of this, England’s national debt raised upto 74,350 lakh pound, French’s 14,74,750 lakh frank and Germany’s 16,06,000 lakh mark. During the First World War, unrest mounted steadily in Italy, peasants and working men suffered from the increased prices, heavier taxes, and other war burdens. After the war with peace, however, came a disastrous economic crisis.

Industry and trade became disorganized, agriculture stagnated and unemployment grew in the cities. The condition in Germany was far from normal. The Republic was born as a result of defeat in war. It was associated with sufferings and humiliation. One crisis followed another in quick succession. The national currency collapsed. For the German default in paying reparation the French took possession of the factories in Rurh. Elbert was too weak to meet the situation.

The situation in Germany was grave enough. In despair many of the German people turned to any party and any programme that held out the prospect of better times. Some joined the Monarchist party, some became Communist, while the vast majority of the Germans joined the party of the National Socialists. It was then led by Adolf Hitler. On 28th October, 1932 Mussolini organized a march in Rome. There was no resistance, rather the King of Italy asked Mussolini to join the Government. Hence the Fascist Party rose to power in Italy.

Question 39. When did the First World War start and end ? Which of the countries took part in it ?
Answer:

Duration of the First World War : The First World War commenced in 1914 and continued upto 1918 A.D.

Participating Countries: The First World War was fought between two rival and hostile blocs. On one side were the Allies or the countries like Serbia, Russia, France, England, Japan, America and Italy. On the other side were the Central powers or the countries like Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. These two groups prepared themselves to measure their armed strength. The very emergence of these two hostile camps was a sure indication of the World War.

Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance. She remained neutral before jumping into the war against Germany and Austria in 1915 AD. Her enmity with Austria was on the issue of the control of the new colonies. Roughly speaking, eighty-six countries of the world participated in the First World War.

40. How was Rome-Berlin Tokyo-Axis formed ? Or, Write a note on Rome-Berlin Tokyo Axis?
Answer: Formation of Rome-Berlin Tokyo Axis wrecked the balance of power and prepared road to the Second World War.

Formation of Rome-Berlin Axis :

(1) Germany was diplomatically isolated in Europe by Anglo-French Powers. A.G.P, Taylor has remarked, “Hitler was the 3rd Bismark of Germany”. Hitler planned to form a close alliance with the Fascists in Italy in order to break the isolation.
(2) Gemany and Italy were frustrated due to the Versailles Treaty of 1919.
(3) Gemany and Italy thought that they would encircle France from East and South-East.
(4) Ideologically, Nazism and Fascism were dictatorships. Thus, Germany and Italy both concluded Anti-Comintern pact in 1936 which later on came to be known as Rome-Berlin Axis.

Joining of Japan in the Axis – After Manchurian invasion in 1931, Japan deserted the League of Nations and remained diplomatically isolated. Japan found that she would end her isolation by joining the axis. On the other hand, the Italy-German Government thought if Japan kept British and America busy in Asia, their plan of expansion in Europe would face less obstruction. Thus, Japan joined the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1937. Hence Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was formed. This Axis was one group which began the Second World War.

Question 41. Write a note on the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer: As a result of the discussions at the Paris conference on June 29, 1919, theTreaty of Versailles was signed. The treaty was designed to prevent Germany fromgoing to war again.

Terms The treaty contains the following terms:

(1) Germany had to pay 33 billion dollars as war compensation.
(2) German colonies were snatched in China and Africa.
(3) The land, air and naval forces of Germany was to be dissolved.
(4)Germany lost Lorraine to France, Eupen-et-Malmedy to Belgium, Schleswing to Denmark.
(5) The area of the Rhine valley was to be demilitarised.
(6) The coalmines of Germany area called SAAR was ceded to France for 15 years.

Reaction of Germany – The Marxist historians said that the provisions of the Treaty were imposed on Germany. That is why the treaty was called a dictated peace by the Germans. Hitler took full advantage of German discontentment and grabbed the power in his own hands. Thus, the treaty was absolutely one sided. Germany was reduced to the status of hermit kingdom. Acc. to E.W. Caar, “There was no justice behind the Versailles Treaty”. Historians think that this eventually led to the World War II.

Question 42. What were the principles of Fascism?
Answer:

The features of fascism are as follows :

(1) No place for opposition Fascism was a supporter of one party and one leader. There was no place of opposition in Fascism. Mussolini had said, “All parties must end, must fall. I want to see a panorama of ruins around me, the ruins of other political forces so that Fascism may stand gigantic and dominant”.

(2) All powerfull leaders – All power would rest with the leader and none else. The leader would be the symbol of the state and the unity.

(3) Denies the existence of Individual – Fascism was against the individual. It laid more stress on the duties of the individual and the rights of the state. That is why it has been said, “The individual exists solely for the society of which he forms a part that the state delibertates all individual rights”.

(4) Power and prestige of the country – Fascism wanted to enhance the power and prestige of the country by making it powerful.

(5) Establishment of peace – According to Fascism, peace should be established in the country and private property should be maintained.

(6) Imperialist and aggressive policy Fascism was the supporter of an imperialist and aggressive policy. According to Mussolini, “Fascism is based on the resolutions, looks and objectives of the state. According to it, state is complete but the individual associations are incomplete”.

Question 43. What were the ideals of Nazism?
Answer:

The ideals of Nazism are as follows :

(1) The state is above all. All powers hould be with the state and it should have hold on all political, social and economic programmes.
(2) To end the parliamentary institutions.
(3) To have control over press, education, radio and to maintain its own powers.
(4) To crush all sorts of party formations and oppositions.
(5) To root out communism and liberalism.
(6) The right to private property was recognised only upto a limit which wasn’t harmful to the national interest.
(7) The Nazi Party considered Germany superior to all other nations and wanted to have her influence all over the world. It was of the view “The stronger must rule and not fuse with the weaker and so sacrifice its own greatness.”
(8) To turn out the Jews from Germany as they was a great loss due to the economic hardship of the people of Germany.
(9) To denounce the degrading Treaty of Versailles.
(10) To increase the German military power and the expansion of the German empire.

Question 44. Write about the internal policy of Mussolini?
Answer: Internally, Mussolini wanted to transform Italy into a Fascist State. State would be all powerful, and Mussolini himself as the leader of the Fascist Party would control everything.

(1) Immediately after establishing himself as the Fascist dictator of Italy, Mussolini in 1926 passed a law organizing unions and employers into corporations. The greater part of the population was grouped according to occupation into corporations.

(2) The corporations were authorized to settle wages and working conditions. In case of any dispute, the same was to be referred to tribunals.

(3) Strikes, lockouts, etc. were strictly forbidden.

(4) Mussolini abolishe the parliament which was replaced by a body representing the Fascist Party. With the help of these measures Mussolini made himself the Fascist dictator of Italy. In 1926 Mussolini assumed the title II Duce.

(5) By the Lateran Treaty (1929) signed between the Church and the Fascist Government the breach between the two was finally resolved. The Vatican City was recognized as an independent state, and in return the Church recognized the Kingdom of Italy.

(6) Mussolini projected the public works like construction of roads, bridges, canals, railways and similar other things as the chief solution to unemployment. It must, however, be remembered that despite all this the standard of living hardly increased.

(7) Mussolini established total governmental control over the press.

(8) It must, however, be pointed out that despite all these efforts the Fascist rule could hardly improve the economic condition of the general people. The unemployment problem also could not be resolved. When the popular discontent reached such a pitch by 1935, Mussolini sought to divert the attention of people away from it by pursuing a vigorous foreign policy.

45. Write about the foreign policy of Mussolini.
Answer:

(1) Motives:Mussolini pursued a strong foreign policy in which the general objects were as follows:

(1) To raise Italy’s prestige in Europe so that Italy is respected and feared. Mussolini knew that he had to improve Italy’s international status, for this was the criterion by which his regime would stand or fall.

(2) Formation of a vast Italian colonial empire so that the growing Italian population may be accommodated.

(3) Expansion of Italy’s colonial empire in Africa.

(4) To expand Italian influence in the Mediterranean region. With these ends in view, Mussolini followed a strong and active foreign policy. ;

(2) Implementation of the Foreign Policy: With the above objectives in view Mussolini followed a strong and aggressive foreign policy.

(1) In 1923, on the ground that four Italians were murdered in Greece, Mussolini placed a demand of 500 million Lira (Italian currency) as compensation, also he threatened to occupy Corfue. However, Mussolini had to rest his content by compensation only.

(2) In 1924 Mussolini occupied Fiume, an Italian speaking area of Yugoslavia. This occupation no doubt increased the prestige of Mussolini.

(3) Italian aggression of Ethiopia (Abyssinia) in 1935 was an example of Italian expansionism towards Africa. On the complaint of the Abyssinian Emperor, Haile Selassie the League of Nations declared Italy an ‘aggressor’. The League, however, was unable to take any effective step against Mussolini and as such Ethiopia could not be saved. The. result of the affair strained relations between Italy and Britain and France. But at the same time it led to closer relations between Italy and Germany.

(4) Again, in the Spanish Civil War in Spain (1936) the Spanish dictator General Franco was supported by Hitler and Mussolini. This helped closed ties between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. However, till 1940 Mussolini’s aggressive foreign policy may be said to be successful. But after 1940 Mussolini had been increasingly enslaved to the overlordship of Nazi Germany.

Question 46. Write about the internal policy of Hitler?
Answer:

Objectives and Implementation : Internally, Hitler’s objectives were :

(1) Totalitarianism That is to say, to bring everything under the control of the party. The totalitarianism differs from the democratic State because the former prohibits all political parties other than the party that supports the Government.

(2) Extreme nationalism or racial exclusiveness It exalted the purity of the race as the sole criterion of nationality. In this case it was stated that the Germans were the only. nation that came from the Aryan stock. It denied the rights of citizenship to those born and reared in the German soil, if the blood of ‘non-Aryans’ flowed in their veins With these objectives in view, Hitler’s measures of implementation were as follows:

(1) The national life of Germany was placed under the total control of the Nazi Party. The influence of the party was all-pervasive in every sphere of life whether Political,
economic or cultural.

(2) There was to be only one political party, the Nazi Party, in. Germany.

(3) All the trade unions were annulled. Instead workers were organized into the ‘German Labour Front’. German industries were all placed under the control of this German Labour Front.

(4) The Nazi Government abolished freedom of the press, of the radio, of the universities and schools. Strict censorship was imposed.

(5) It did not recognize the personal rights or safety of the individual, who could be arrested and imprisoned without ever being brought to trial.

(6) The Reichstag was restricted to the members of one party, that is, the Nazis, and met only at rare intervals.

(7) To intimidate people ‘concentration camps’ were instituted where prisoners were kept for unlimited period without any trial. Considering all aspects of the internal policy, it may be said that the Nazi regime was not a Government by consent, but Government by coercion.

(8) The Gestapo or Secret State Police was formed and run by Himmler who was the most powerful man after Hitler.

Question 47. What were the unjust features of the treaty of Versailles?
Answer:

Unjust features of the Treaty: The peace treaties belied the hopes of the European powers and the world had failed to lay the foundation of a just and stable peace.

Its main causes were :

(1) The treaties contained certain provisions which were the seeds of further conflicts.

(2) Some victorious countries also felt that they had been cheated because all their hopes had not been realised.

(3) The Allies had entered into many secret treaties for dividing the spoils of war. The Allies had claimed that the war was being fought for freedom and democracy, but inspite of this, the distribution of the colonies of defeated countries took place among the victors. The League of Nations also recognised the division of the spoils. The former German and Turkish possessions given to Britain, France and others as “mandates” in the interests of the people, were actually treated as their colonies.

(4) Imperialism was not destroyed. The victorious powers had enlarged their possessions and the factors which had caused rivalries and conflicts among imperialist countries remained as before.

(5) The emergence of the Soviet Union was thought to be a danger to the existing social and economic systems in many countries. So they wanted to destroy it

(6) The League of Nations that had been established for the preservation of peace and to guarantee the independence of all States was never an effective organisation. In 1930s, many countries resorted to aggression and defied the League. Besides these factors, certain other developments took place in the following two decades which made another world war inevitiable.

Question 48. What were the causes of rise of the Nazism in Germany ?
Answer: After the World War I, Germany had to face an economical crisis. Due to unrest and lawlessness that ppeared at that time, there were revolts in many places which could not be controlled by the Government. So, Kaiser William Il resigned and a new republican government called ‘Weimar Republic’ was formed on 10th August, 1919. But this government also failed giving rise to dictorship or Nazism in Germany under the leadership of Adolf Hitler.

Causes of the rise :

1. Humiliating Treaty of Versailles: Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles by which she had to pay a huge war compensation. This created a feeling of dissatisfaction among the Germans. When Hitler assured the Germans about the establishment of the old prestige, they became his followers.

2. Economic Crisi : Germany had to face an economic depression after the World War I. Many soldiers died and many became unemployed. Trade and commerce was also ruined. The republic also failed to solve the economic crisis. Then the ‘people believed that a brilliant like Hitler could bring back the promised prestige of Germany.

3. Spread of Communism: Being inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917, the German communists also tried.to bring a revolution in Germany. But Hitler feared that Germany would become a slave of Russia as communism spread there, so he provoked the people against communism and masses joined the Nazi Party in large.

4. Germany had no faith in democracy: The Germans had no faith in the democracy. They prefered prestige and glory to liberty and freedom. So, they gave support to Hitler who could tranform their dreams into reality instead of the republican Government.

5. Personality of Hitler: Hitler possed a very influenting and charming personality. He was a very good orator. He was a resourceful person, a tireless worker and an able organiser. Naturally, the people began to havea blind faith in him and they started thinking of him as a great leader.

Question 49. Briefly describe the causes of failure of League of Nations?
Answer: During the World War I, people experienced untold sorrows and sufferings. So the need of establishment of an International Organisation was felt to maintain peace and security in the world. As a result the League of Nations was found in 1920.

But the League failed in its mission owing following reasons :

1. Aloofness of great powers: The League of Nations was actually an organisation of the victors. Germany, Italy, Japan,.USA were absent from.the League for a long time. The USA never joined the League of Nations. The absence of all these powers made the League weak.

2. Refusal of great powers to honour their pledges and obligations: Provisions of the Treaties were violated by the great powers. Neither the League nor its members were sincere enough to maintain peace and security. Whenever their national interest clashed with the principles of the League, they ignored the League.

3. Weakness of the organisation: The League of Nations showed weakness in front of aggressive policy of the great powers. Italy invaded Abyssinia and conquered it Japan occupied Manchuria, Germany occupied Austria and Czechoslovakia. The League was a silent spectator of all these cases.

4. Absence of Arm: The League have no army of its own. It had no power to compel any nation to abide by its decision.

5. Failure of Disarmament: Disarmament was one of the objectives of the League. But Geneva Disarmament conference could not succeed as the allied powers wanted to Disarm Germany.

6. Rise of Dictatorship and Socialism: After the First World War, Dictorship was. established in Germany, Italy and Spain. The Dictators adopted Millitant Nationalism. In Russia, Socialism was founded during the war. All these developments paralysed the League. It lost its significance and could do nothing when the Second World War broke out.

Question 50. “The Treaty of Versailles had in itself the germs of Second World War”. Explain?
Answer: After World War I, many conventions were held at Versailles in France to decide the peace treaties. The American President Woodrow Wilson, British Prime Minister Lloyd George and the French Prime Minister, Clemenceau also attended these conventions.

They prepared a document for world peace. As a result many peace treaties were concluded with the defeated countries – Germany, Austria, Hungary and Turkey. But they succeeded in bringing peace to the world for a temporary period only and the world saw another war after a period of 20 years only.

The following points can be stated to prove that the treaties were unjust and harsh :

(1) These treaties were forcibly imposed upon the defeated countries by the victors. Germany: and other defeated countries were not called to decide their terms and conditions.

(2) Germany was solely held responsible for the war. It was wrong because other countries like Serbia, France and Russia were also equally responsible for it.

(3) German territories and colonies were taken away from her. She was also forced to reduce her army. It was unjust because such conditions were not binding on the allies, i.e., England, France and Russia, etc.

(4) Germany was also forced to pay a huge war indemnity of 600 crores. It was a very heavy punishment.

(5) Like Germany, her allies (Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria, etc.) were also treated harshly. Many of their territories were taken away from them. Their military power was reduced and they were forced to pay heavy war indemnities. Thus, Treaty was absolutely one sided. According to E. W. Caar, “There was no justice behind versailles treaty”. Historians think that defects in treaty of Versailles prepared ‘road to the World War II.

Question 51. Write a note on the League of Nations?
Answer: The scheme for a League of Nations, sponsored with special enthusiasm and fervour by President Woodrow Wilson but eventually modified in accordance with British and French proposals, could be viewed in two different lights.

In one aspect it was the revival and elaboration of the idea of the Concert of Europe into a Concert of most of the world, that is, it provided regular occasions when the representatives of all member States could meet and discuss not only common problems but any matter that seemed liable to endanger world peace.

In proving standing machinery for such gatherings and permanent means of joint discussion, the League was an improved and wider version of the series of Congresses which the great powers of Europe had held from time to time throughout the century before 1914.

In another light it was something new and very different, it was a multilateral agreement by which each participant bound itself not only to seek peaceful means of settling any dispute in which it became involved, but also to shoulder some share of responsibility for defending every other signatory against aggression.

This notion known loosely as a ‘system of collective security’, was the teeth within the Concert-the supposed sanction which by deffering an aggressor would keep the peace. In this second aspect only was it based on a new concept, and in this aspect it failed.

The composition and function of the principal organs of the League of Nations are described in the Convenant. The principal organs were the Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat, and the Permanant Court of International Justice.

 

Question 52. Write a note on the causes of the rise of Hilter?
Answer:
Causes of the rise of Hitler :

Causes of Hitler’s rise to power are to be found in two factors :

(1) the German view of the Treaty of Versailles; and

(2) the failure of the Weimer Republic to solve the political and economic problems of the post-war years. The war and the peace settlement left Germany crushed spiritually and materially. The Germans could not forge the humiliation of defeat and of the ictate of Versailles which injured their national self-respect and caused grave material injury. The suffering caused by the inflationary crisis and even by the world economic depression of the thirties was attributed to reparations and the loss of Danzig, the Rhineland, the Saar, etc. which were integral parts of the peace settlement.

The Weimer Republic, it was generally felt, had failed to deal boldly with the legacies of war and defeat. It had adopted a policy of conciliation and proved its incapacity to assert itself strongly in international affairs. The complacent republican politicians were depriving Germany of a glamorous and secure future by their ‘treachery’ and ‘cowardice’.

Apart from specific complaints, there was a general weariness about the manner in which the democratic parliamentary system was functioning. Many people were impatient with the bickering and quarrelling that marked the proceeding of the Reichstag. Empty promises took the place of effective system; there was a clear contrast with the old days of order and discipline. German prestige and prosperity could be restored.

Psychologically, also the Weimar Republic failed to respond to some deep seated popular sentiments. It tolerated attempts to drag down the ideals and heroes of imperial Germany. The abandonment of the old flag and military uniforms implied a break with the past which was not popular. Believers in German culture and Germany’s historic mission felt uneasy about the Rapallo system of friendship with the Bolsheviks.

Question 53. What was the relation between the Bolshevik Revolution and the First World War?
Answer: One of the first acts of the new Government was to conclude peace with Germany. The Russian army had broken down completely. The few units that retained some resemblance of discipline were gererally anti-bolshevik. The Commander in Chief, Dukhonin, was asked to treate for an armistice. When he refused to do this, he was dismissed once. When his successor, Krylenko, arrived at the front, Dukhonin was lynched by the infuriated soldiers.

An armistice was concluded in December 1917. In February 1918 peace negotiations opened at Brest-Litovsk. Trotsky, who led the Soviet delegation, embarrassed the German delegation by pressing the demand for ‘peace without annexations or indemnities’. He could not reconcile. with his revolutionary principles to sign a humiliating treaty with an imperialist power—a course which Lenin came to regard as inevitable.

Trotsky demanded self-determination for the conquered Russian territory in vain. In the end, he broke off the discussions with a vague formula ‘no war and no peace’. When Germany renewed the offensive in February 1918, Lenin used the argument that to renew resistance would militate against the revolutionary war. By a narrow margin Lenin had his way and the treaty was signed on March 3, 1918.”

The terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk were severe. Russia was forced to accept the loss of Poland, the Baltic States, Finland, large parts of Byelo russia, Ukraine and part of Transcaucasia. Lenin found it hard to accept the humiliating conditions. But he was thinking not of Russian territory but of world revolution. He found a breathing space indispensable. According to Lenin, the reason for accepting the disgraceful peace was that Russia needed ’a delay in order to put social reforms into effect; we need to consolidate, and for that we need time’.

Question 54. What was the war-guilt clause of the Treaty of Versailles? What was the reaction of the Germans to it ? What was the reaction of the imposition of the Treaty of Versailles upon Germany?
Answer:

War-guilt Clause: War-guilt clause that was imposed upon Germany stated hat Germany accepts the responsibility for causing all the loss and damage due to the War.

Reaction of Germany: The reaction of the Germans was immediate. They cried that they had been “stabbed in the back”. The Germans considered that they had been cheated by the Allies who had ignored the ideals of Wilson’s Fourteen Prin- ciples.

Reaction of the Germans to the Versailles Treaty The Treaty of Versailles was signed between the defeated Germany and the victorious Allied Powers. It is better to say that the provisions of the treaty were imposed upon. Germany. That is why the Treaty of Versailles was called a ‘dictated peace’. Naturally, the reaction of such an imposed treaty was bound to be adverse. Hitler took full advantage of the German people’s discontent and grabbed the state-power.

Hitler’s primary objective now was to repudiate the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France, realising the wrongs one to Germany by the Treaty of Versailles, tried to appease Hitler. This had a disastrous effect as Germany started annexing countries one after another. This eventually led to the World War II.

Question 55. When was the Munich Pact signed and by whom? Why was it generally condemned as an act of betrayal?
Answer:

The Munich Pact 1938 AD Germany was making a plan to attack Czecho- slovakia. Adolf -Hitler claimed a part of Czechoslovakia, called Sudetenland because it has substantial German population. At this juncture the Prime Minister of Britain and France met Adolf Hitler and Mussolini in September, 1935 AD. and agreed to Hitler’s terms without consulting Czechoslovakia.

Soon Sudetenland was occupied by Germany. Within a few months, Germany occupied the whole of Czechoslovakia. On ist September, 1939 AD. the German forces attacked Poland. It was the last straw to break the camel’s back. On 3rd September, England and France declared war against Germany.

But the German forces conquered the whole of Poland withinthree weeks But by then the Second World War had already started. Munich Pact was signed between Hitler and the Heads of the States of England and France on 29 and 30 September, 1938 in generally condemned as on act of betrayal because western countries were having democratic set up like Czechoslovakia and that country was having friendly relations with them.

Moreover, it led Germany to make more demands. The only way the Fascist aggression could have been checked and another world war prevented was an alliance’ of the western powers with the Soviet Union.

Chapter 5 Europe In The Twentieth Century 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. Give an account of the events of World War I?
Answer:

Introduction The First World War was precipitated by the assassination of the  Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, with his wife, by a young Bosnian fanatic in the streets of Sarajevo, the capital of Bosina. A storm of indignation swept throught Austria- Hungary. Austria believed that the crime was inspired by the Serbran Armaments. Europe became an armed camp with each nation possessing a military machine ready for use.

Naval rivalry strained the relations between England and Germany while the competition of land armies and armanents increased fear and hostility among all countries of Europe. It is rightly observed that the national industry of Prussia was war.

Social: The evil secial effects that provoked further cause for war, resulted from the application of ‘Darwinism’ in a military sense. War was looked upon as a healthy pail of the struggle for existence as it would lead to the survival of the fittest and the superior. The Germans believed in the superiority of their ‘Kultur’ (culture). Alongside with this, the decline in Christian faith helped to create a mood in which war was less shocking. Materialisrn justified the use of material force to gain masterful ends.

Imperialistic: The imperialism of the 19th century was a product of the Industrial Revolution. Increased production created the need for raw materials and increased markets, which led to the ‘Scramble for Africa’ and colonial rivalries in Asia. These, in turn, gave rise to a series of international crises.

France and Germany clashed in Morocco, and the British into vention on behalf of France brought about a breach between England and Germany. Kaiser William II raised imperial slogans like ‘Berlin to Bagdad’ and the Germans claimed a “place in the sun”. The Kaiser’s project of the Berlin Bagdad Railway threatened Russian interests in the East. The Central Powers were thus surrounded on land by a ring of enemies  Belgium, France, Italy and Russia.

Naval warfare: The encircle of the Central Powers was completed by the British navy which was mainly concentrated in the North Sea. The French and Italian navies with some British support dominated the Mediterranean. A blockade of the German coast was maintained from the beginning to the end of the war.

The German cruiser, the Emden inflicted heavy losses on the British mercantile marine. But the German menace grew less after the Daggar Bank in which the German battle cruiser, the Beucher was destroyed by a British squadron.

The Germans desperately tried to end the blockade in the battle of Jutland in 1916, where the British was destroyed. Both sides sustained severe losses. The Battle of Jutland was a British victory as the German fleet returned to a port at Kiel and emerged only to surrender at the end of the war.

Collapse of Russia: The first signs of exhaustation and collapse came from Russia. The enormous losses sustained by Russia discredited the ancient regime in Russia. Revolution broke out in-1917 and made the peace of Brest- Litovsk with the Central Powers. The withdrawal of Russia enabled the Central Powers to transfer their troops from the East and to press the West.

Entry of the United states The German Government organised a counter-blockade to England by means of submarines. The United States which was neutral and favourable to Germany was irritated by the activity of the German submarines. In 1915, a British passenger vessel, the Lousitania, on board of which were American passengers, was sunk by the Germans.

Further, the German Government sanctioned ‘Unrestricted’ submarine warfare. This led the United States to enter the War in 1917 on the side of the Allies. America entered late and afresh and its entry decided the war against the Central Powers.

Collapse of the Central Powers or Axis : In the spring of 1918, Germany and Austria made the last desperate efforts to secure victory. All Allied armies were placed under the command of Marshal Foch and the trench warfare was given up and the line began to advance.

The Germans were strained to the breaking point. The economic blockade had resulted in a shortage in central Europe, of all necessaries of life and sapped the morale of the people. Turkey and Bulgaria collapsed and Austria followed them sueing for peace. In November 1918, the German Emperor Kaiser William II fled to Holland. The German Empire was overthrown and was replaced by the Republic which concluded an armistice. The First World War was over.

Question 2. What were the causes for the success of the Allies in World War I?
Answer: In the early stages of the war, Central Powers overwhelmed the Allies inflicting enormous losses in men and material. The tactics and strategies of the German commanders, added to the German soldiers, rendered the military mest formidable.

German U-boats and submarines compensated for the superiority of the British navy. But the tide of fortune turned in 1917 when German offensive began to collapse. The Allies gradually gained the upper hand till they were able to force Germany to surrender in 1918. The following factors contributed to the

Ultimate victory of the Allies and the defeat of the Central Powers :

British supremacy on the seas: The British navy with the co-operation of the navies of France and Italy imposed an economic blockade on the Central Powers. They were starved and it weakened the morale of their people.

Shifting of Alliances: Italy and Romania, who originally belonged to the group of the Central Powers, deserted them and went over to the side of the Allies. All though Italy was of little help as she suffered severe defeats against Austria, yet she rendered a signal service to the Allies in diverting the Austrian armies and by keeping a large pail of it engaged.

Internal weakness of the Central Powers: The fact that the Central Powers like Turkey consisted of heterogeneous elements contributed to the weakness of the Central Powers. The subject nationalities of these states sympathised with the Allies against their Imperial overlords. The Bosnians supported the Serbs against Austria and the Arabs threw in their lot with the British against Turkey.

Communist Revolution of Russia: Although the collapse of Russia and its withdrawal from the war was a great shock, in a way it also added to the strength of the Allies and undermined the strength of the Central powers. The Russian prisoners of war, being released, returned to the countries in Central Europe, infused with the revolutionay dogma of socialism. They spread revolutionary ideas in the ranks of the armies of the Central Powers, which impaired their discipline and destroyed their morals.

Entry of the U.S.A.: The United States entered the war on the side of the Allies. She entered late when the European Powers were exhausted and brought with them fresh energy, thus tilting the balance in favour of the Allies. American men and money poured into Europe which pulled up the morale of the Allies, as it made a psychological depression in the Central Powers and destroyed their morals.

Freedom Struggle: Above all, the war was a great conflict between freedom-loving democracies on the one hand and the enslaving imperial powers on the other. As it was meant to be, the forces of freedom proved stronger.

Question 3. How far was Germany responsible for the beginning of the  World War?
Answer:

Introduction: Otto Von Bismark, shortly before his death, predicated that the Great war would come from the Near East. He was right, but the Balkans were not only the storm centre. Among the immediate antecedents of the war, Morocco was hardly less important.

The incident of Morocco: After the death of Muley Hassan, the Sultan of Morocco, the country rapidly lapsed into a condition of anarchy. Anarchy in Morocco alarmed France. The condition of Morocco furthered the subject of serious controversies between England and German diplomatists from 1899-1901, and from 1901 onwards it became plain that France had serious designs on it.

In 1902, France proposed to Spain a scheme for the partition of Morocco and in 1903 France informed the British Government that she could not be indifferent to the prevalence of anarchy in Morocco. That claim was frankly admitted in the Anglo-French agreement of 1904. But in March 1905, Kaiser visited Tangier and announced that his visit was paid to an “independent sovereign”. It was followed by a demand for the summoning or a conference and for the repudiation by France of the minister “who had made the trouble”.

France Conscious of her unpreparedness for war yielded for the moment to this arrogant demand and on June 12, 1905, Declasse resigned. The French-German Agreement was vague and the French were compelled to land troops in Fez, the Moroccan capital. But the French retired from Fez in June and July, 1, Germany informed France that a German gunboat, the Panther had been sent to Agadir, to protect German interest in Morocco.

The Agadir incident is still wrapped in some mystery, but Germany’s action was evidently intended to inflict humiliation upon France and demand for the partition of Morocco. Great Britain supported France and war seemed imminent.

But at the eleventh hour Germany gave way and in November Germany concluded a treaty with France by which Germany virtually acknowledged a French protectorate over Morocco and France to Germany half of the French Congo. The wrath of Germany, diverted from France, was now turned full upon England. A conflict with her was now declared by Germany to be “more than ever inevitable”. But it was postponed by events in the Near East.

Near Eastern problem: Nevertheless from 1911 to 1918 wars were almost continuous in Europe. Italy set the ball rolling. The advance of France in North Africa alarmed her though her rights on Tripoli were recognised in the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 and again in Algeciars.

But after the young Turk revolution, 908, her rights were threatened from another quarter. Strengthened by the diplomatic consents of Russia, France and Great Britain, Italians occupied the coast towns of Tripoli. The Turks were in great difficulties and concluded peace with Italy at Lausane on October 8, 1912.

The great significance of the war lay in the fact that it began again the process of the violent dismemberment of the Turkish Empire and what is most important, that it contributed directly to a far more serious attack upon Turkey by the Balkan states, which led to the European war.

The tinder box was lighted and in general European conflagration resulted ‘In 1914 events moved more rapidly; on June 28, Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Hapsburg Empire paid a visit with his consort to’Serajavo, the Bosnian capital ‘and the husband and wife were there assassinated. The murderers, though Bosnian subjects, were by birth serbs. Austria naturally held Serbia responsible for a crime committed by serbs and planned at Belgrade.

On July 23, 1914, she addressed an ultimatum to Serbia and gave her only 48 hours for a reply. Serbia accepted promptly 8 out of 10 demands. But Austria was not satisfied and on July 28, declared war on Serbia. Serbia applied to Russia for help.

England had made earnest endeavours to avert a war, but it proved fruitless. Russia meanwhile had began to mobilize. Germany declared war upon her on August 1, on France on 3, and on August 4 sent an army in Belgium. At midnight of that day Great Britain and Germany were at war.

Responsibility of Germany: In the hour of victory, the Allied held Germany solely responsible for the outbreak of the World War I, and the consequent losses in men and money, by the ‘war-guilt’ clause. It is true that German diplomacy by isolating France drove her in desperation to build up a counter-alliance in self-defence. But the immadiate criminal was Austria.

The uncompromising attitude of Austria and Russia dragged Germany into the war. Germany was as much committed to support Austria as was Russia to support Serbia. If France had persuaded Russia as much as Germany had tried to check Austria, war would have been postponed, if not avoided. Thus it is wrong to blame Germany entirely. Reputed scholars now universally hold the opinion that all the five powers imrnediately involved—Aus.ria, Russia, Germany, France and Great Britain assume some measure of responsibility.

The background of the Peace treaties: Much was expected of the Peace Conference but no equitable peace could be achieved due to certain facts which could not be ignored and due to the differences in the temper and purposes of the “deciding personages.

Moreover, the diplomats assembled in Versailles could not ignore the secret treaties concluded among different powers during the war-period. Or lando had a legal mind but lacked force, Lloyd George was an opportunist prepared for compromise, Wilson was a visionary and was blind to facts.

Besides, he was almost ignorant. of the complicated politics of the Europe’on continent. Of the four, Clemenceau was the most skilful in maneouvres and best informed on European questions.

England wanted the destruction of the German navy. America wanted the League of Nations. France wanted the Rhine Buffer State. Italy wanted Mountain barriers. The Poles, the Czechs and the Serbs aspired for national independence.

The Allied powers were in angry mood and strongly held Germany responsible for the destruction and suffering caused by the war. All wanted peace, but a peace that suited each. In such an atmosphere of diversities equitable peace became impossible.

The settlement :

The Covenant of the Leagure of Nations: The first aspect of settlement was the Covenant of the League of Nations. Every treaty was prefaced with it and every nation which signed the treaties bound itself to observe the Covenant. Thus, the League of Nations was established. At first the defeated nations not given membership.

Question 4. Discuss briefly the background ofthe Bolshevik Revolution, 1917.
Answer:

(1) Introduction: The Great War (1914- 1918) had been the faithful mother of revolutions. The Russian Revolution was the direct consequence of the war of 1914-1918. It is the most important of all the many important results of the war. The Bolshevik Revolution shook Russian society to its very foundations. It caused not only the structure of the state but the social order itself to collapse in ruins. There were two revolutions – the political and the social. The March Revolution put an end to the autocracy of the Czars by setting aside the last of the Romanoffs. The Revolution in November gave the land to the peasants.

(2) Cause: The Czar’s Government in Russia was at last shaken to its foundations by disaster abroad and universal hatred at home.

(1) Western influence: Since the time of Peter the Great western ideas profoundly influenced the Russians. The watchwords of the French Revolution inspired the
intelligentsia of Russia. After the Great War the Be a impulses of a few became a mass MEVSTGAC

(2) Political causes:

Autocracy : The Russian government was sharoushiy autocratic and tyrannical. The political structure was highly centralised. The church and the army were subservient to the Czar. Political and civil liberties had no place in Russia The Czar was the sole law-giver and the sole judge. He could arrest imprison and put to death any of his subjects. The tyranny became tragic during-the reign of Nicholas I.

(3) Social conditions Russia like France of old Regime had’a privileged nobility. The vast majority of the population were seffs who lived on the verge of starvation. They were in bondage to the landed nobility. They could not marry, without leave and they were subject to floggings.

(4) Emancipation of serfs No Emancipation : Czar Alexander II liberated all serfs throughout Russia compelling the nobles to surrender land to the serfs in return for money payments. The nobles demanded sums far in excess of the value of the land to be given up. The liberated serfs could only pay by running into heavy debts.

(5) The Terrorists The other schemes of reform of Alexander II were dashed to the ground by his assassination at the hands of the ‘Terrorists’. They were a group of Russians, known as the Nihilists, who vowed to fight the Government by terror. For a time, Russian history was filled with assassinations of the most hated officials and agents of the Government. Alexander III, who succeeded Alexander II, fell back on the old methods of repression and so darkness closed down on Russia once more.

(6) Economic causes The Industrial Revolution Russia had been an agrarian country and the peasants were subjected to all sorts of hardships by the ‘Kulaks’ or peasant capitalists in the villages. Agriculture was primitive and famine was a permanent feature of Russian life. In the reign of Nicholas II Russia suddenly changed under the spreading influence of the Industrial Revolution. Railways, machines and factories were introduced and with them rose a class of industrial wage-earners or the proletariat. The grand was ready for the advent of socialism. At the same time, a new class of rich manufacturers and employers of labour was created. They were shut out from any share in the Government equally with the working class. They were deprived like everyone in Russia of the most elementary rights and liberties.

(7) Intellectual causes From this new middle class, came the leaders of Russian Liberal Movement, they were influenced by the ‘Interligentsia’ or a group of writers like Tolstoy, Gorki, Turgenov, Chekov and others. Their writings encouraged anarchism and Nihilism which undermined the old order.

(8) Foreign Policy of the Czars The Czars followed on aggressive foreign policy.in the Balkans and in Siberia which added to the misery of the people. Russian defeats in the Crimean War and more in particular in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 exposed the incompetence and inefficiency of the Russian Government

(9) The Political Parties In the years following the Russo-Japanese War, the Czarist Regime became a veritable Reign of Terror. The workers organised strikes and processions and they were shot down by the Cossacks. But strikes increased rather than by the Cossacks. But strikes increased rather than diminished, for they were inspired by a new party, the Social Democratic Party that was formed at Minsk in 1898 by Lenin.

It was influenced by the teachings of Karl Marx. A Marxist paper ‘Iskra’ (Spark) was struggled into Russia from a broad. The Social Democratic Party split into two groups the Mensheviks, who wanted to bring about changes by gradual peaceful means, and the Bolsheviks who advocated a violent revolution of the working class.

(10) The immediate cause The people demanded that ‘Dumma’ or Parliament should be given civil and political rights. The Government turned a deaf ear to these demands. In 1905, a procession of workers to the Imperial palace at St. Petersburg was shot down.

This is the fearful tragedy of ‘Bloody Sunday’. The same year Lenin organised the biggest strike the ‘General Rehearsal’. The Czar yielded and called for a Duma. But under the evil influence of Rasputin, a monk, the Czar acted much in the same way as did Louis XVI of France or Charles I of England. He began to dismiss one Duma after another.

Question 5. Form an estimate of the achievements of Lenin.
Answer:

(1) Introduction In November 1917 the Bolsheviks had seized power in Russia, not from the Czardom, but from the Provisional Liberal Government of Kerensky, which six months earlier had overthrown the Czardom.

Lenin who had created the Bolshevik Party as the agency of revolution, was the architect of the new state. In the pamphlet ‘State and Revolution’ which Lenin wrote during the late summer of 1917, he defined his purpose to set up forthwith the dictatorship of Proletariat. Lenin was the prophet and the Communist Party the chuch of Russian Communism.

The Bolshevik Revolutions of 1917 is greater than any movement of its kind which Europe had experienced. It shook Russian society to its very foundations and caused not only the structure of the state but also the social order itself to collapse in ruins.

Out of this chaos, it built up a new social and political order based on the teachings of Karl Marx. In the face of innumerable handicaps, the Soviet Government had continuously pursued the gigantic task of socialisation and industrialisation. The Revolution brought a new force into political and international politics – ‘Socialism’, and opened up a new chapter in the history of the world.

(2) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918 The first act of the new Bolshevik Government established under the leadership of Lenin, was to wipe out the traces of war. For this purpose, peace was necessary and it was concluded with Germany in 1918, at Brest-Litovsk. Lenin did not mind giving up Poland, the Baltic Regions, Kars, Batourn and other places, for he wanted peace at any cost for the economic construction of Russia.

(3) Civil War and Foreign Intervention The newly-born Soviet Republic was threatened for first three years by Civil War and foreign intervention. The dispossessed classes the capitalists, the nobility and the clergy with the support of the Allied Powers organised armed resistance Russia became a prey to the ‘Red Terror’ of the Revolution and the ‘white Terror of the counter Revolutions’.

(4) Cheka and the Red Army Under the leadership of Trotsky the formidable Red Army was organised. Lenin also organised a secret police called the Cheka. These were the two instruments with which the Bosheviks routed out internal as well as external dager.

(5) The Agrarian Revolution The most momentous changed produced by the Bolsheviks was in the sphere of agriculture. Land was confiscated from the landlords without compensation and was nationalised.

(6) The New Economic Policy (NEP) At first the state took over all industries and private capital was abolished. Industries were nationalised and private retail trade was prohibited. Money wages were replaced by commodity cards for necessities. This resulted in an alarming decline in production and peasant outbreaks.

Hence in 1927, Lenin adopted a New Economic Policy which was a return to capitalism in some measure. Peasants were allowed to sell their produce in the open market and retail trade

was permitted. Banking and credit system was restored and the use of money was revived. State industries were given a large measure of autonomy.

In April 1921 a newly created State General Planning Commission (Gosplan) began its work, which was to bear fruit later in the great Five Year Plans; when Lenin died in 1924 the new regime had survived. It had weathered famine as well as civil and foreign war, and had tightened its control over the whole country. Even in international politics Soviet Russia has been able to acquire an honourable position.

Question 6. Critically discuss the political and other settlements effected by the Treaty of Versailles.
Answer:

(1) Introduction The victorious allies held their chief Peace Conference in Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. The terms of peace were embodied in five main Treaties of Versailles with Germany, of St. Germain with Austria, of the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary and of Sevres with Turkey.

Of these the first and the most important was the peace treaty with Germany signed at Versailles in 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors, where Bismarck had crowned the German Emperor. The proceedings of the peace conference were dominated by President Wilson of the U. S. A., Lloyd George, Prime Minister of France and Orlando, Prime Minister of Italy.

(2) The settlement :

(1) The Covenant of the League of Nations :

The first aspect of settlement was the Covenant of the League of:
Nations. Every treaty was prefaced with it and every nation which signed the treaties bound itself to observe the Covenant. Thus the League of Nations was established. At first the defeated nations were not given rnembership.

(2) Reparation :

The treaty of Versailles showed heavy reparations on Germany. She was held completely responsible for the great losses of the war by the ‘war guilt’ clause. Germany had to pay the cost of restoring the devasted areas and the cost of the damage done to the civilian property. In addition, she had to pay war pensions to Allied countries and take over the Belgian debt. She had to surrender her merchant marine and pay an annual tribute of coal to Belgium, France and Italy. The Saar coal fields were to be occupied by France for 15 years. Indemnity schemes were also imposed on Austria and Bulgaria. A reparation commission was to be appointed by the Allies to determine the total amount of reparation and to draw up a schedule of payments.

(3) Disarmament :

Germany was to be disarmed as a guarantee against the outbreak of war in future. Her fleet was to be handed over to Britain and her army was reduced to an insignificant number. She was forbidden to maintain tanks, big guns, submarines and military aeroplanes. The army was limited to 100,000 men, including a maximum of 4000 officers. The German general staff was abolished. Conscription was prohibited, only voluntary enlistments for limited periods were allowed. The manufacture of armaments, munitions and war materials was limited. No war materials were to be imported or exported. Poison gases, armoured cars and tanks were neither to be manufactured nor to be purchased.

The naval provisions permitted Germany to’ retain only 6 battleships without submarines. The naval personnel was limited to 15000 men jncluding a maximum of 1500 officers. Germany was forbidden to have any military or naval air forces. The disarmament was to be supervised by inter-allied commissions of control. The net result was that the German army remained not much larger than Belgium’s and her navy formerly second only to Britain’s.was virtually wiped out

(4) Territorial Cessions :

By the treaty of Versailles Germany in the west ceded to Belgium the small districts of Eupen and Malmedy subject to conditions concerning popular consultation and returned to France Alsace and Lorraine which had been taken away in 1870. The old frontier with the Austro-Hungarian Empire was retained with the men or exception of a wedge in upper Silesia ceded to the new Czechoslovakia. In the east Germany concided to the new Poland a roughly ethnic frontier giving her Posen and west Prussia with a corridor to the Baltic.

The German Port of Danzig was constituted on outline for Poland as a free city under the auspices of the League of Nations. Thus was fulfilled the 13th item in Wilson’s Fourteen points, viz. Poland “should be assured a free and secure access to the sea”. Moreover, Germany lost Memal which eventually passed to Lithuania.

After a plebiscite, Denmark received the northern part of Schleswig which had been taken from her, Prussia and Austria in 1864. In the plebiscite in Upper Silesia, held in 1921, Germans secured 60% of the votes against 40% for Poland. The League of Nations partitioned the province having Germany more than half of the people and land area, but giving Poland more of the economic resources. The award satisfied neither party, there was especial resentment in Germany against a frontier which afforded so much to the Pole.

Germany was forbidden to maintain. or construct any fortifications either on the left bank of the Rhine or on the east of the Rhine in a specified zone. Armed forces could not be assembled nor manoeuvres, held in this area. All existing fortifications were to be dismantled. Apart from the provisions in regard to the Saar and the Rhineland, Germany lost131/2% her territory, a roughly similar proportion of her economic productivity, and much of her population.

She also lost all her colonies, these being later apportioned among the victorious Allies and mandates of the League. All her special rights and privileges in China, Siam, Liberia, Morocco and Egrpt had to be given up. All her property and concessions in the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, were forfeited. She had to recognise the severence of Luxemburg from the German Customs Union.

(5) War crimes and war guilt :

The former German Emperor, William II was assigned for a supreme offence against international morality and the sanctity of treaties. A special Allied Tribunal was to be appointed to try him, but the Government of the Netherlands-where he had taken asylum refused to surrender him. The treaty also bound the German Government to hand over for trial before Allied Military Tribunals all persons accused of complicity in atrocities during the war. Eventually only 2 were accused and were tried by the German Supreme Court at Leipzig, where they were either acquited or given inadequate sentences.

(6)The article in the treaty:

which aroused the fiercest German rescruitment was the so called “war-guilt clause” through which Germany was compelled to accept responsibility for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies. Above all, the war-guilt clause and the treatment accorded to Germany were such that the Germans entertained ideas of revenge. Germany was deprived of her colonies, coal field and industrial resources and saddled with indemnities. She was deprived of her means to pay and fined heavily.

Question 7. Write a note on the Assembly and the Council of the League of Nations.
Answer:
The Assembly :

The Headquarters of League of Nations were in Geneva, Switzerland. The Assembly was a deliberative body consisting of representatives of all member States. Every member State could send not more than three representatives, but no member State had more than one vote. The Assembly met at least once a year or as after as it might require. The representatives did not vote according to their own judgement, they carried out instruction of their respective Governments.

The Assembly elected its own President and framed its own rule of business. Business was conducted through several committees. All decisions except those on procedural matters the required a unanimous vote, but in some cases, e.g. admission of new members, a two-third vote was required Article 3 of the Covenant conferred upon the Assembly very wide jurisdiction. It could deal with any matter within the sphere of the League of affecting the peace of the world. It could consider political, economic and technical questions of international importance, including scrutiny of treaties.

It prepared the annual budget of the League. It elected new members of the League. By a majority of votes it elected annually three of the nine non-permanent members of the Council. It approved the nomination of the Secretary-General by the Council. Along with the council it elected every nine years fifteen judges of the Permanent Court of International Justice.

Despite this imposing list of powers and functions, the Assembly was a deliberative and recommendatory body, not a decision-making body so far as international problems were concerned. It had no binding authority on the Member States. It influenced the formation of the basic policies of the League. Its voice representated that of ‘World Conscience’ even though some Big Powers did not join the League.

(2) Council :

The Council was originally composed of the representatives of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers—the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan and of four smaller powers. As the United States did not join the League, the Council had eight members at the initial stage. Gradually its membership rose to fifteen. Germany and the Soviet Union joined the League as permanent members of the Council in 1926 and 1934 respectively.

But Japan, Germany and Italy left the League in 1934, 1935 and 1937 respectively. By 1938 only Great Britain, France and Soviet Union were left as permanent members of the Council and there were eleven non-permanent members. The expulsion of the Soviet Union in 1939 reduced the total membership of the Council to 13 but by that time the

League was virtually dead. By granting permanent seats to some of the Big Powers the Covenant violated the principle of equality of States. The Chairmanship of the Council rotated among its members in the alphabetical order of their names.

As it was a small body it did not work like the Assembly through committees. All discusions except those of procedural matters—required a unanimous vote; but in certain cases, e.g. election of judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice, decisions could be taken by a majority vote, for no one can be a judge in his own case.

The Council was the dominant organ of the League. It had executive, deliberative and supervisory powers. It could deal with any matter within the sphere of the League. The peaceful settlement of international disputes was its special concern.

It could make enquiry, offer advice and decide upon application of sanctions. It directed and supervised the work of the Secretariat. It supervised the administration of the Mandates, the working of the Minorities Treaties and the implementation of the League provisions relating to the Saar and Danzig. It carried out the recommendations of the Assembly. It nominated the Secretary-General and elected along with the.

Assembly Judges of the Permanent Court of International Justice. It could expel anymember of the League for the violation of the ovenant. As in the Assembly, so in the Council, the representatives of the member States did not vote according to their own judgement, they carried out the instructions of their respective governments. If the League failed to solve the international problems of peace and war the responsibility fell largely on the Council.

Question 8. Write a note on the League Secretariat, Court of International Justice and International Labour Organisation.
Answer:
Secretariat :

The League Secretariat was a permanent international civil service establishment with its office at Geneva. Its head was the League Council with the approval of the Assembly. It was composed of about 750 persons representing different nationalities.

It was international in composition as also in outlook. Its members were in no way subject to the control or influence of their own national Governments; they were only subordinate to the Secreatary-General who performed the duties under the direction and control of the League Council. They were paid from the League fund in terms of the budget passed by the Assembly. The first Secretary General, Sir Eric Drummond was a very competent administrator with wide and liberal views.

The League Secretariat performed functions similar to those usually performed by national civil services, although its work related to international issues. It collected and analysed information on matters to be dealt with by the Assembly, the Council and various committees. It arranged publicity for the activities of the League. In emergencies it had to assume responsibility for important decisions because it was the only organ of the League always at work. It maintained offices at the capitals of the Big Powers and a Bureau of Liaison in South America.

Permanent Court of International Justice :

The Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice was adopted by the League Assembly in 1920 under the provisions of the Covenant. The Court began to function in 1922. Originally there were eleven Judges and four Deputy Judges. Later on the number of Judges was raised to fifteen but the posts of Deputy Judges were abolished. They were elected by the Assembly and the Council.

Their terms were nine years but they were eligible for re-election. They elected their own President for three years and laid down their own rules of procedure. Their office was whole time and carried a high salary and allowances. There were international functionaries and not the representative of their Governments. The court sat at the Hague, Netherland.

The Permanent Court was judicial tribunal and not an agency for conciliation. It gave decision based on law and was not guided by political considerations. Its judgements, orders and opinions were given in open. In 17 years (1922-1939) it dealt with 65 cases and delivered 32 judgements, in addition to issuing 200 orders and 27 advisory opinions. In doing so it built up a valuable body of precedents covering many aspects of international law. It built up a reputation for impartiality by placing law and logic alone without national interest and prejudices.

United Nations accepted with practically no change the Statute of the International Court of Justice.In respect of cases submitted to it by parties the court issued judgements and orders. When a dispute or question was referred to it by the Assembly or the Council, it could give an advisory opinion. Although the advisory opinion had technically speaking, no binding force, they carried weight in view of the prestige of the Court

International Labour Organisation Technically the International Labour Organisation (ILO) was not an organ of the League, it was an autonomous body associated with the League, it was created by the Treaty of Versailles. It reflected the idea that world peace was based on social justice which required satisfactory solution of the labour problem. It was an advisory body and its duty was to recommend conventions on labour legislation for adoption by the member States.

Question 9. Write a critical note on the Peace Settlement of 1919. Was it a dictated peace ?
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

At the Peace Conference of Paris two ideas were struggling for mastery. On the one side were the idealistic principles of reconstruction sponsored by President Wilson of America, on the other hand were the selfish motives that the Allies sought for territorial and economic profit as well as security against recurrence of danger from the defeated enemy. President Wilson drew up 14 proposals, known as the 14 points, which in his opinion, would make a just and lasting peace founded upon an impartial respect for the wishes of the people and a universal dominion of right.

So long as Germany remained undefeated, these noble principles were echoed by the statesmen of Allied countries. But with the collapse of Germany the undercurrent of selfish ambition which ran in the minds of the Allied powers, became a mighty torrent and swept aside all considerations of impartial distribution of justice.

(2) Terms of the treaty The drastic and the severe terms imposed by the Peace treaties upon the defeated parties clearly show what was uppermost in the minds of the victors. Those were the horrors of the recent past, fear of the near future and vindictiveness.

The empire of Germany in Europe was shrunken, her colonies were all taken away and she was impoverished and disarmed. Austria was reduced to a size smaller than that of Portugal. Turkey was brought to the point of extinction.

The peace treaties which emanated from Paris have their defenders and their apologists as well as their critics. But it must be admitted that peace was concluded in an atmosphere in which passions were high and the feeling against Germany was very bitter.

The conflicting difficulties and numberless complicated problems of the peace makers must not be forgotten, nor their anxiety to preserve at least an outward appearance. of harmony among themselves, nor the bitterness of spirit in those lands occupied by Germany. Hence, it was natural for them to be harsh and vindictive.

Oreover, Europe had also seen in the treaties of Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest something of the lines on which Germany herself would have made peace if had she been victorious. Lastly, the Allies were handicapped by previous secret treaties by which they had sought to strengthen and enlarge their coalition against the enemy. By these treaties many States were brought irito the war by liberal promises of territorial gains and so these could not entirely be ignored.

A careful consideration of the details of the Treaty of Versailles will make it ‘clear that the statesmen who framed it failed to rise to the height of the occasion. They made a peace which was no peace. Events subsequently proved that the treaty held the germs of another great war.

She was stripped of her armaments and left naked before her enemy. She was deprived of her enemies as well as all interests of trading privileges outside her boundary. Add to these a crushing war indemnity and loss of territory which deprived her of about six million of her people and some of her richest mineral districts, and the picture of her humiliation will be complete.

The whole scheme seemed designed to keep her in perpetual subjugation. The terms of the treaty were not only harsh and inequitable but betrayed a lack of sincerity and good faith on the part of the Allies. The basis of the territorial rearrangements as made by the treaty was. the principle of self-determination. But in Austria and Germany this principle was ignored.

(3) Defects of the treaty But the moral defects of treaty are no more glaring than the practical. It is idle to expect that a great nation like Germany would submit for an indefinite period to discrimination in the matter of armaments.

That a small State like Belgium should be superior to Germany in armaments and soldiers seemed absurd. Lastly, while a huge indemnity was imposed on Germany, her natural resources were materially reduced. Thus the treaty left many sore places. Europe had not been made safe for democracy.

Question 10. “The years 1924-1930 were the period of the League’s greatest prestige and authority” – Do you agree? 
Answer:

(1) Introduction According to E.H. Carr, the years 1924 to 1930 were the period of the League’s greatest prestige and authority. Prior to 1924, members of the League had been normally representated at Geneva by delegates who, however distinguished, had not been the ministers responsible for the foreign policy of their countries.

When Mac Donald and Herriot came in person to Geneva for Assembly of 1924, they set a precedent of far-reaching importance thereafter, and nearly every session of the Council. This example was soon followed by the foreign ministers of most other European powers so that Geneva in September came to be recognised meeting place for the statesmen of Europe.

In one year (1929) the Assembly was attended by every European foreign minister. The non-European countries were by force represented on most occasions by their diplomats resident in European capitals or by professional delegates stationed at Geneva.

(2) Success of the League The admission of Germany in 1926 brought the League up to its maximum strength. In North and South America, the largest countries, the U.S.A, Argentina and Brazil were all absent, and the bevy of smaller Central and South American States contributed little materially and nothing morally, to its support. In the Far East Japan, China and Siam as well as India were members, and in the Middle East Persia, but Turkey held aloof.

In Africa, the union of South Africa usually sent delegates to the Assembly, but Liberia and Abyssinia were members with some what dubions qualifications. Australia and New Zealand represented the fifth continent. But Europe was the Kernel of the League and when Spain returned to the fold in 1928, its membership was complete except for the Soviet Union the only great power which was still outside. Yet from 1927, the Soviet Government began to

Follow the example of the U.S.A. by regularly co-operating in the economic, humanitarian and disarmament activities of the League. The principal business of the League was, and was bound to remain, the prevention of war by the peaceful settlement of disputes. The dispute over the boundary between Turkey and Iraq was peacefully settled by the Council of the League. The report of the International Boundary Commission was at last accepted by U.K.,

Turkey and Iraq in June 1926. The next dispute came from the Balkans. The frontier between Greece and Bulgaria had been the scene of minor raids and disturbances for sometime. Bulgaria appealed to the League. According to the verdict of the League, the Greek forces retired frorn Buigarian soil, and Greece was compelled to pay compensation to Bulgaria for the violation of her territory.

By which Poland had been left in possession of Vilna. Lithuania’s severed relation with Poland and declared a State of war between the two countries. In this dispute, the League was also successful to reconcile both the party. The most noteworthy fact about all these successes of the League was that during the period of its greatest power and prestige the League relied solely on its moral authority, for Article 11 of the Covenant conferred on it the method of conciliation.

Before 1932 no attempt was ever made to resort to the procedure of judgement and penalty provided in Articles 15 and 16. The League also solved a number of minor disputes, of which the sovereignty of Memel and Sardish-Finnish quarrel over the Aaland Islands may be mentioned as examples.

But though the preservation of peace was the League’s most important and conspicuous function, the League also provided new and elaborate machinery for international co-operation in the economic and political sphere. A general financial onference was held at Brussels in 1920 and an economic conference at Geneva in 1927 which were mainly concerned with the financial reconstruction of the post war era.

The social and humanitarian works of the League were also satisfactory. A slavery convention was concluded at Geneva in 1925 and in 1932 the League decided to set up a permanent slavery in dangerous drugs, the traffic in women, the protection of children, the relief and settlement of refugees and health and disease in their international disputes.

Finally, there were two international organisations which, though borne on the League’s budget, were administratively independent of the League, the International Labour Organisation and the International Court of Justice.

The International Labour Organisation was created by the Peace Treaties to provide for the improvement of labour conditions by international agreement. The Permanent Court of International Justice was established by the League under Article 14 of the Covenant for the purpose of deciding any dispute of an international character which the parties thereto submit to it, and of giving advisory opinions on questions referred to it by the Council of Assembly. By 1927 the International Court of Justice had handled 26 cases, delivered 11 judgements and recorded 13 advisory opinions.

Question 11. Account for the failure of the Weimer Republic.
Answer:
(1) Weimer Rupublic :

After the cessation of hostilities elections for the National Assembly took place in January 1919. The Social Democrats capturing 163 out of the available 421 seats, became the largest single group in the Assembly. The Centrists received 88 seats, the Democrats 75, Nationalists 42, the Independent Socialist 22 and the Peoples Party 71. In order to protect itself against violence the Assembly met on February 1919 in the peaceful city of Weimer.

A provisional government was formed a coalition of Social Democrats, Centrists and Democrats with Friedrich Elbert as President of the Republic. A Constitution was adopted in July 1919, it defined the Reich as a Federation of Republican States, its President to be elected by a popular vote for seven years.

The suffrage was given to all men and women over twenty years on a basis of proportional representation. There was a bill of rights. The National Government was given the usual powers of a central authority as well as the paramount right to legislate upon railways.

There was to be a Chancellor who would select the Cabinet and formulate policy, The ministers were made responsible to the Reichstag. No action of the President would be valid unless countersigned by the Chancellor or appropriate minister. THe Reichstag was the chief legislative body, with members elected for four years. The upper house, representing the States, was called Reichstag.

(2) Working of the Weimer Constitution The National Assembly prolonged its existence even after the making of the Constitution and continued to function till 1927. Elbert continued to function till 1925. He was succeeded by Hindenburg.

His election was widely regarded as a blow at the Republic, but he took the oath to support the Republican Constitution. without reservation, and his moderation soon won confidence at home and abroad. By adapting a German rather than a partisan policy, he was able to reconcile many factions in Germany and bring together a host of former opponents.

Between 1920 and 1924 four Chancellors tried to give stablity to the Republic. The Luther Ministry, which came into office in 1924, survived till 1926, after a crisis in 1925 during which there was a threat of Presidential Dictatorship. The succeeding Mark Ministry remained in office till 1928 when Hermann Muller became the first Socialist Chancellor since 1920. The latter resigned in 1930, and Heinrich Bruning became Chancellor.

In 1932 Hindenburg was re-elected President defeating Hitler and Bruning resigned. Papen was selected as Chancellor by the President, but he had to resign a few months later. After a brief term for Schleicher in 1932, Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933.

This brief summary of political development of the country shows that in course of 13 years (1920-33) as many as 11 persons held the office of the Chancellor. This is a clear indication of the political instability of the Weimar regime.

The cabinets were usually coalitions of different parties shifting alliances rather than consolidated political machineries for the pursuit of consistent policies. On several occassions inter-party tension became very serious. For instance, Hindenburg dissolved the Reichstag in 1930 because party bickering did not cease. Again, in the election of 1932, no party or group or group of parties gained control of the Reichstag; obviously, the parliamentary system devised Weimar did not take root in Germany.

(3) Economic Crisis The early years of Weimer Republic saw an unprecedented inflationary crisis. Towards the end of 1922 a dollar normally worth 4.2 marks, would purchase 7000 marks. The crisis was heightened during the foreign occupation of the Ruhr. In 1923 milk sold for 250 billion marks a quart and was scarce at that price.

The whole middle class of rentier and pensioner, small businessmen and minor officials, was ruined. The incalculable result of the suffering was the mood of black fear and hysteria fostered among the dispossessed middle classes, who alone might have given the new regime stability and permanence. Hitler’s failure in 1923 would turn into success ten years later.

(4) Treaty of Versailles Reparations played a decisive role in the psychological crisis which accompanied the economic crisis. In the German mind reparations became the sole cause of German poverty. Links were established between reparations and the rest of the Treaty of Versailles.

(5) Rise of Hitler During the early stage of the Hitlerite movement one of its pillars was the white-collar section of the middle class. Among other groups of the Nazi enthuniasts were those who resented Jewish competition in professions and trade, the peasants of South Germany and university students.

In the fortnight preceding the election of 1930 the Nazis held more than 30,000 meetings, they reminded the people of Germany’s ‘enslavement’ and of the Government’s “subserviency” to the Allies. The ‘war-guilt clause’ was furiously attacked, and the reparations were denounced. Yet Chancellor Bruning was able to muster sufficient support to remain in office until 1932.

The elections of July, 1932, gave the Hitlerite 230 seats, an increase of 123 since 1930. In another election held in November 1932, the votes of the Nazis fell off, but they emerged as the largest party in the Reichstag holding 196 out of 584 seats.

Hindenburg, invited Hitler to form a Government, but when the Nazi leader demanded dictatorial powers, the President appointed Schleicher as Chancellor. Eight weeks later (January, 1933) Schleicher resigned and Hitler became Chancellor.

The Reichstag was dissolved, and in the election held in March 1933, the Nazis captured 288 out of 647 seats. After a few days of the voting the Reichstag building in Berlin was destroyed by fire, and the Nazis leld the Communists responsible. Restriction were put on the electionneering rights of the anti-government parties.

Immediately after the election the new Reichstag passed a law which in effect suspended the Weimar Constitution and endowed the Hitler Government with dictatorial power (March 1933). In 1934 the Reichstag abolished the “popular representation of the States” and authorised the Reich Government to “determine new Constitutional law”. The supreme and final authority in all matters lay in the hands of Hitler later to be known officially as De Fuhrer.

(6) Conclusion In the post-war years, the Germans could not forget the humiliation of defeat and the ‘dictate of Versailles’ which injured their national self-respect and caused grave material injury. They resented the Weimer regime’s acceptance of disabilities and its inability to assert itself strongly in international affairs.

Many especially the younger generation believed themselves deprived of a glamorous and secure future by the “cowardice” and “treachery” of the complacent Republican politician. Many Germans were weary of the manner in which the democratic parliamentary system was working. Instead of energetic action the republican legislature spent its time in bickering and quarrelling.

Moreover, the republic did not show much respect for Germany’s glorious past, it tolerated attempts to drag down the ideals and heroes of imperial Germany. The Nazi leaders understood these grievances, and with their remarkable propaganda methods capitalized them. Their oratory, theory of race superiority, the dynamic personality of Hitler, these things attracted millions of Germans at a time when democracy appeared to offer worse depression and continued foreign impasse.

Question 12. Explain the causes of the failure of the League of Nations.
Answer:

The causes of the failure of the League of Nations are as follows :

(1) Partial success It would be wrong to say that the League of Nations was an unqualified failure. In twenty years it was called upon to deal with about forty political disputes mostly connected with issues arising out of the First World War, and it was able to solve some of them.

Generally speaking, its authority was effective if small states were involved. But as it had little more than moral authority and practically no coercive power, it failed to restrain the Big Powers. The decline of the League began with its failure to check the Japanese aggréssion in Manchuria.

It was weakened by the withdrawal of Germany, Japan and Italy. It failure to deal effectively with the Italian aggression in Abyssinia with a death below. It existence was virtually ignored during the crisis in Austria and Czechoslovakia. In 1939 Russia was expelled from the League for her invasion of Poland. By 1940 Britain and France were the only Great Powers left in the League.

(2) Defects in the Coventant There were some defects in the Covenant which crippled the League as an instrument of peace from the beginning. War was not outlawed or absolutely forbidden, it was forbidden only in certain circumstances.

Under the Articles relating to the Pacific settlement of international disputes, war was lawful:

(1) if the League Council fail to submit a unanimous report on the dispute brought before it
(2) if the Council found that the dispute was covered by domestic jurisdiction, and
(3) after three months of arbitral award judicial decision or Council report.

Moreover, the Covenant did not cover forcible measures short of war. In the thirties Undeclared War’ came into prominence. Military operations which did not fall within the legal definition of war did not come within the League’s jurisdiction. For instance, the Japanese agression in Manchuria was not war in the technical sense and Japan was not named as an agressor by the League. Thirdly, the Covenant provided for a very weak system of sanctions.

The procedure of judgement and penalty under Articies 15 and 16 was applied only in the case of the Japanese aggression in Manchuria and Italian aggression in Abyssinia. In both cases the League failed to achieve its purpose, instead of being deterred or punished, the aggressor withdrew from the League and satisfied their territorial appetite.

The League never applied military sanctions, indeed it was virtually impossible to apply them in view of the League’s lack of military resources and the jealousies among the Big Powers. The League as a body had no military power of the member states.

(3) Absence of United States It was President Wilson of the United States who insisted upon the insertion of the Covenant in the treaty of Versailles. But the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the treaty as a result the United states did not join the League as a member, although the Covenant had given it a permanent seat in the Council.

It has ceased to be the centre of the world. It was necessary to establish a new balance of power on a worldwide scale. This could not be done by Europe without American co-operation. Thus, in organising a new world based on the ideal of peace, the League was handicapped from the start.

(4) Role of Britain and France When the League started functioning the United States kept aloof. Russia was engulfed in Revolution and Italy was in disorder. Naturally the task of defending the Versailles system and upholding the authority of the League fell upon Britain and France. They became the guarantors of the stability and equilibrium of the new order, the agents of the League and the keepers of the peace. They had the responsiblity and hegemony of Europe thrust upon them. The arrangement led to two difficulties.

First, Britain and France did not see eye to eye on many issues, including those relating to Germany. Thus the League could not get united leadership. Secondly, there was resentment against Anglo-French leadership and the League controlled by these two powers was regarded as a partisan body. Thus the League’s moral authority was weakened.

(5) Covenant as a part of Versailles Treaty To include the Covenant in the treaty was a grave political mistake, it should have been kept separate like the U.N. Charter as an independent document. It seemed as if the various Powers wanted to build up a world organisation on the basis of the humiliation and the weakness of the defeated powers. The League appeared to be an instrument safe guarding a political system organised by the victors for their own advantage.

Naturally it could not command the confidence and respect of the defeated Powers. Germany under Hitler regarded the League as a drag on her recovery and progress. Even victorious powers like Japan and Italy could not tolerate the status quo protected by
the League.

(6) Democratic ideology Although the League was conceived as a world organisation, its working was based on democratic practices and Parliamentary traditions which were familiar to Britian and Frace and unfamiliar to the majority of its members. The latter found it difficult to adjust themselves to majority rule, compromise, etc. which were the main features of the Parliamentary system. The rise of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany underlined this difficulty. It is significant that the dictators of these two contries delivered mortal blows at the League.

(7) Conclusion The League died, “unwept, unhonoured and unsung” amidst the chaos the Second World War, but it had not completely failed as an experiment in international cooperation.

Question 13. What are the achievements of the Bolsheviks?
Answer:

(1) Introduction The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 is greater than any movement of its kind which Europe had experienced. It shook Russian society to its very foundations and caused not only the structure of society but also the social order itself to collapse in ruins. Out of this chaos, it built up a new social and political order based on the teaching of Karl Marx. In the face of imumerable handicaps the Soviet Government had continuously pursued the giagantic task of socialisation and industrialisation.

(2) Vladimir Lenin Vladimir Lenin was the prophet of the Communist Party, the church of Russian communism.

(3) The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk The first act of New Bolshevik Government established under the ledership of Lenin, was to wipe out the traces of war. For this purpose, peace was necessary and the treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded with Germany in 1918. Lenin did not mind giving up Poland, the Baltic Regions, Kars, Batoum and other places, for she wanted peace at any cost for the economic reconstruction of Russia.

(4) Civil war and Foreign intervention The newly born Soviet Republic was threatened for the first three years by civil war and foreign intervention. The dispossessed classes the nobility, the capitalists and the clergy with the support of the Allied Powers organised armed resistance. Russia became a prey to the ‘Red Terror’ of the Revolution and the ‘White Terror’ of the Counter-Revolution.

(5) Cheka and the Red Army :

Under the leadership of Trotsky, the Russian Carnot, the formidable Red Army was created. Lenin also organised a secret police called the Cheka. These were the two instruments with which the Bolsheviks routed out internal and external danger.

(6) The Agrarian Policy :

The most momentous change produced by the Bolsheviks was in the sphere of agriculture. Land was consfiscated from the landlords without
compensation and nationalised.

(7) The New Economic Policy (NEP) :

At first the State took over all industries and private capital was abolished. Industries were nationalised and private retail trade was prohibited. Money wages were replaced by commodity cards for necessities. This resulted in an alarming decline in production and peaseant out breaks. Hence in 1921, Lenin adopted a ‘New Economic Policy’ which was a return to capitalism in some measures. Peasants were allowed to sell their produce in open market and retail trade was permitted. Banking and credit system were restored and the use of money was revived. State industries were given a large measure of autonomy.

(8) The Soviet Constitution :

The new Constitution adopted in 1936, defined the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (U.S.S.R.), as a Socialist State of workers and peasants. Its political foundation is the ‘Soviets of Toilers’ and its economic foundation is the ‘Socialist System of Economy’. The U.S.S.R. is a federal State. The highest organ and the exclusive legislature is the Supreme Soviet. When it is not in session, the controlling organ is the Presidium. The highest executive is the Council of People’s Commissionars. The basic freedoms are granted by the Constitution and elections are based on universal, equal and direct suffrage.

Western critics point out that on paper the New Soviet Constitution is democratic but in reality it is controlled by the Communist Party. According to them, the Soviet Union is a totalitarian State which tolerates only one political party. Thus the Communist Party controls the machinery of Government, the economic system and the apparatus of culture.

(9) Joseph Stalin :

The death of Lenin in 1924 was followed by a keen contest between two of his disciples—Joseph Stalin, ‘man of steel’ and Leo Trotsky, chief of the Red Army. It ended in the victory of Stalin. Trotsky fled and was ultimately murdered in Mexico in 1940. Stalin, according to Gunther, was a man who looked ahead. He subordinated the slogan of world revolution to intense nationalism.

(10) The Five Year Plan :

Stalin was a staunch believer in the Marxian System and he gave up the New Economic Policy of Lenin. Instead he sponsored the First Five Year Plan by which socialisation of industry and agriculture were achieved alongside with the introduction of modern machinery and model methods. The Second Five Year Plan doubled the output of coal, iron and oil. Engineers were coaxed to turn out quick results. The vocabulary of war was frequently employed in this great offensive against poverty. All Russians had to live like Spartans until the Five Year Plans were completed. Giant enterprises such as Magnitogorsk, Steel Works and Dniperostory Power Plant rank among the world’s greatest industrial achievements.

Question 14. What do you know of the economic depression in the United States of America?
Answer:
(1) The economic crash in 1929 :

The first sector of the world’s economy to feel the effects of the coming blizzard was, significantly, American and Canadian agricuiture. Throughout the North American continent. agricultural prices began to fall sharply after 1926. The recovery of agriculture in Europe, and in places with a positive increase in agricultural production, made the vast output of North America largely superfluous to Europe’s needs. Grain was a commodity in which Europe as a continent could almost been self-sufficing, and for which its demand was idealistic.

The American farmer, faring badly, cut down his own expenditures, and American industry also began to feel the pinch. But it was the bubble of speculation which brought the real crash, and it burst on Wall Street in October 1929. Later on 23 and 24 October Black Thursday there was a panic rush of stockholders to unload. On the twenty-fourth alone nearly thirteen million shares were sold and on Tuesday the twenty-ninth and sixteen and a half million changed hands. By the end of the month American investors had lost 40,000 million dollars. This collapse of the New York market brought with it the final collapse of agricultural prices in America and sent a shudder of apprehension round the world.

After a temporary rise in early November prices began to fall again, and continued to fall thereafter, undettered’ by the belated efforts of bankers and the Government to check them. The repercussions of the collapse on Governmental finances and on industry ran parallel to the devastating given to producers of food and raw materials. The previous decade had been a time of chronic depression in agriculture all over the world, but especially in those large areas of the world which specialized in primary products for export. North American farmers, Australian fruit and meat growers, Brazilian coffee growers, sugar planters in Java, found world prices for their produce depressingly low.

Scientific methods enabled them to grow an abundance of goods which the consumers of the world could not at that time afford to buy. The demand for their products in the more industrialised countries was inelastic, and the underfed masses of Asia and Africa who needed them most could not afford to pay even very low prices. Any further contraction of trade had, therefore, disastrous effects.

After the crash of 1929 failing prices spelled ruin of so large a part of so many communities meant a drop in the demand for all the goods which these people could now no longer afford to buy. So general prices dropped further, and the crises spread from one sector of the world’s economy to another. Trade between nations shrank rapidly and steadily from the end of 1929 until 1934, in an ever contracting spiral. The efforts of most countries to shelter their farmers or manufacturers from this process by protective tarrifs on price fixing only tended to check still further the flow of international trade.

As bankruptices occurred, and factories slowed down production or went out of business, millions of workers thrown out of work. The decline in their purchasing power lowered still more the eflective demand for goods. Thus arose throughout the world, the hunting paradox of ‘poverty amidst plenty’ the strange grievance of ‘over production’ when million went on hungry and homeless the destruction of stocks of food because too many were too poor to eat it.

(2) The remedical steps :

In the United States of Arnerica the situation was transformed by the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt as President in the autumn of 1932 and by even America’s abandonment of the gold standard in March 1933. The new President brought to American politics a new spirit of courage, vigour and determination. Not for nothing had he discovered, a cripple thrown on his back for eight years by paralysis, how to overcome the cruellest physical disabilities by force of will and spirit. Believing that American and even world paralysis, too, might be defeated if men were resolved to beat it, he inspired the nation with fresh heart and hope just as the collapse had begun in the United States, so to recovery began there.

Question 15. Write a note on the “New Deal”.
Answer:
New Deal :

The Great economic depression of 1929 :

Almost all the countries of the world and the Government of the different countries reacted to the new world economic situation in three different ways. Firstly, they tended to assume more drastic powers to control currency and exchange rates they raised tarrifs; they impored stiffer quotas on imports; they took, in short, sterner separate measures to shield their countries against the depression. Secondly, they sought regional or sectional arrangements as did the scandinavian countries of the ‘Oslo Group’, or the agricultural lands of Eastern Europe, or the British commonwealth in the Ottawa.

Agreements of 1932. Thirdly, they attempted more comprehensive collective action, as in the Lausanne Convention of July 1932 and as in the World Economic Conference, which representatives of sixty-six states attended in London in June 1933. In the United States the situation was transformed by the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt as President in the autumn of 1932. Once international efforts to arrest the crisis had failed, Governments reverted to separate internal national action. Each nation adopted ways most suited to it. Gradually by 1934, the conditions of crisis receded and the wheel began to turn again. In the United States, President.

Roosevelt launched his ‘New Deal’, based at first on stringent federal control of credit one of his earlier and less sensational measures was the Glass-Steagall Act.of June 1933, designed to restore confidence in American banking combined with the Presidential power to control the fortunes of the dollar, the Act began a great extension of the directing and regulating power of the Treasury Department. The rest of the New Deal involved extension of the federal authority and especially of the presidential power to counter the effects of the crisis on industry and mass unemployment.

Question 16. Describe the rise of Fascist Dictatorship in Italy.
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

In the period following the close of the World War I, liberalism was in its death-bed. It witnessed the close of the 19th-century liberal democracy and the rise of dictatorships in almost all the countries of Europe, Italy, Germany, Poland, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria and Turkey. In Russia Czardom was replaced by the totalitarian States of the Communists. In the years after the war, the world was faced with the strange phenomenon of dire poverty existing in the midst of unexampled plenty. Laissez faire had to give place to planned economy.

(2) Favourable conditons in Italy for the rise of the Fascists :

Facists depict that in the years which immediately followed the war of 1914-1918, Italy was in the grip of the post-war slump. It was in the state of economic dislocation which the feeble Government under Nitti and Goiliti was unable to deal with. Distress and

Disorder was the order of the day. Agriculture was stagnant and hunger led to disturbances, strikes and riots. Italy was in the danger of turning communist. The real discontent in Italy as in Germany, was embitterment of the army politicians. They were disappointed with Italian gains in the war. The Fascist Party exploited their discontent and recruited supporters from the war veterans. AII this would have subsided, but for the emergence of dynamic personality in the person of Mussolini whose ambition was to become the dictator of Italy.

(3) Benito Mussolini :

Benito Mussolini was the son of a socialist blacksmith at Forli. In his early life, he was an elementary school teacher and before the war, a left-wing socialist. He served jail, lived in exile and at length, became the editor of the ‘Avanti’ or the official organ of the Italian socialists. During the war he became an ultra patriot and broke away with the socialist party on the issue of Italy’s attitude to the war. He gained the support of the restless demobilized soldiers, dissatisfied workers, youthful intellectuals and groups of frightened businessmen.

(4) Growth of Fascism :

The word Fascism was derived from ‘Fasco’ or club which Mussolini organised at Milan in 1919. In the next two years he gave time and energy to organise a network of similar clubs all over Italy. In 1921, they were consolidated into a political party with Mussolini at its head. Fascism adopted the symbolism and ceremonial of Rome in the days of Caesar. It promised to revive the glories of Imperial Rome. They expected to make the Mediterranean Sea an Italian lake. Fascists wore black shirts in immitation of Garibaldi’s red shirts.

The Black Shirts of Mussolini corresponded to Hitler’s ‘Storm Troopers’. With perfect organisation and violence Fascism gathered momentum during 1921-1922 while its opponents Liberals, Socialists and Catholics were divided and weak. In October 1922, Mussolini ordered mobilization of the Black Shirts and they marched on Rome. King Victor Emmanuel III, convinced of the Fascist strength, asked Mussolini to form a ministry.

(5) Mussolini becomes a Dictator :

Fascism is a totalitarian concept which glorifies the State and subordinates the individual to it. The Duce or the leader of the Fascist Party controls the politcal, military and economic institutions of the kingdom. He is the commander of the Fascist militia and presides over the Grand Council of Fascism. Mussolini emerged as a dominant figure in a totalitarian. regime. He forced the terrified Parliament to grant her dictatorial powers.

Fascists were speedily put into key positions throughout the country and were given a monopoly on propaganda. Socialists were suppressed and their strikes stopped. Strict censorship was forceful and police measures set up a veritable reign of terror. Opponents were imprisoned or exiled. Critics were silenced. Between the years 1925 and 1929, Mussolini consolidated his dictatorship. Political parties other than the Fascists were banned. Mussolini was authorised to initiate legislation and appoint local officials. The electoral law was changed to a mere ‘yes’ or ‘no’ vote on a list of Fascist candidates.

(6) Internal Policies of Mussolini :

(1) Mussolini and the Working class :

Fascism opposed the Marxian theory of class struggle. It believed in the harmony of capital and labour. To gain the support of workingmen, it undertook social changes and established a ‘corporate State’. In 1926, non-Fascist trade unions and all strikes were banned. ‘Syndicates’ were organised of thirteen members six of employers, six of employees and one of professional men. Under these were tribunals to settle labour disputes. The working hours in the day were fixed at eight. The employers were to contribute to the insurance of the workers against illness, accidents and old age.

(2) Mussolini and the Catholics :

Mussolini won the support of the Italian Catholics by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 with Pope Pius XI. It was like the Concordat of Napoleon. It recognised the independence of the Pope in the Papal States. However, soon difference arose on questions of schools and youth organisations.

(3) Education :

The system of education was based upon regimentation. The youths were indoctrinated with Fascist ideologies, nationalism and militarism. The army was increased by conscription and its equipment improved.

(4) Public Works :

For patriotic reasons as well as the solution of the unemployment problems, the Government fostered a great variety of public works. Mussolini aimed at economic self-sufficiency for Italy. Ancient monuments were repaired and modern improvements were made. Marshes were drained. Railways and huge steamships were built. Electric power plants were constructed.

(5) International Relations :

Fascism as a disruptive force in international relations, for it glorified war. In ranting speeches, Mussolini praised war and the war like virtues of the Italians. He followed a policy of agressive imperialism. In 1935 Mussolini defied the League and occupied Abyssinia. In 1936, the ‘Berlin- Rome Axis’ came into being directed against Russia. In the same year Japan, Germany and Italy together made the Anti-Commintern Pact to fight communism.. In 1939 when the Second World War began Mussolini joined the Axis and uiennesSNy brough disaster to Italy and to himself.

Question 17. What are the achievements of Mussolini ?
Answer:
(1)Mussolini’s achievements :

Fascism as organised by Mussolini set before itself three definite aims :

Exaltation of the state, protection of private property, and a strong foreign policy which would rehabilitate Italy’s position as a great power. The movement began as an impulse towards law and order and sought to safeguard existing institutions against the destructive influences of Bolshevism. But as it progressed, it developed a philosophy. It claimed to be a spiritual movement aiming at revivifying Italian soul in terms of duty to the Italian state. It thus became the essence of nationalism and stood for the grandeur that was ancient Rome.

Fascism achieved much for Italy. It restored the nation’s confidence in itself and made the administration of Government efficient in every respect. Mussolini balanced the budget, stabilised: the currency, and adjusted the difference between labour and capital so that the two should act as partners under the supervision of the state. Fascism encouraged economic self-sufficiency and efforts were made to reduce the country’s dependence upon foreign imports of wheat, cotton and tobacco.

Energetic measures were taken to develop Italy’s share of grid shipping and the tourist traffic. Education was encouraged by increasing the number of schools and by enforcing laws for compulsory school attendance. One of Mussolini’s outstanding achievements was the settlement of the long-standing dispute with the Papacy. By the Lateran Treaty of 1929, the Pope recognised the Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy, with Rome as its capital. The Italian state, on the other hand, recognised the Pope as a sovereign power in the Vatican and indemnified him for the loss of his temporal possessions. Along with this treaty a Concordat was concluded by which the future relations between the State and the Papacy were defined.

The Pope was to appoint all bishops in Italy but was to communicate the name of each candidate to the Italian Government “in order to be sure that the latter has objection from a political standpoint against the nomination.” The state also agreed to pay the salaries of bishops and priests. The result of this pact was to secure for the State the unstinted support of the Church and thereby to remove one of the causes which had largely contributed to the weakness of the Italian Government.

The Italians would no longer have to choose between their loyalty to the State and obedience to their religious head. They could be good citizens as well as good Catholics. Liké Bonapartism, Fascism made a political use of religion and saw in it a valuable aid to authority and a stabilising force against social upheaval. Thus, under the Fascist regime Italy was saved from disorder and anarchy and she came to occupy a commanding position in Europe. But these advantages were secured at a price, namely, political liberty. Fascist rule is frankly, autocratic, in which there is no room for popular sovereignty.

Parliament was not abolished, but the electoral system was so altered as to ensure Fascist predominance with the result that Parliament was reduced to the humble position of an advisory council. The press was rigidly censored and freedom of meeting and speech was severely restricted. Opposition to Fascism was severely punished and anybody not believing in its creed was open to suspicion and subject to surveillance. The murder of a socialist member of Parliament in 1924 showed the new regime at its worst. Fascism tolerates no difference of opinion. Mussolini was, in theory, premier of a constitutional sovereign, but in fact he was a dictator.

(2) Fascist Foreign Policy :

Foreign Policy :

One of the fundamental articles of the Fascist faith was the raising of Italian prestige in the eyes of foreign nations. The Fascists glorified war as a symbol of national virility. Hence Mussolini aimed at reviving the prestige of ancient Rome and securing for Italy the position of a world power. At the peace conference the Allies had neglected Italy in the distribution of mandates and so Mussolini sought to rectify this wrong by adopting a vigorous policy of colonial expansion. He turned his eyes to Tunisia and Corsica which were French possessions, and maintained that Italy had a better right to them. Besides, the two countries were competing for the control of the Western Mediterranean and for superiority in naval armaments.

Mussolini’s bellicose utterances put a severe strain on Franco-lItalian relations for a time and portended a crisis. This was, however, averted and Mussolini turned to Eastern Europe for expansion. He secured for Italy the Dodecanese islands and definitely acquired Fiume in 1924. Italy’s relations with Yugoslavia also became more and more strained as the latter prompted by irrendist movements, wanted to acquire a large portion of Dalmatia from Italy. The Italo- Yugoslav quarrel was in essence a struggle for the control of the Adriatic. This struggle was further intensified when Mussolini conquered Albania from King Zogin in 1939.

But the most spectacular of Mussolini’s achievements was the conquest of Ethiopia. He wanted to wipe off the humiliation of Italian defeat at Adgwa at the hands of the Abyssinians in 1896. But the real cause was that Italy needed colonies to enhance her prestige and to find more room and more food for her growing population. Hence, Mussolini. took advantage of some border “incidents” at Walwal to attack Abyssinia in 1935. Its king Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations for

arbitration, which promptly declared Italy to be the aggressor. Mussolini, however, defied the League, conquered Abyssinia and proclaimed King Victor Emmanuel as the Emperor of Ethiopia (1936). After this war Italy drew closer to Germany and became estranged from France and Britain. Mussolini came to an understanding with Hitler and thus arose what was called the Rome-Berlin Axis. When the Second World War broke out and the power of France collapsed, Mussolini joined Germany and declared war on Britain and France (1940).

Question 18. Describe the causes of the rise of Nazi Dictatorship in Germany.
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

In the period following the close of World War I liberalism was on its death-bed. It witnessed the total collapse of the 19th century liberal democracy and the rise of dictatorships in almost all the countries of Europe—titaly, Germany, Poland, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria and Turkey. In Russia Czardom was replaced by the totalatarian State of the communists. In the years after the war, the world was faced with strange phenomenon of dire poverty existing in the midst of unexampled plenty. Laissez-faire had to give place to planned economy.

(2) Circumstances leading to the risé of the Nazis :

The Great War overthrew the Hohenzollern Empire in Germany which Bismarck had created in 1871. The Weimer Republic was established in 1919. It is the failure of the Republic that gave rise to the Nazis. The Weimer Republic was thoroughly democratic, but democracy never took deep roots in Germany. Moreover, the success of democracy in Germany largely depended on the peace terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Unfortunately, the Allies greatly paralysed Germany. Yet the Republic could restore the currency, liberate the Fatherland from the foreign troops imposed by the League and obtain a reduction in reparation debt to a nominal figure. But certain factors discredited the Republic and prepared the situation which Hitler was to turn to his ends.

In the Rhine Valley which was under the occupation of the French or attempted to foster movement to break up the Germans. Further German pride was insulted by their being asked to work along with Negroes in the coal mines. The German Government by its financial policy increased inflation and created feelings of insecurity among the middle class. They began to denounce capitalism. The economic depression of 1929, resulting from the stopping of American loans, gave the opportunity to the Nazis. Distress, unemployment, and heavy taxation made the Germans to the National Socialist Party (Nazis) under Hitler as a remedy for all these grievances.

(3) Disillusionment and Pessimism :

In the years immediately following the war a wave of pessimism swept over the German people Oswald Spengler’s ‘Decline of the West’ was widely regarded as a well-founded prophecy of the downfall of the Western Supremacy.

(4) Rise of Hitler :

Adolf Hitler was born in a middleclass German family in Austria in 1889. He passed his early days as a house painter. He was a careful reader of literature on racial, moral, social, economic and political problems confronting the German-speaking people in Austria and Germany. Gradually the spirit of German nationality grew stronger in him and his hatred of international socialism increased. He associated immorality and radicalism with Judaism and regarded socialism as a ruse of international Jewry to control the workers. Thus he became a fanatic and anti-semitic.

In the First World War he fought in the Bavarian army. The events of 1918 filled him with bitterness. In 1923 he joined Ludendorft in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the republican Government of Germany. Sentenced to five years imprisonment, he was released after having served a few months. For technical reasons he was not a citizen, of Austria or Germany till 1932. It thus happened that the leader of one of the most nationalistic groups in the world was for few years a man without a country.

(5) Nazi Movement :

In 1919 Hitler had joined a political organisation called the National Socialists German Workers Party. Upon his release from prison he put new life into it There was a party programme of “Twenty-five Points” which was later expanded by Hitler in his memoir Mein Kampf Among the pillars of the Nazi movement was the white collar section of the middle class. This class did not look to the Socialists for economic relief; it was ready to try Nazi remedies. Similar in political approach were thousands of former army officers, soldiers, widows and retired tradesmen.

The Anti-Semitism of the appealed to the professionals who resented Jewish competition in law, medicine, banking and trade. Support came from retail shopkeepers and from the peasantry. University students and graduates also contributed to Nazi strength. To the unemployed any programme of political overturn seemed promising. There were industrialists whose fear of communism led them to support Hitlerism. Stout support also came from labour.

(6) Seizure of Power: Of the election of 1930 in which as many as 27 parties took part, the outstanding feature was the gain made by the Communist Party and the Nazis. The former increased the membership in the Reichstag from 54 to 77 while the latter raised it from 12 to 107.

Hitler’s followers now formed the second largest group in the Reichstag. In 1932 Hitler contested the Presidency against the sitting President, Hindenburg and other candidates. Hindenburg was elected. Hitler defeated his other two rivals. In the general election held September, 1932, the Nazis secured 230 seats, an increase of 123 since 1930.

But the Reichstag was dissolved and another general election was held in November 1932. On this occasion the voters of the Nazis fell off but they emerged as the largest party, not, however, enjoying a majority in Reichstag. Hindenburg invited Hitler to form a Government, but when the Nazi leader demanded dictatorial powers, the President selected Schleicher. In January 1933. Schleicher resigned and Hitler became Chancellor.

Hitler arranged new elections in March 1933 with a view to gaining control of Reichstag in which he then held only 190 out of 584 seats. A few days before the voting the Reichstag building in Berlin was nearly destroyed by fire and the Nazis threw the blame on the Communisists. In the election, Nazis captured 288 out 647 seats. The new Reichstag passed a law which suspended the Weimer Constitution and invested Hitler Government with dictatorial powers. Henceforth, the Hitler’s Cabinet alone was to have the right to enact laws for the Reich.

In the following months Hitler ‘co-ordinated’ under the Nazi aegis the political, economic and cultural life of the people. The supreme and final authority in all matters was Hitler himself, and later became to be known officially as Der Fuhrer. On the death of President Hindenburg in August 1934, the office of the President and Chancellor were united, both being vested in Hitler. Now he began to rule alone.

Question 19. Give an account of Hitler’s foreign policy during the period 1933 and 1939. Or, Analyse the foreign policy of the Nazi Germany.
Answer:

(1) Hitler’s programme: There was bitter resentment in the German minds against the Treaty of Versailles which had crippled Germany politically, militarily and economically and humiliated her by the forced confession of war guilt and the obligation of surrendering her nationals accused of war crimes. It was by exploiting this resentment that the Nazi Party under Hitler rose to power. As early as 1920 the official programme of the.

Nazi Party laid down three objectives of German foreign policy :

(1) All people of German race should be united in a single State-one Great Germany.

(2) The restriction imposed on Germany and Austria by the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain should be removed.

(3) Germany should be allowed to acquire new territories for the support of her people and the settlement of her population. Such territorial expansion was to be sought in Hitler’s view in the east at the cost of the Soviet Union and the border States dependent upon it.

These specific points were given very wide. background in Hitler’s autobiography Mein Kampf in which he defined his final political objective to be “world power or nothing”. He was not prepared to tolerate the existence of “two Continental Powers in Europe”. His programme was “directly opposed, not only to the post-war system of the League of Nations, but to the pre-war system of multiple balance of powers.”

(2) End of Versailles and Locarno: In 1933 Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany. The Disarmament Conference sponsored by the League of Nations had already reached a deadlock primarily because the French demand for security and the German demand for disarmament could not be reconciled. Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament Conference and then from the League as well (1933). The Disarmament Conference ceased to meet, the League became weaker as a result of Germany’s withdrawal. The Versailles system received a rude shock.

Immediately afterwards Hitler began his search for allies. Ip. 1934 Germany and Poland concluded a pact by which the parties gave up for a period of ten years the use of force for the settlement of their disputes. Poland came out of the French sphere of influence and sought security aganist Russian aggression in the new understanding with Germany.

In the Balkans Hitler supported the revisionist claims of Hungary and Yugoslavia and tried to weaken to ‘Little Entente’ States (Czechoslovakia and Rumania) which were allies of France. Enormous economic and military resources were acquired by Germany through her contact with Hungary and Yugoslavia.

A German-ltalian entente developed stage by stage. Hitler adopted a policy of neutrality towards Mussolini’s Abyssinian adventure. The two dictators pursued a common policy in the time of the Spanish Civil War (1936), both of them gave military aid to Spain.

A German-Italian Condominium was established over Austria in 1936. Two years later Hitler occupied Austria through direct military action and Italy did not oppose. In 1937 Mussolini joined the German-Japanese pact against communism (Anti-Comintern Pact). In 1939 he concluded formal military alliance with Hitler. In 1940 he joined Hitler in the Second World War.

In 1935 the fate of Saar was determined by a plebiscite held under the supervision of an international force. About 90% voters were cast in favour of merger with Germany. Thus Hitler got the Saar in a peacful manner. Immediately afterwards he repudiated the treaty of Versailles on the ground that it was a ‘dictated peace’. In 1938, he occupied Austria through direct military action in violation of the revisionist claims of Rumania and Yogaslavia was a protest against the post-war settlements in the Balkans.

The Franco-Soviet Pact of 1935 was regarded by Hitler as a military alliance directed exclusively against Germany. He argued that it was incompatible with the Locarno treaties, for France had undertaken obligations towards the Soviet Union which were inconsistent with her obligations under the Locarno treaties.

Hitler claimed that the Locarno treaties had lost their ‘inner meaning’. So he repudiated them and occupied the Rhineland with his troops. Germany showed that she was bold and strong enough to tear solemn international agreements into pieces. France and Britain took no action against her.

(3) Appeasement Thus the Versailles-Locarno system was broken up by Hitler within a few years of his accession to power. The political system built upon the post-war treaties was demolished by an entirely new technique, viz. the unshamed use of force or threat of force.

France and Britain, the principal upholders of the post-war system, failed to make an accurate appraisal of Hitler’s motives and methods. They sought to maintain peace by a policy of appeasement and found themselves confronted with the greatest war in history.

For Hitler the occupation of the Rhineland (1936) was the test case. France and Britain were then too deeply involved in the Abyssinian crisis to take action against Germany’s open violation of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain with impunity. After swallowing Austria Hitler turned towards Czechoslovakia.

He found an excellent plea for the dismemberment of that weak State in the desire of its German population (Sudeten Germans) for merger with the Fatherland, i.e., the League of Nations was too weak to save the Czechs. The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, accepted the Munich Agreement containing Hitler’s terms for the partition of Czechoslovakia.

It was hoped that Hitler would be satisfied and international peace would be maintained. But Hitler’s ambition was to seize world power. After annexing Bohemia and Moravia (parts of Czechoslovakia), he swallowed the Baltic Port of Memel (in Lithuania) and demanded from Poland the surrender of Danzig in violation of the treaty of Versailles, and also of the German Polish Pact of 1934. The Policy of appeasement was found to be futile. The decision of Poland to resist, and of France and Britain to support the Poles, marked the beginning of the Second World War.

(4) Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939: Shortly before the outbreak of the war the world heard in amusement of a strange alliance between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Hitler was proclaimed enemy of Communism, his Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan and Italy (1936-1937) was a declaration of crusade against Comrnunism.

This paved the way far Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. Hitler and Mussolini on 22 May 1939, converted the Axis in a formal military alliance, the so called ‘Pact of Steel’.

But Stalin had realised the significance of Hitier’s rise to power even before the conclusion of their pact, the Franco-Soviet Pact of 1935 reflected his anxiety for protection against the Nazis. Yet Hitler and Stalin came to terms in 1939 and promised mutual non-aggression. The curious arrangement was the product of two factors. Hitler wanted neutralisation of the Soviet Union in respect of his invasion of Poland.

He did not want to fight on two fronts, in the west against France and Britain, in the east against Russia. Stalin was afraid that the western powers wanted to get Russia involved in hostilities with Germany. His fear was confirmed by the failure of Anglo-French talks with Russia in 1939.

Moreover, an understanding with Hitler provided for him an opportunity for extension of Russian influence in eastern Europe. The Hitler-Stalin Pact was, however, an unnatural alliance, and it was broken by the German invasion of Russia in 1941.

Question 20. Write a note on the Spanish Civil War.
Answer:

(1) Introduction: Spain was neutral in the First World War, but she could not escape political and economic instability which gripped Europe after the war. Though the country was a monarchy; it was ruled dictatorials, by General Primo de Rivera during the period 1923 to 1930.

The difficulty of establishing order in the country and the World Economic Depression led to his resignation in 1930. King Alfonso XIII restored the Constitution which the Generai had suppressed, but republican sentiments were so strong that he abdicated in 1931. A republic was proclaimed and Azana, the leader of the radicals, became its President.

A democratic Constitution was framed and introduced but the situation was not favourable for the smooth functioning of democracy. There was continuous political struggle between the Right and the Left and local insurrections sponsored by the Socialists and the Communists created an atmosphere of violence.

In 1936 the Popular Front organised by the Left won the general election and a progressive Government was formed under the leadership of Azana. The army chiefs complained that the new Government was unable to maintain order. A military rebellion followed.

It leadership was assumed by General Franco who made himself master of Morocco and then invaded Spain with an army composed largely of Moorish troops. To resist them Azana set up a dictatorship under the premiership of Cabellaro, a left wing socialist, who sought and found alliance in the Communist Camp. As the Civil War progressed it became a struggle between Communist-dominated republicans and Fascists representing vested interests. The latter won in 1939 and General Franco became the dictator of Spain.

(2) International background A civil war in Spain leading to change of Government in that country would have been a local episode without significant repercussions. But the Spanish Civil War assumed an international complexion because other European Powers took a direct interest in it.

That interest arose out of ideological consideration and selfish political motives. The triumph of Fascism was fast changing the political situation in Europe during the period of the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Mussolini had seized Abyssinia in defiance of the League. The system of collective security was practically dead.

The League was paralysed. Hitler had repudiated the Locarno treaties and swallowed Austria and Czecholslovakia. Britain and France had committed themselves to appeasement. Soviet Russia was threatened directly by the Anti-Commintern Pact uniting Germany, Japan and Italy in an international crusade against Communism.

In such a situation it was natural for both camps—Fascists and Communists to seek allies and satellites. The Civil war made Spain a covetable prize. If the Republicans under Cabellaro won, the Soviet Union would have Spain as a satellite.

If Italy won Spain would enter the Fascist orbit. How could Stalin, Hitler and Mussolini remain indifferent towards the vicissitudes of the Spanish Civil War They extended their patronage to their potential partisans and converted a civil war into an international war. Spain virtually became the battleground of Soviet Russia on one side and Germany and Italy on the other.

The Spanish republicans received some assistance from Soviet Russia, but due primarily to geographical reasons, Moscow could not do much for them. Communist volunteers trained in Soviet Russia took an active part in the war, one of them being, Tito of Yugoslavia. Moreover, ‘international brigades’ of communists were formed in many countries, even in.the U.S.A. to ‘defend the Republic’.

Much more substantial aid was given to Franco by Germany and Italy. Powerful units of German and Italian armies fought on his side. He also received generous supplies of technicians, planes, submarines, trucks, tanks, automobiles, ammunition, etc. His superiority in air power was one of the primary causes of his victory.The two other Great Powers of Europe,Britain and France, pursued an ineffective policy of non-intervention. They had some sympathy for the republicans, but they were afraid that any practical demonstration of that sympathy would provide excuse for greater German-Italian assistance to France.

Moreover, as the possibility of Franco’s victory could not be ruled out, neither Britain, nor France was prepared to offend him. Spain could interfere with sea routes in which both them had vital imperial interest. Complete alienation of France was, therefore, considered unsafe from a long term point of view. Perhaps the pronounced Communist leanings of the Spanish republicans created suspicions in Britain and France.

(3) Effects :

Franco’s victory did not give the Fascist powers the political dividend which they had expected. Spain observed neutrality throughout the Second World War. Franco did not consider it necessary to assist his patrons. But the immediate effect of his victory was to raise the prestige of Fascism in Europe. Another consequence also deserves notice. The non-intervention policy of Britain and France ‘drove a further wedge between Soviet Russia and the Western Powers’. This was indirectly helpful for Hitler in his diplomatic reproachment with Stalin.

Question 21. Why did the U.S.A join the First World War ? What were America’s contributions to allied victory ?
Answer: The apparent and most obvious cause of the U.S.A.’s joining the war of 1914-18 was Germany’s unrestrained submarine attack on neutral shipping which greatly affected American ship movements, caused loss of merchandise and human lives. America claimed that international law never permitted belligerent attack on the shipping of neutral nations. This violated the doctrine of “freedom of the high seas”.

Why then Germany would violate this sacred international law and drown American merchant and passenger ships ? American protests to Germany were rudely rejected. American patience broke down when German submarine drowned a passenger liner, The Lusitania. Those who were drowned belonged to first governing families of the U.S.A. Hence, the U.S.A. declared war against Germany and her allies.

Looking deep, however, it is clear that American economic and commercial interests were badly affected by German submarine attack. American doctrine of freedom of neutral shipping on high seas was working for her economic interests. The American industrialists and armament producers hoped that they would sell ship loads of resources and weapons to European belligerent and extract huge profit. The Anglo French powers were their main buyers. On the other hand, Germany found that unless American supply of resources and weaporns to Britain and France could not be stopped, it was difficult to lend their back.

Hence, Germany resorted to unrestained submarine attack. American capitalist and merchant class became furious at the loss of their trade. Germany protested that if her submarine warfare was illegal and violated freedom of the navigation of seas, then blockade of Germany’s coast was equally illegal. Whydid the U.S.A. not protest against the blockade ? American Press replied that blockade did not affect the life of American citizens, while submarine attack led to loss of

American lives. Secondly, Germany’s reply to American protests were naughty and arrogant. Germany’s reply was that why did Americans travel in ships, they should keep at home. Thirdly, Germany gave the warning that American ships should keep out of the German ring fence of submarine attack.

Apart from the above causes, politically the U.S. senators feared that balance of power would stand as a monolithic rival of the U.S.A. British Prime Minister Lord Grey warned the U.S.A. that Britain was fighting Germany not only for her own cause but for the U.S.A/’s interest too.

The majority of the U.S. citizens were descendants of the Anglo-Saxon race to which English men belonged. Their forefathers came to settle in America from England. Hence racially they feel affinity with England. England and France had democratic constitutions like that of the U.S.A., while Germany had an autocratic monarchy. American public sentiment, American press supported Anglo-French powers out of emotion and sentiment. The British propaganda machine carried ceaseless propaganda against barbarism of German troops.

Meanwhile, anticipating that the U.S.A. might ultimately join the war against her, German war agents started sabotage in American factories and engineered strikes. A secret letter from Germany’s Foreign Secretary Zimmerman to German agents in the U.S.A. became out. Its publication in the press inflamed public opinion. Zimmeraman incited Mexico to attack Texas, Arizona and New Mexico provinces of the U.S.A. on the ground the formerly the area belonged to Mexico.

American bankers had given a lot of credit to Anglo-French powers. When the course of the war turned against them and Germany made massive attack in 1916, the capitalist class pressurized their own Government to give active support to the Allies. Otherwise the money would be lost. Thus economic as well as humanitarian factors drove the U.S.A. to vortex of the great war. We shall now discuss the U.S.A.’s contribution to Allied victory. Broadly speaking, the war would never end in 1918 and Allied victory might be uncertain if the U.S.A. remained neutral to the last.

(1) American resources and supplies put heavy pressure on Germany. There the American soldiers lacked experience and skill of European warfare. But they had, according to Agatha Ramm, youth and unbounded confidence.

(2) The Bolshevik Revolution and the withdrawal of Russia put the Anglo-French Allies in the Western Front in a great jeopardy. The German army was withdrawn from the Eastern Front and fell upon the Western Front as an avalanche. In this hour of crisis, when Anglo-French army was struggling in severe trench warefare, the arrival of fresh soldiers from the U.S.A. turned the tide of the war. It compensated the loss of Russia.

(3) The U.S.A. gave unlimited supplies in men and money. Supply of American ammunition was unfimited.

(4) From Lundendorf’s memoirs, we know that Germany calculated that submarine warfare would cut off American supply. Within 12 months Britain would be on her kness. Lundendorff says that the calculation was lundicrously false. Million tonnes of war materials poured in western fron from the U.S.A.

Thus the U.S.A.’s contribution to Allied victory was immense. We do not know what would have been the fate of the Allies, if the U.S.A. did not join the war on their behalf. However, the U.S.A. tried to impose her own terms at the end of the war as a price for her support, failing which she again sank into a policy of isolation. The vacuum caused by the U.S.A’s withdrawal after 1919 was dangerous. The balance of power became unstable which Nazi Germany rudely shattered in 1939.

Question 22. Narrate the causes of Germany’s defeat in the First World War.
Answer: Germany’s collapse in 1918 surprised many people in 1918. She began the war with the best army, highest preparation. She made lightning advances both in the Eastern and on the Western Front. In the end everything ended in vain. The causes of Germany’s defeat were many

(1) Germany’s man power and resources were much poorer than the combined man power and resources of the Entente Powers. In a short period of war, Germany could achieve success. If the war was prolonged then Germany would collapse for lack of men and resources.

Ludendorff, the famous German General, said in his Memoirs, German youth fought for 4 years (1914-18). In the fifth year the youth force of Germany had perished. The Allied powers adopted the tactics of prolonging the war by trench warfare so that German strength would get exhausted.

(2) Germany’s material shortage was very great. They had no tanks, no supply of rubber, leather, chemicals. Towards the end of war, Germany had no food and fuel, famine and epidemic exhausted her strength.

Anglo-French naval blockade made devastating impact on Germany. She failed to procure essentials and ammunitions from outside. At last Germany surrendered. The British navy ruthlessly blockaded Northern coast and the French navy blockaded the Mediterranean cost of Germany. On the other hand, the Allied powers could draw inexhaustable supply of men and resources from their colonial possessions.

Germany tried to break the blockade without success. She let loose unrestricted submarine attack at American supplies in the hope of starving out Anglo-French allies. But the effectiveness of submarine warfare became blunt when the Allies discovered the convoy system and anti-submarine weapons.

As regards strategy, Germany committed several blunders:

(1) During the early years of the war when Germany’s strength was undiminished, they ought to have fought with a determination of “now or never’ But after the battles of Marne and Somme, Lundendorff withdrew behind Hindenburg line and did not launch any offensive attack. Had he done it, the tide of war might go in favour of Germany.

(2) Germany failed to take offensive in the Western Front when there was mutiny in the French army. Unfortunately the German spies could not discover the fact. French Marshall Petain suppressed the mutiny in iron hand and made the French army battle worthly.

(3) German General Lundendorff made scattered attack on this Anglo-French line, now here, now there. He did not try to break allied line by any determined attack on a point. Hence his “Buffalo strategy” failed before the “Bull strategy” of British General Haig.

(4) Lundendorff hesitated to take decision and took much time to reach in compared to Marshall Foch and General Weygand. Their brain was so sharp that they did not carry any file in the meeting of Allied commanders. They carried all information in their brain.

(5) Geographically, Germany had no depth of defence. Like Russia, she did not have vast territory to which she could draw the enemy and digest them. Hence,

offensive strategy was most suitable for Germany. She could fight in the enemy’s country. But defensive strategy was a blunder. In 1917-18 she fought on the defensive and got exhausted. Apart from these factors, the entry of the U.S.A. in the War led to collapse of Germany.

Question 23. Write on essay on the terms of the Versailles Treaty.
Answer: The peace makers at Paris were in a difficult position to settle the peace terms with Germany. So far Llyod George was concerned, he felt satisfied that Germany’s sea power was destined to get to the bottom of the seas and British colonies were now safe from German attack.

But French apprehended that in no time Germany would re-attack France for the fourth time. Keeping this point in view, Clemenceau wanted imposition of harsh terms on Germany. Ultimately a compromise between French security, American idealism and British practicalism led to the drafting of the Versailles Treaty with Germany.

It was agreed that :

(1) Territorially Germany must surrender the following places on her frontier to her neighbour.

(1) On the western front Alsace and Lorraine were to be returned by Germany to France for historical justice.

(2) The Saar valley, the coal districts, were to be administered by the League of Nations at present for 15 years. After the expiry of the period, the fate of Saar valley was to be decided by a plebiscite. In the meantime France would use its coal mines.

(3) On the Belgian Front, Germany surrendered Eupen, Malmedy and Moresnet to Belgium for the latter’s security.

(4) For the sake of French security, Germany’s territory on the west bank of the Rhine was to be permanently demilitarized. Neither Germany nor France would build army fortification in the area.

(5) On the Eastern bank of the Rhine 50 k.m. area were to be demilitarized by Germany. That is to say, by the above two articles, Rhineland of Germany became a demilitarized zone, a buffer between France and Germany. It was hoped that French security would be ensured by those clauses.

(2) After setting territory on the Western Front of Germany, the Versailles Treaty laid down that on the Northern Front of Germany

The following settlements would be enforced :

(1) The province of North Schleswig with predominant Danish population wouid be returned to Denmark for historical justice.

(2) The province of Holsbik with predominant German population would be kept with Germany.

(3) In the Eastern frontier of Germany, it was not easy to draw the line because in Poland, German and Polish population were intermixed.

(1) Ultimately, it was decided that according to the fourteen points, Poland would be an independent sovereign state. The great injustice done to her by partitions of Poland in the past would be now rectified by promoting Polish unity and nationalism.

(2) Poland would be connected with the Baltic Sea by a corridor running through Germany’s province.of East Prussia. The corridor would join with the German port of Danzig on the Baltic sea. Germany would handover the port of Danzig to the League of Nations and would be a free city under Polish control. West Prussia and Posen were to be united with the new Poland.

(3) Further, the province of Silesia of Germany was partitioned by a plebiscite. One part called Sudetenland, rich in coal, iron and German man power, was added to the newly created Czechoslovakia. Another part comprising good number of German population was united with Poland. The remaining part was retained by Germany. As a result Poland acquired a sufficient number of German population which caused much problem in future.

(4) By the Versailles Treaty apart from the above territorial clauses military, economic and miscellaneous clauses were also irnposed on Germany.

(1) Militarily Germany was disarmed and demilitarized. She could only keep 1,00,000 forces to keep law and order.

(2) Germany’s army, navy and air force were disbanded and dissolved.

(3) Mass conscription and compulsory military training in Germany was banned because Germany was declared guilty of war and violating international laws.

(4) Gerrnany’s general staff would be dismissed and her navy would surrender to England.

(5) Germany could not produce war materials and produce no air force or submarines.

(5) Economically, Germany was declared guilty for starting a war. She was asked to pay reparation or war indemnity to the victorious powers for the damage caused to them during the war. The Reparation Commission fixed the amount payable by Germany was € 6,600 million. Till reparation was paid, the Allied troops would occupy part of Rhineland.

(6) Germany’s colonies were liquidated and brought under the mandate of the League of Nations for better and enlightened government.

(1) Her trading privileges outside Germany in Morocco, China, Africa, were abrogated.

(2) Germany’s main artery, the Rhine was internationalised and opened to international navigation.

(3) The Kiel Canal was demilitarized and neutralized.

(7) Among miscellaneous clauses it was said that the deposed German Emperor Kaiser William II was a war criminal. If he could be arrested, he would be tried and punished in international court. German generals guilty of giving order violating international law would be punished.

(8) A League of Nations was to be immediately set up to protect the status quo of the treaty system and to settle future international disputes by peaceful means. Such were the main provisions of the Versailles treaty.

Question 24. Give on account of Mussolini as the dictator of Italy.
Answer: On October 31, 1922 Mussolini became Prime Minister and obtained a grant of dictatorial powers for a year. Then he proceeded to consolidate the Fascist rule in. Italy. He secured control of the local administration. Order was restored and economies were introduced into government. The imposition of dictatorship was gradual. He transformed the Fascist militia squadron into a national party militia paid by the State. The Fascist Grand Council, set up at the end of 1922, was parallel to the Govemment. At the end of 1923, he passed the so-called Acerbo electoral bill.

The bill established that the party securing at least 25 per cent of the total votes cast, should automatically secure two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. In the elections of April 1924, the Fascists secured two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber. Mussolini now moved faster. Giacomo Matteotti, the leader of the Socialists in the Chamber and a bitter critic of Mussolini, was murdered by a fascist gang in June 1924. Luigi Sturzo, who led the Popular Party, fled into exile. Political opponents were either imprisoned or terminated.

By early January 1925 he was sufficiently strong to proclaim his personal responsibility for crime and terrorism. After suppressing the Socialist Party in October 1925, Mussolini banned all political parties a year after. The rule of one-party had begun. By a series of enactments Mussolini consolidated his dictatorship. He suppressed all public criticism. By 1925 he dismissed all disloyal officials and stopped all local elections. The freedom of the press disappeared. The Law on Public Security of November 1926 provided the penalty of political exile, reintroduced death penalty and left the individual with no appeal against the state. The police became an instrument of oppression.

Mussolini, as Prime Minister, was authorised to initiate all legislation. The local prefects were to be directly responsible to him and he would appoint governors of cities and villages. By a law of 1928, parliamentary elections were replaced by the choice of candidates from a single list by the Fascist Grand Council. And the chairman of the Grand Council was Mussolini who was also the Prime Minister of the State. Though the King remained as the nominal sovereign, the whole Govemment was dominated by the party organisation of the Fascists.

Mussolini denounced popular sovereignty and professed that it could never work. His ideal was a state in which the individual must subordinate himself to the state in which the individual must subordinate himself to the state. The masses had no inherent rights. There was to be no proletarian regime, and hence any resort to a strike was strictly prohibited. A strict censorship was established. ‘Fascism’, said Mussolini, ‘tolerates no differences of opinion’. Mussolini’s slogan was ‘Believe, obey and fight’. The most vocal critic of the Fascist doctrine was Benedetto Croce, Italy’s greatest philosopher. In the actual practice of fascism there was little that could be called noble virtues.

To gain the support of working classes, Mussolini created a ‘corporate state’. In 1926, after banning strikes and lockouts and dissolving trade unions, he instituted thirteen syndicates or corporations of employers, employees, and professional men, under whose joint auspices labour courts were .established to deal wth disputes. This was supplemented by a Charter of Labour guaranteeing working conditions and providing social insurance. In 1934 a National council was created of deputies from the various corporations to advise parliament on economic and social legislations.

To secure the support of the Catholic masses, Mussolini reversed anti-clerical policies and reached accord with the Pope. By the Lateran treaty of 1929, he agreed to the sovereignty of the Pope within a small and independent Papal State (Vatican City and Castle Gandolfo). In return the Pope (Pius XI) recognized the Kingdom of Italy. Agreement was also reached in between Church and State in such matters as education, marriage laws and the appointment of bishops.

Question 25. Briefly explain Italy’s expansion on Africa.
Answer: Ever since the establishment of Fascist dictatorship, Mussolini had been anxious to win for Italy a commanding position in the Mediterranean and particularly to bring the East African Kingdom of Ethiopia lay between Eritrea and Italian Somaliland and was reputed to possess mineral wealth.

Italy already enjoyed certain heights there. In 1925 an agreement between Italy and Britain, while granting to the latter free water rights in northern Ethiopia, promised to Italy certain concessions.

In the rest of the country. Ethiopia vainly protested to the League of Nations against these foreign spheres of influence in the country. In 1928 Italy concluded with Ethiopia a treaty of perpetual friendship and arbitration. After the accession of Haile Selassie as Emperor, Ethiopia refused the requests of Italy for concessions and favours. In December 1934 there occurred a clash between the Abyssian forces and Italian troops near the village of Walwal. The Italian Government demanded an apology and a substantial indemnity from the Ethiopian Government.

In January 1935 Mussolini secured from France an agreement that Italy should have a free hand in Ethiopia. Britain was intent on maintaining friendship with Italy. Early in 1935 Ethiopia appealed to the League and pleaded for arbitration in accordance with the Italo-Ethiopian treaty of 1928. At League Council’s suggestion, representatives of Britain, France and Italy meat Paris (August 1935). Britain and France agreed to give Italy extensive economic rights in Ethiopia. Mussolini, however, rejected the offer. The League, therefore, took up the matter once more and appointed a neutral committee of conciliation.

The conciliation committee drafted a plan for the international development of Abyssinia with a recognition of Italy’s special interests. Though the Emperor Haile Selassie accepted the plan in principle, but Mussolini rejected it Britain took up a stern attitude towards Italy as she feared that Italy’s Abyssinian venture might endager British pre-dominance along the Red Sea and in north- eastern Africa. The new British Foreign Secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare, emphatically declared at the Assembly on September 11, 1935 of the British Government’s intention to carry out its obligation under the Covenant.

But on October 3, 1935, without declaring war, Mussolini lanuched an attack and captured Adowa. This time the League Council acted promptly. On October 7, it declared Italy an aggressor nation and agreed to impose economic sanctions against her.

The sanctions caused some distress in Italy, but they failed in their purpose. Sanctions were not imposed on oil, Italy’s prime need while the latter obtained war materials from Germany. Britain and France avoided putting war materials from Germany. Britain and France avoided putting such pressure upon Italy as it might involve them in war.

In December 1935, Hoare and Laval agreed on a plan whereby Italy was to keep most of the extensive territory she had acquired by that date, while Abyssinia was to get in exchange a narrow corridor to the Red Sea through Eritrea. The Chamberlain Cabinet, in the face of public outcry, repudiated it. Hoare resigned and was succeeded by Eden. When Foreign Secretary Eden proposed oil sanctions in early 1936, French Foreign Minister Flandin suggested a policy of appeasement.

In May 1936 the Italians captured the capital Addis Ababa and the whole country was formally annexed to Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III assumed the title of the Emperor of Ethiopia. Italy thus defied the League though the latter declined to recognise Italy’s conquest. Haile Selassie went into exile in Britain until he recovered his Empire during the Second World War.

Question 26. How did the Anglo French policy of appeasement lead to the signing of Russo-German Non-Aggression Pact ?
Answer: On November 5, 1937, in a secret talk with his military chiefs, Hitler gave them a clear idea of his foreign policy. Germany would have to acquire living space (Lebensraum ) in Eastern Europe which would be possible only by the use of force. The first stages of the solution were to be the absorption of Austria and the destruction of Czechoslovakia. Hitler was aware that in carrying out such a policy, ‘German policy would have to reckon with the two hateful antagonists England and France’.

The new British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, who succeeded Stanley Baldwin in May 1937, pursued a policy of appeasement towards Germany. In November “1937 the new Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax visited Hitler. He admitted that certain changes in Eastern Europe, notably in Austria, Czechoslovakia and Danzig, could not probably be avoided in the long run. This green signal Hitler could hardly afford to ignore.

On March 12, 1938 Hitler invaded Austria and annexed it to the German Reich. Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement became manifest when he signed an agreement with Italy in April 1938. Italy promised to get out of Spain as soon as possible and to stop anti-British propaganda. Britain promised in return to work for general recognition of Italy’s conquest of Ethiopia. By this agreement Chamberlain expected to alienate Italy from Germany.

But no sooner was Italy appeased than Germany made further demands. Hitler demanded a further slice of Czechoslovakia-Sudetenland where more than three million Germans lived. In March 1938 France and Soviet Union pledged to assist the Czechs if they were attacked. But Chamberlain refused to give any assurance to maintain Czech independence against German aggression. For a few days the crisis was acute and war seemed imminent. Chamberlain made an appeal for peace.

On September 28, Chamberlain invoked the aid of Mussolini in proposing a four-power conference to settle the Sudeten question. On the following day, Chamberlain, Daladiar, Hitler and Mussolini met at Munich. The pact was signed on October 1, 1938. Sudeten province and the ‘Littfe Maginot Line’, the only effective defence of Czechoslovakia was handed over to Hitler. A separate agreement, signed by Hitler and Chamberlain, stipulated that any differences between their two countries in future would be settled by negotiation.

It was only six months after the Munich Pact, Hitler conquered the whole of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement was at as end. The Munich part convinced Stalin that Britain and France were now concerned to direct Germany’s expansion eastward and against Russia.

Since Russia controlled the balance of power in Europe, Stalin could afford to make terms with Germany. As Hitler had eyes on Poland, Stalin could expect large share of Polish territory in any partition of Poland. This would create a buffer between Soviet Union and Germany and encourage Hitler to direct his main attack against the West. Moreover, Hitler was deterred from any military action unless he was sure of the attitude of the Soviet Russia.

On August 23, 1939 Germany and the Soviet Union, acting through Foreign Ministers Ribbentrop and Molotov, signed a Non-Agression Pact for ten years’ duration. Each Power promised not to attack the other ‘either individually or jointly with others’. A secret protocol provided for a division of territory between the two powers. Germany was to have Finland, Estonia, Latvia, the eastern part of Poland and Rumanian province of Bessarabia. Now Hitler had nothing to fear on his eastern front.

Question 27. Briefly describe the course of the Russian Revolution.
Answer: The Course of the Russian Revolution : During the year 1917, two revolutions took place in Russia. The February revolution of 1917 led to the defeat of Czarism and a republic was established in its place. However, the October Revolution of 1917 established the dictatorship of the proletariat (i.e., the labouring class).

The February revolution of 1917 began with the bread riots on February 23. This was followed by a general industrial strike on February 25, in Petrograd. The entire Petrograd garrison and the police joined the revolution by February 27, and by the following day, Petrograd fell into the hands of the revolutionaries.

The February revolution was the spontaneous outbreak of a large number of workers and peasants. By February 27, two organizations came into existence, namely the Provisional Committee of the Duma and the Provisional Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ Deputies. The latter, which represented factory workers, social revolutionaries, Mensheviks and Bolsheviks, was to guide the revolution.

The Czarist ministers were arrested on February 28, 1917 and Commissars were appointed in their place by the Provisional Committee of the Duma. The mutiny of the troops occurred on March 1, 1917. Though the Czar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate on March 2, 1917, all the members of the royal family remained under house arrest, until they were shot dead on July 16, 1918. This brought the Czarism in Russia to an end. ‘

A provisional coalition Government came into existence by March 3, 1917, under the. premiership of Prince George Lvov. The Allied powers soon recognized the provisional Government; it was considered the ‘legal successor’ to the Czarist Government. However, an ever-increasing number of workers and soldiers came to recognize the Soviets of Workers’ and Soldiers. Thus a Dual Power was established by the revolution, namely the Provisional Government and the Government of the Soviets of Workers” and Soldiers’ Deputies. The latter was soon established in all cities, towns and districts. The first All -Russian Congress was announced by the end of March, 1917.

The brilliant leadership and the moving spirit of Lenin was responsible for the October Revolution in Russia. Under his leadership, the Bolsheviks criticized and exposed the shortcomings of the Provisional Government. A huge armed demonstration was held against the Provisional Government in Petrograd, on July 17, 1917. Prime Minister George Lvov was forced to resign. He was succeeded by Alexander Kerensky as the new Prime Minister.

However, Kerensky’s new coalition Government soon grew unpopular. At the same time, the masses became attracted towards the Bolsheviks, whom they regarded as the true champions of the revolution. The Bolsheviks. became the majority party in most of the Soviets by October 2. They formed the Military Revolutionary Committee under Leon Trotsky. Under this committee, the Red Guards were organized and commissars were procured to take charge of the Petrograd army units. Thus the complete allegiance of the Petrograd troops was secured.

On October 25, the Winter Palace, where the Provisional Government was in session under armed protection, was attacked by the Red Guards. All the ministers were arrested and killed. Since the October revolution was a deliberately planned coup d’etat by Lenin and the Bolshevik-controlled Petrograd Soviet, Lenin is rightly considered to be the Father of the Bolshevik Revolution. According to the Constitution.

Published and adopted on July 10, 1918, Russia was named as the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic. While the Constitution of 1918 guaranteed certain basic rights to the exploited people, it also imposed some basic obligations on them. In 1922, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic.

Question 28. Explain the main principles of Hitler’s foreign policy. How did Rome- Berlin Tokyo axis power come into being?
Answer:

Hitler’s Foreign Policy The methods by which the Nazis established their domination in the domestic sphere were also applied in the sphere of foreign policy. In foreign affairs Hitler, after coming to power in 1933, sought to implement four principles.

These were as follows :

(1) Rejection of compromise and the reliance on force, and to restore and increase the armed strength of Germany.
(2) Rejection of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles as the Germans called it a ‘dictated peace’.
(3) To build up a vast German Empire (Third Reich) to include all the Germans.
(4) Hitler also aimed at conquering Eastern Europe to provide the Germans Lebensraum (living space).

It is obvious that the implementation of such foreign policy objectives would involve aggressiveness. Formation of the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis wrecked the balance of power and prepared road to the Second World War.

Formation of Rome-Berlin Axis :

(1) Germany was diplomatically isolated in Europe by Anglo-French Powers. A.G.P. Taylor has remarked “Hitler was the 3rd Bismark of Germany”. Hitler planned to form a close alliance with the Fascists in Italy in order to break the isolation.
(2) Gemany and Italy were frustrated due to the Versailles Treaty of 1919.
(3) Gemany and Italy thought that they would encircle France from East and South-East.
(4) Ideologically, Nazism and Fascism were dictatorships. Thus, Germany and Italy both concluded Anti-Comintern pact in 1936 which later on came to be known as Rome-Berlin Axis.

Joining of Japan in the Axis – After the Manchurian invasion in 1931, Japan deserted the League of Nations and remained diplomatically isolated. Japan found that she would end her isolation by joining the axis. On the other hand, the Italo- German Government thought if Japan kept British and America busy in Asia, their plan of expansion in Europe would face less obstruction. Thus, Japan joined the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1937. Hence Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was formed. This Axis was one group which began the Second World War.

Question 29. What were the ideals of Nazism ? What are the differences between Nazism and Fascism?
Answer:
The ideals of Nazism were as follows :

(1) The state is above all. All powers should be with the state and it should have hold on all political, social and economic programmes.
(2) To end the parliamentary institutions.
(3) To have control over press, education, radio and to maintain its own powers.
(4) To crush all sorts of party formations and oppositions.
(5) To root out communism and liberalism.
(6) The right to private property was recognised only upto a limit which wasn’t harmful to the national interest.
(7) The Nazi party considered Germany superior to all other nations and wanted to have her influence all over the world. It was of the view “The stronger must rule and not fuse with the weaker and so sacrife its own greatness”.
(8) To turn out the Jews from Germany as they were a great loss of the economic hardship of the people of Germany.
(9) To denounce the degrading Treaty of Versailles.

(10) To increase the German military power and the expansion of the German empire.

Differences between Fascism and Nazism :

(1) Fascism of Italy did not hate any social group or section of their country while Nazis of Germany hated Jews. In Germany Jews were made victims of an organised campaign of humiliation and violence.

(2) Nazis exploited the misery of the people of Germany which had become wors- ened due to the reparations which Germany was made to pay to the Allied powers. In 1929 there occurred the most serious economic crisis which affected all the capitalist countries of the world. On the other hand, Fascists came into power before the Great Economic Depression.

(3) The victory of Nazism in Germany unlike of Fascism in Italy was neither the outcome of a popular uprising, nor the result of Sham March on Berlin such as Mussolini’s on Rome.

Question 30. What is meant by ‘Fascism’? How did Fascism become victorious in Italy?
Answer:

Meaning of Fascism : The word ‘Fascism’ has its root in the Italian word ‘Faisio’ which means ‘a bundle of Royal sticks’. These sticks were carried by the
Roman Emperors as a symbol of dictatorial authority. Thus Fascism means autoc- racy or dictatorship where all the powers of the State are held by one person alone.

Main features of the Fascist Movement : After the First World War, a powerful man of Italy, Benito Mussolini established his dictatorship in Italy. The political ideas which he gave to the country were known as the Fascist Movement.

The main features of the Fascist Movement were the following :

(1) It believed in the dictatorship of one man or one party. Once Mussolini remarked, “All parties must end, must fall”.
(2) Fascism preferred the State or Government to one man. It believed in the dictum. “the individual exists only for the society.”
(3) Glorification of the use of force and brutality, and ridicule of internationalism and peace.
(4) Hostility to democracy and socialism and establishment of dictatorship.
(5) Fascism believed and supported imperialism and expansionism.
(6) This body did not believe much in internationalism. It rather preached nationalism.

Victory of Fascism in Italy :

The Fascist movement rose in Italy after the  World War I under Mussolini. The Fascist party which Mussolini organised consisted of armed gangs supported by landlords and the industrialists. Hence, from the very first day, the Fascists were against the workers, the socialists and the communists. The Fascists launched a systematic campaign of terrorism against the working class while the Government of the day did very little to resist the armed gang fascists.

During the elections of 1921, the Fascist party under Mussolini got just 35 seats against 138 seats obtained by the socialists and the communists. Even with so small a following in the Legislature, Mussolini talked of seizing power and promising people to get all their war-times promises fulfilled once he had the power.

Encouraged by people’s response, Mussolini arranged a march on Rome in October 1922. Fearing the loss of throne, the King invited Mussolini to join the Government. Once, Mussolini.got the power, he suppressed all working class movements, banned all political parties except the Fascist party, introduced anti-democratic measures and followed colonial, imperialistic and expansionist policy towards the other countries.

Question 31. Bring out the similarities between the upsurge of Fascism and Nazism in Italy and Germany respectively.
Answer:

Fascist Movement : After the First World War a powerful man of Italy, Benito Mussolini established his dictatorship in Italy. The political ideas which he gave to the country are known as the Fascist Movement.

The main features of the Fascist Movement were the following :

(1) Fascism was the supporter of one party and one leader in the country.
(2) Fascism was the supporter of dictatorship rather than democracy.
(3) Fascism preferred the State to the man. According to this movement, the “individual exists only for the society”.
(4) Fascism laid stress on nationalism rather than on internationalism.
(5) Fascism was hostile to socialism and communism.
(6) Fascism was the supporter of an imperialist and aggressive foreign policy. According to the fascists, “Nations which do not expand, cannot survive for long”.

Nazi Movement : Soon after the conclusion of the First World War, the Nazi movement arose in Germany under the leadership of Adolf Hitler.

Following were the main features of this movement :

(1) Nazi philoshophy says, “People exist for the State rather the State for the people”.
(2) Nazi Movement was in favour of ending all types of Parliamentary and democratic institutions and glorified the rule by a great leader.
(3) This movement was in favour of completely rooting out liberalism, socialism and communism.
(4) This movement was in favour of increasing German military power.
(5) The Nazi Movement wanted German influence all over the world.
(6) It aimed at the expansion of the German empire and wanted to acquire all the colonies which she had been occupying before the First World War.

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas Introduction

A Peaceful Revolution to First World War (1914-1918): The eighteenth century saw a revolution that was different from most revolutions. When we talk of the revolutions in America and France, we use the word ‘revolution’ in the usual sense. Those revolutions brought about violent, drastic, and sudden changes through tumult and bloodshed. The Industrial Revolution was altogether different in character. There was nothing sudden or violent about it. The Industrial Revolution was a peaceful revolution that brought about a change in the system of production – the replacement of humans with mechanical labor. This meant greater production in lesser time.

Learn and Real all  WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

The Industrial Revolution first occurred in England and then spread to other countries. The newly industrialized countries required raw materials for the newly-established industries and also markets to sell the finished products. Thus, there was a scramble among the European powers to establish colonies. Aggressive imperialism of different European countries was one of the causes of the First World War which broke out in 1914.

Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas Very Short Answer Type :

Question 1. Give names of two scholars who were among the first to use the term ‘Industrial Revolution’.
Answer: Two scholars who were among the first to use the term ‘Industrial Revolution’ were Auguste Blanqui, a French economist and Arnold Toynbee, the great historian.

Question 2. Where did the Industrial Revolution first start?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution first started in England.

Question 3. What are the three ingredients necessary for Industrial Revolution?
Answer: The three main ingredients necessary for Industrial Revolution are
(1) Raw materials
(2) Capital and
(3) Labour.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 4. Define the term ‘Capitalism’.
Answer: Capitalism is an economic system in which the principal means of production, distribution and exchange are in private hands and are operated for profit.

Question 5. Name two European countries which established their colonies outside Europe.
Answer: Two European countries which established their colonies outside Europe are Germany and France.

Question 6. Which country is known as the ‘manufactory of the world’?
Answer: England is known as the ‘manufactory of the world’.

Question 7. Which country is known as ‘The Jewel in the crown of the British Empire’?
Answer: India is known as ‘The Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire’.

Question 8. Who invented the ‘Flying Shuttle’?
Answer: John Kay invented the Flying Shuttle.

Question 9. Who invented the Spinning Jenny?
Answer: James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny.

Question 10. Who was James Waitt?
Answer: James Watt was a Scottish inventor who redesigned the steam engine so that it produced more power and consumed less fuel.

Question 11. Where was the first modern railway line opened?
Answer: The first modern railway line was opened from Darlington to Stockton in England.

Question 12. When and where did railways first start in Germany?
Answer: Railways first started in 1835 in Bavaria in Germany.

Question 13. Name two cities of England which developed around industries.
Answer: Two cities which developed around industries are Liverpool and Manchester,

Question 14. Who gave leadership in ‘Luddite riot’?
Answer: General Ned Ludd gave leadership in the ‘Luddite riot’.

Question 15. Name the workers’ union formed under the leadership of Robert Owen.
Answer: The workers’ union formed under the leadership of Robert Owen is ‘Grand Consolidated National Union’.

Question 16. Who was Saint Simon?
Answer: Saint Simon (1760-1825) was a Utopian Socialist who advocated common ownership of all land and capital to be managed scientifically by the state.

Question 17. Name one Utopian socialist.
Answer: Charles Fourier was a Utopian socialist.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 18. Who is known as the founder of Scientific Socialism?
Answer: Karl Marx is known as the founder of Scientific Socialism.

Question 19. Who wrote ‘Communist Manifesto’?
Answer: ‘Communist Manifesto’ was written by Karl Marx and Frederich Engels.

Question 20. Who wrote Das Capital?
Answer: Das Capital was written by Karl Marx.

Question 21. Name two places of Africa where Portugal established her colonies.
Answer: Two places of Africa where Portugal established her colonies were Angola and Mozambique.

Question 22. When was the Entente Cordiale signed?
Answer: The Entente Cordiale was signed in 1904.

Question 23. Name the two opposite camps which developed in Europe before the outbreak of the First World War.
Answer: The two opposite camps which developed in Europe before the outbreak ofthe First World War were :
(1) the Triple Alliance and
(2) the Triple Entente.

Question 24. Name the main contending powers in the partition of China.
Answer: The main contending powers in the partition of China were Britain, France, Germany and Russia.

Question 25. What was the period of the First World War?
Answer: The period of the First World War was 1914-1918.

Question 26. Which country declared war on Serbia in 1914?
Answer: Austria declared war on Serbia in 1914.

Question 27. What is ‘Ghetto’? 
Answer: ‘Ghetto’ is an overcrowded urban slum where the poor factory workers’ families live in small, dark rooms in unhygienic condition.

Question 28. When was the Anglo-French Entente concluded?
Answer: In 1904 the Anglo-French Entente was concluded.

Question 29. When and among whom was the Triple Entente concluded?
Answer: In 1907 The Triple Entente was concluded among England, France and Russia.

Question 30. When did the World War I begin?
Answer: The World War I began on July 28, 1914.

Question 31. Name the most important Allied and Axis powers in the First World War.
Answer: Allied Powers — England, France, Italy, Russia, Japan, U.S.A., etc. Axis Powers Germany, Austria, Turkey, etc.

Question 32. When and with what object did Italy join the Allied powers?
Answer: Italy joined the Allies in 1915. Her object was to recover from Austria some of the provinces which formally belonged to her.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 33. What does the word ‘Revolution’ mean?
Answer: The word ‘Revolution’ means a change.

Question 34. When did the Industrial Revolution began in Britain?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the first half of the 17th century.

Question 35. What contribution did Industrial Revolution make to the Western nations?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution made the Western nations rich and powerful.

Question 36. Which Revolution gave birth to the factory system?
Answer: Industrial Revolution gave birth to the factory system.

Question 37. When did the real beginning of the Industrial Revolution start in Russia?
Answer: The real beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Russia dates from 1861 after the Emancipation statute of 1871 was passed.

Question 38. Which industry was most emphasised in the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: The most significant impact of the Industrial Revolution was on cotton textiles.

Question 39. What happened to cottage industries after the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: Due to the Industrial Revolution, cottage industries lost their importance.

Question 40. Until what time the manufacturing locations were domestic?
Answer: Until the first half of the 17th-century things were made by people in their homes.

Question 41. Why was Africa colonised?
Answer: Africa was colonised to gain control over its mines which are rich in gold, diamonds and rubies.

Question 42. Which were the only two independent countries in Africa in 1895?
Answer: In 1895 Ethiopia and Liberia were the only two independent countries in Africa.

Question 43. What happened to India after deindustrialisation?
Answer: After deindustrialisation, India was transformed from an exporter to an Unb Oils.

Question 44. Who gave leadership in ‘Luddite riot’?
Answer: General Ned Ludd gave leadership in the ‘Luddite riot’.

Question 45. Name two natural resources necessary for industrialisation.
Answer: Coal and iron are two natural resources necessary for industrialisation.

Question 46. In England which movements preceded Industrial Revolution?
Answer: In England Agricultural Revolution and Enclosure Movement preceded Industrial Revolution.

Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas 2 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. What do you know of the Entente Cordiale?
Answer: In 1904, the Entente Cordiale was signed between England and France. By it, a long series of standing disputes over such matter as Newfoundland fisheries, Siam, Madagascar, West Africa, and above all, Egypt were settled.

Question 2. What do you know of Triple Entente?
Answer: After the Entente cordiale with France, England made up all her differences with Russia and signed conventions with regard to non-competition in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. Thus was formed a new diplomatic group known as the Triple Entente (1907). It was not an alliance, still, it was a potent force and with which the Triple Alliance had to reckon.

Question 3. What do you know of the policy of Russification?
Answer: The policy of Russification was systematically followed by the Czar Alexander III of Russia. In other words, Czar Alexander III wanted to introduce uniform conditions by taking away the privileges that had been enjoyed by the non-Russian people in the Empire.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 4. When did the Russo-Japanese war take place? What were its results?
Answer: The Russo-Japanese War took place in 1904-1905. Russia was defeated and she accepted the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth which was concluded through the mediation of President Roosevelt of America.

Question 5. What was the main cause of the Russo-Japanese War?
Answer: The main cause of the Russo-Japanese War was the quarrel between Russia and Japan over Korea.

Question 6. What do you know of Agadir Incident?
Answer: In 1911 France sent an army to Fez, the capital of Morocco. ThereuponGermany sent a gunboat, the Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir to exert her right in that area. At a result of this, a highly critical situation developed between France and Germany. At last the situation was calmed by the intervention of England.

Question 7. When was the Archduke of Austria murdered? What was the significance of the murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand?
Answer: Francis Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, was murdered in the Bosnian Capital of Serajevo on June 28, 1914. This was the spark which set all Europe ablaze and the World War I began.

Question 8. What do you mean by Division of Labour?
Answer: In Division of Labour, the production process is divided into several parts and each part was to be produced separately. Division of labour helps in the specialisation of a particular process but the labourer becomes ignorant of the total system of production.

Question 9. What conditions are necessary for industrialisation?
Answer:
The following conditions are necessary for industrialisation :
(1) Natural resources likes coal and iron
(2) Sufficient capital
(3) Plenty of raw materials
(4) Cheap labour
(5) Markets for finished goods
(6) Political stability.

Question 10. What are the main features of Industrial Revolution?
Answer:
The main features of Industrial Revolution are :
(1) Mechanisation of industry and use of modern technology for production
(2) Production of goods by machines and factories instead of individual labour and cottage industries
(3) Investment of huge amount of capital
(4) Marketing the finished goods on a large scale for profit.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 11. Which were the main locations of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:
The main locations of the Industrial Revolution were :
England, Belgium, France Germany, Italy, Russia, the U.S.A, Japan and China.

Question 12. How did the Industrial Revolution lead to the growth of new cities?
Answer: Before the Industrial Revolution the people lived primarily in villages. Agriculture was main occupation of the people. After Industrial Revolution there was a migration which displaced agricultural labourers to industrial areas on a large scale, who sought and found employment in the industries. Towns gradually developed around these industrial centres.

Question 13. Name two scientific inventions which helped in Industrial Revolution in England.
Answer:
Two scientific inventions which helped in Industrial Revolution in England are :
(1) Steam engine invented by James Watt, and
(2) Safety Lamp invented by Humphry Davy.

Question 14. What do you mean by ‘Luddite riot’?
Answer: ‘Luddite riot’ was a protest movement of the workers led by General Ned Ludd in England.

The rioters demanded :
(1) A minimum wage
(2) Control over labour for women and children
(3) Work for those who had lost their job because of the coming of machinery and
(4) Right to form trade unions so that they could present their demands legally and officially.

Question 15. Who are called ‘Utopian Socialists’?
Answer: In the 19th-century socialist thought made great advancement due to the birth of industrial population. The pre-Marxist socialists and thinkers are called early socialists or ‘Utopian Socialists’.

Question 16. What is Paris Commune?
Answer: In 1871, the revolutionary workers of Paris established an organisation known as Paris Commune and defied the central government and captured power. On 18 March this Commune exercised administrative power in Paris for almost two months.

Question 17. What is ‘Bloody May Week’?
Answer: In 1871 when the revolutionary workers of Paris established the Paris Commune in order to take over the administration of Paris in their own hands, the soldiers of the French Government fired indiscriminately on the revolutionary workers. There was desperate fighting for a week (22 May-29 May). About 17,000 persons were killed. Historians refer to this week as ‘Bloody May Week’.

Question 18. What do you understand by the term ‘imperialism’?
Answer: The term ‘imperialism’ means the practice of extending the control, power or rule by a country over the economic and political life of the people of areas outside its own boundaries. This may be done by direct rule over the country, or indirect control of the people or through settlements. The essential feature of imperialism is exploitation. The imperialist power subordinates the colony of the country which it controls indirectly to serve its own economic and political interests.

Question 19. In the 19th century what changes took place in the nature of the trade relations between England and India?
Answer: In the 18th century, English merchants used to purchase Indian goods and earn profits by selling them in England and other European countries. In the 19th century, changes took place in the nature of trade between England and India. During this period, Britain did not import goods from India. On the other hand, the Indian market was flooded with British goods and India who had so long been a manufacturer and exporter of finished goods became an exporter of agricultural products like indigo, cotton, jute and wheat.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 20. What were the wars through which the English established their control over Mysore?
Answer:
The wars through which the English established their control over Mysore were :
(1) First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)
(2) Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)
(3) Third Anglo—Mysore War (1790-92) and
(4) Fourth Anglo—Mysore War(1799)

Question 21. What were the wars through which the English established their supremacy over the Marathas?
Answer:
The wars through which the English established their supremacy over the Marathas were :
(1) First Anglo-Maratha War (1785-82)
(2) Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) and
(3) Third Anglo-Maratha War (1818).

Question 22. What were the battles through which the English had established their supremacy in Bengal?
Answer:
The battles through which the English established their supremacy over Bengal are :
(1) The Battle of Plassey (1757) and
(2) The Battle of Buxar (1764).

Question 23. What is ‘drain of wealth’?
Answer: The drain of wealth from India which started during the period following the Battle of Plassey in 1757 is an important feature of British imperialism. From the 18th century up to the middle of the 19th century, English East India Company and its servants collected a huge amount of wealth from India and sent the entire amount to England. This flow of wealth from India to England is known as the drain of wealth.

Historians have observed that wealth was transferred from India to England In five ways These were :
(1) Presents
(2) Collusive contracts
(3) Private trade
(4) Free merchants and
(5) Investment.

Question 24. Name the books which contain the political ideals of Karl Marx.
Answer:
The books which contain political ideals of Karl Marx are:
(1) Communist Manifesto
(2) Das Capital
(3) Critique of Political Economy
(4) Philosophy of Poverty.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 25. Which is the First International Working Men’s Union? When was it established and under whose leadership?
Answer: The First International Working Men‘s Union is the Communist League. It was established in 1847 under the leadership of Karl Marx.

Question 26. What was Zollverein?
Answer: The first stage in the unification of Germany was the creation of Zollverein or the customs union of the German kingdoms. The main terms of entry into the Zollverein were complete free trade between state and uniform tariff on all frontiers.

Question 27. Where and why was the Zollverein formed?
Answer: Zollverein was an organisation in Germany through which the distracted German people experienced a sort of commercial cooperation amongst themselves.

Question 28. Name the countries that rushed to establish colonies in Africa.
Answer: The countries that rushed to establish colonies in Africa were Great Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, Italy and Spain.

Question 29. What do you understand by ‘Scramble for Africa’?
Answer: During the 1800s, France, Britain, Italy, Spain, Germany and Belgium competed with each other to establish a foothold in Africa as Africa was rich in natural resources. They thought that they required to do this to maintain their lifestyle and to develop their homelands. This rush among the various European powers to establish colonies in Africa is known as ‘Scramble for Africa’,

Question 30. In which year and between whom was the Treaty of Nanking signed?
Answer: The Treaty of Nanking was signed in 1842 between Britain and China.

Question 31. What were the terms of the treaty of Nanking?
Answer:
The terms of the treaty were :
(1) Opium trade was legalised
(2) Five ports including Canton was opened to foreign trade
(3) Japan ceded Hong Kong to the British
(4) It was proclaimed that the British subjects would no longer be subject to Chinese law, and (5) China paid heavy war indemnity to England.

Question 32. In which year and between whom was the Treaty of Tientsin signed?
Answer: The Treaty of Tientsin was signed in 1858 between England, France and China.

Question 33. What were the terms of the treaty?
Answer:
The terms of the Treaty were :
(1) Ten more ports were opened to the British and French merchants
(2) China was forced to set up a foreign mission in Beijing,
(3) China had to pay heavy war indemnity, (4) China admitted that foreign residents in China would be under the laws of their respective countries and not the laws of China.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 34, What was the ‘March of the Blanketeers’?
Answer: Thousands of workers started a march in 1819 from Manchester towards the Parliament House in London in order to put forward their long standing demands for improvement of their working conditions. The workers carried with them their blankets on their shoulders for sleeping at night. This was known as the ‘March of the Blanketeers’,

Question 35. Name the countries which fought the First Balkan War. Name the treaty which brought an end to the war.
Answer: The First Balkan war was fought in 1912 between Turkey and the member countries of the Balkan League (Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria). The First Balkan War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of London (1913).

Question 36. Between whom was the Second Balkan War fought? Name the treaty which put an end to the war.
Answer: In 1913 the Second Balkan War was fought between Serbia and Bulgaria. Greece and Romania joined Serbia. The Second Balkan War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Bucharest (1913).

Question 37. What is Neo-colonialism?
Answer: Neo-Colonialism means that western European countries and the U.S.A., even after decolonisation, exerted a great deal of control over the new states, which continued to need the markets and the investment that the West could provide.

Question 38. What was Hobson’s view about imperialism?
Answer: Hobson, an economic historian, theorised that capitalism led to imperialism which ultimately led to the First World War. According to him, the industrialists of Britain, France and Germany accumulated excessive amount of capital. These industrial capitalists forced their respective Governments to establish colonies in order to have abundant supply of raw materials and to invest the surplus capital in the colonies. Capitalist governments of different countries entered into competition with each other in order to establish monopoly right on colonies which ultimately led to war.

Question 39. In which year was the Triple Alliance formed? Who were the members of the Triple Alliance?
Answer: The Triple Alliance was formed in the year 1882. The members of the Triple Alliance were Germany, Austria and Italy.

Question 40. In which year was the Triple Entente formed? Who were the members of the Triple Entente?
Answer: The Triple Entente was formed in the year 1907. The members of the Triple Entente were England, France and Russia.

Question 41. When did World War I break out? What was the ‘Serajevo incident’?
Answer: World War I broke out on 28 July 1914. On June 28, 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand, nephew of emperor Joseph of Austria and heir to the throne of Austria, was assassinated along with his wife Sofia in Serajevo, the capital of Bosnia, by Narvilo Princep, a member of ‘Black Hand’ terrorist organisation. This incident is known as ‘Serajevo incident’.

Question 42. Through which military campaign did Mussolini try to fulfil his imperial ambition?
Answer: The Fascist Government under Mussolini became hungry for colony and Mussolini tried to fulfil his imperial ambition through his military campaign in the East African country of Ethiopia (Abyssinia). In 1935 he attacked Ethiopia to exploit its raw materials and materials for industrial development. Ethiopia was formally annexed in 1936.

Question 43. When did the Industrial Revolution take place?
Answer: There is no agreed opinion as regards the starting-point of the Industrial Revolution. Toynbee, for example, took the starting point as 1760 when there was the Industial Revolution in England. Professor Nef, an American historian, on the other hand, is not in favour of fixing any time or particular year for the Industrial Revolution.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 44. How did England become the workshop of the world?
Answer: Industrial Revolution first made its appearance in England. Big mills and factories were established where necessary goods of daily use were produced for the markets. By the nineteenth century England became, as it were, the ‘workshop of the world’.

Question 45. How did Industrial Revolution take place in Belgium?
Answer: No European country even attempted to follow in England’s footsteps till the end of the Napoleonic era. Almost immediately after, Belgium undertook a movement of industrialization with the indirect help of England. However, it was not before 1830 that the movement gained momentum. Thereafter it speeded up so sharply that by 1870 Belgium became the most industrialized nation.

Question 46. What was Napoleon’s contribution to the Industrial Revolution in France?
Answer: Napoleon made a determined effort to build up industry in France. His industrial efforts included foundation of technical schools, advancing government loans to the manufacturers, etc. It may be said that the support and encouragement that Napoleon had given, however, served the basis on which the edifice of French industrialization was built at a later date. Bank of France established by Napoleon also helped the process of industrialization by a liberal credit policy.

Question 47. When did Industrial Revolution start in Germany?
Answer: As Germany remained divided into a number of small states, it is very difficult to fix the precise date when industrial revolution began there. The real beginning of industrial revolution in Germany began only after she attained her unity in 1870. Despite her uneven growth due to political reason, a unified Germany far outdistanced France after 1870.

Question 48. What do you meen by Ghetto?
Answer:
Ghetto :
A Ghetto is a part of a city in which members of minority group live, especially because of social, legal or economic pressure. As a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, towns sprang up like mushrooms around the factories. The workers and their families were herded in cheap tenements, constituting a slum very much akin to the ghettos.

Question 49. How were railways established in Belgium?
Answer: Shortly after the introduction of railways in England the Belgian Parliament adopted a plan for construction of railways. The plan was drawn up by an English engineer, George Stephenson. Moreover, the project was implemented with capital made available by England as a loan.

Question 50. What was the most important feature of industrialisation in Russia?
Answer: Most important feature of industrialization in Russia was that the industries were mostly established with the aid of foreign capital. According to one estimate, by 1914 some 2000 millions of rubles (Russian currency) of foreign capital had been invested in Russia.

Question 51. How was the beginning of the Factory system?
Answer:
Factory System :
The introduction of intricate machinery made the factory system possible. The old method of small production in the home with one’s own tools could not meet the competition of machine production. The cost of machinery was prohibitive to individual workers. Hence was the beginning of the factory system.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 52. What were the classes which Industrial Revotion gave rise to?
Answer: Industrial Revolution gave rise to two classes, namely Industrial bourgeoisie and Industrial proletariat. The industrial bourgeoisie (middle class) amassed enormous capital and funds from profiteering and exploitation. The position of the industrial proletariat (working class), on the other hand, was one of extreme hardship.

Question 53. What was the role of women in Industrial Revolution?
Answer: One of the socio economic consequences of the Industrial Revolution was the growing employment of the women of the countryside. The adoption of the power loom in the cloth mills led to a change in the labour force. From the very beginning, the mill owners depended on tall, single women from the countryside as labourers. In fact, women remained a key labour force for the growing cotton mills.

Question 54. What were the colonies of France outside Europe? °
Answer: France, besides countinuing to hold a few trading posts on the Indian coast, built up a colonial empire in Indo-China (Cambodia, Loas and Vietnam). In 1899 France leased Kwangchow from China and obtained a privileged position in some Chinese provinces. According to Carlton N. H. Hayes, by 1914 France ruled over more than twenty million Asians.

Question 55. Which inventions marked the beginning of the railways?
Answer: About 1801 Richard Trevithick made a seccessful experiment to move the wheels of a wagon along iron rails. Later, in 1825 George Stephenson built a steamlocomotive able to pull heavy loads along a track. Stephenson’s locomotive, the Rocket made its first trip form Liverpool to Manchester in 1829. This was the beginning of the railways.

Question 56. What was the Schlieffen Plan?
Answer:
Schlieffen Plan :
At the start of the war, the German armies operated according to the Schlieffen Plan. The Plan intended to ensure a German victory over Franco-Russian alliance by holding up any Russian advance westwards.

Question 57. How did the factory system originate?
Answer: The effects of the scientific discoveries and inventions which happened after the French Revolution were revolutionary in character. They changed the entire face of England, both rural and urban. The ordinary workman could no longer live in a poverty cottage and weave cloth on his own loom. Now that machines were set up, he had to go where the machines were working and find a job. There hundreds and even thousands of people worked under the same roof. They assembled together under a factory shed and worked with tools and machineries supplied by the factory owner. This gave rise to the factory system.

Question 58. What were the inventions of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: In 1733, John Kaye invented a new machine, known as the Flying Shuttle which brought about a complete change in the weaving system. In 1764 another important invention was the Spinning Jenny made by James Hargreaves. Some years later, Richard Arkwright brought further improvement in the method of spinning by introducing rollers worked with water power (1769). Ten years later, Samuel Crompton invented another machine by combining the devices of Hargreaves and Arkwright, called the mule. In 1781 James Watt successfully devised the system of using steam power to work the machines.

Class 9 History West Bengal Board

Question 59. Mention two effects.
Answer:
The effects of industrialisation on transport were:
(1) For rapid and safe transport of raw materials and manufactured goods from centres of production to consumption centres mechanised roads, i.e., pucca roads were constructed.
(2)Canals were dug primarily for cheap and easy shipment of coal from mines to
industries.

Question 60. How did the Industrial Revolution lead to colonial expansion?
Answer: As a result of the Industrial Revolution, huge quantities of finished goods were produced within a short time, which was more than what was necessary for the domestic markets of the European countries. This ultimately led to the rise of colonial expansionism in the undeveloped countries of the world. The industrialised countries like Britain, France and Germany sought new markets by capturing colonies where they could sell their finished goods. So they began to extend their colonial empire in industrially backward countries of Asia like India, China, Burma, Ceylon, Egypt and Congo.

Question 61. What was the effect of Industrial Revolution on the communication system?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution had a great impact on the communication system. The means of communication improved greatly. Samuel Morse (1791-1872) invented telegraph to send messages. The Trans-Atlantic underseas cable connecting the United States with Europe continent was laid by Cyrus W. Field in 1866. Graham Bell invented the Telephone system in 1876. Marconi was the first to demonstrate
the utility of the wireless in saving life at sea

Question 62. Mention two seasons why industrialisation started late in Germany.
Answer:
The reasons were:
(1) Germany was divided into numerous states which were often at war with each other. This political disunity slackened the growth of industrialisation in Germany.
(2) As the population in Germany did not increase tremendously, there was scarcity of cheap labour.

Question 63. Mention two of the impacts of Industrial Revolution on different classes of women in society.
Answer: The Industrial Revolution had varied impact on different classes of women in society

(1) It made life of the women of upper and middle-class families more comfortable. These women had more time for leisure, entertainment, pursuit of intellectual activities, such as reading and writing of novels.

(2) Women from low-income families who were actively involved in domestic work and farms earlier sought employment in factories. They were employed by factory owners in large numbers and were mercilessly exploited. They worked for long hours and were paid very meagre wages.

Question 64. What is Dreikaiserbund?
Answer: Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany, was eager to have friendly relations with different countries. He had good relations with Austria but the problem was that the relations between Austria and Russia generally remained strained over to the Eastern Question. Therefore, Bismarck concluded a friendly alliance with Russia and Austria. His chief aim was not only to secure the friendship of Russia but also to improve the relations between Austria and Russia. This alliance of three emperors of Germany, Austria and Russia is known as Dreikaiserbund. It was neither a definite treaty nor an alliance. It was only a compromise among the three emperors. It is also known as ‘Three Emperor’s League’ (1873).

Question 65. What is Open Door Policy (1899)?
Answer: In the Sino-Japanese War (1894) China was defeated by Japan which inaugurated the process of dismemberment of China. Countries like Russia, Britain, France and Germany were the main contenders for the partition of China. Russia occupied North China and obtained permission to build a railway line. Germany landed an army in China and took possession of some important territories. France acquired Kwangchow. Britain got Hong Kong and some concessions. Thus the economically important areas of China passed into foreign hands. At this juncture, Sir John Hay, the US Secretary of State, issued the famous Open Door Policy (1899), according to which no Chinese port was to be considered an exclusive property of any particular foreign power.

Question 66. Mention two steps taken by Bismarck to industrialise Germany.
Answer: Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany, took different steps to industrialise Germany.

These were :
(1) Reorganised the banking system in order to remove the scarcity of capital in Germany.
(2) He introduced federal currency called Reichmark, a standard tariff for internal trade and standard weights and measures which helped a lot in industrialisation.

Question 67. Mention two main constraints to industrialisation in Germany.
Answer: Industrialisation started rather late in Germany. This was due to many obstacles which Germany faced.

These obstacles were:

(1) Germany was divided into 39 states dominated by foreign powers. Each state followed its own tariff of export and import policies.
(2) Napoleonic wars had devastated Germany economically. Proper banking system did not develop. As a result, there was scarcity of capital necessary for industrialisation.

Question 68. Who was Robert Owen?
Answer: Robert Owen was a Socialist thinker. He upheld the view that the capitalists should share a portion of their profit with their employees. He introduced a new doctrine known as ‘New Harmony.’ He believed that if the workers are satisfied and reasonably rewarded, they would work for the improvement of production in factories. He rejected any competition between employer and worker. He himself was a factory owner. He introduced many benefits for his workers.

Question 69. What was Entente Cordiale (1904) ?
Answer: After concluding the Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1902, Britain turned towards France, the enemy of Germany. France also wanted Britain as her ally so that she could concentrate against Germany. In 1904 Britain and France reached a series of agreements. These agreements settled their old colonial disputes in Siam, Madagascar and West Africa, New Hebrides and fighting rights in Newfoundland. Moreover, France recognised Egypt and Sudan as British spheres of influence. Britain recognised Morocco as French sphere of influence. It was also decided that both England and France would recognise their spheres of influence. This Entente Cordiale (friendly agreement) was signed in 1904.

Question 70. What was Lenin’s view about colonialism?
Answer: Lenin in his pamphlet ‘Imperialism, the highest stage of capitalism pointed out that in a capitalist economy the government has no control over surplus production of goods. The industrial owners believe that they will earn more profits if they produce more. When the market is full of goods there is no further demand for goods in the home market. In that case, the industrial owners force the government to capture new. colonies where they could get monopoly market in order to sell surplus goods and also get cheap raw materials. The competition for the capture of colonies ultimately leads to imperialism.

Question 71. What were the differences between early socialists and Karl Marx?
Answer:
Difference Between Early Socialists and Marx :

Socialism propounded by Marx and that of the early socialists differed in two ways.

(1) The early socialists believed in gradual and peaceful development to establish an ideal condition for the workers. But Karl Marx forecasted that a violent uprising would enable the workers to capture the political power that would be used to secure their own welfare.

(2) The early socialists were in favour of working within the framework of the capitalistic system for the development of the condition of the workers. But Marx opined that there will certainly occur the destruction of the capitalistic system. Marx considered the industrial workers as the force of change that would destroy capitalism and establish socialism. He also believed that the key to this was the change through class conflict or struggle between two opposing economic orders bourgeoisie and proleteriat.

Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas 4 Marks Questions And Answers

Question 1. Why did Industrial Revolution first start in Britain?
Answer:
Industrial Revolution first started in Britain due to the following reasons:

(1)Unlike other European countries such as France, Britain was politically stable with England, Wales and Scotland unified under a monarchy.
(2) Britain’s unrivalled power in overseas trade enabled accumulation of vast profits, which provided necessary capital for investment
(3) In England Agricultural Revolution and Enclosure Movement preceded Industrial Revolution. The landless farmers -who migrated to
towns in large numbers provided cheap, abundant wage labour to work in factories.
(4) A single currency, common laws, a market not fragmented by local taxes, use of money as medium of exchange, all worked to Britain’s advantage.
(5) Huge colonies in different parts of the world supplied raw materials for the industries and were ready markets for finished goods.
(6) Emergence of London as a centre of global trade.
(7) Good network of navigable rivers and indented coastline enabled good and cheap mode of water transport.
(8) Natural resources like coal and iron were available in plenty and technological inventions largely helped industrialisation.

Question 2. How was the life of the workers after the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: Evidence of British factory records reveals that the workers had miserablelives after the Industrial Revolution. The living conditions of the workers were far from satisfactory.
(1) The wages they were paid were extremely low.
(2) Their houses were in terrible slums and were dirty.
(3) The hours of their work were unlimited.
(4) They had to live in small rooms.
(5) Women and child labourers werein humanly treated. They were subjected to long monotonous hours of work in un healthy environment under strict discipline and cruel forms of punishment.
(6) The conditions in the mines were even worse. In the narrow passages children pushed coal trucks along with the adults. They were paid meagre salaries.
(7) The crowded towns and damp factories were disastrous for the workers. This ruined their health. Several labourers were injured in the factories during working hours and these injured workers were removed from their jobs and no compensation was paid to them.

Question 3. What were the effects of railways in different countries of the world?
Answer: The effect of the introduction of railways in different countries of the world varied greatly.

(1) The effect of the railways was positive in imperialist countries, e.g. Britain. The railways not only revolutionised transport system, but it also spearheaded the industrial revolution in imperialist countries like Britain, France, Portugal and Spain.

(2) Railways provided better, cheaper, faster and easy means of transport, unified different areas and had great impact-on industries.

(3) Railways boosted activity in construction and public works department, provided employment, and accelerated trade and commerce.

(4) On the other hand, railways in countries like India resulted in further colonisation and underdevelopment of the economy.

(5) As a result of the introduction of railways, the colonisers were able to fully tap the untapped resources of the colonised country for raw materials and then send finished goods to the remote parts of the country.

Question 4. Write briefly about the causes of decline of the indigeneous industries during company’s rule. Mention its effect on cotton industry.
Answer:
Causes – (1) Fall of Native kingdoms:

The native rulers were patron of handicraft and cottage products. They purchased clothes, perfumes, etc. for their family and weapons for their army. In the words of Gadgil, “The disappearance of the courts and the establishment of alien rule contributed mainly to the decay of Indian handicrafts.”

(2) Industrial Revolution:

After the industrial revolution in England, the hand made goods couldn’t compete with the machine made goods of Europe and the Indian markets were flooded with an unequal competition.

(3) Preference of rich people :

The rich people usually liked to wear foreign expensive cloths and used foreign goods. Thus the market for cottage products diminished.

(4) Exploitation of weavers and artisans:

The weavers and artisans were forced to purchase raw cotton at a very high rate and sell their finished products at very less rate to the British officers. As a result thousands of weavers fled away from the villages.

(5) Tax Burden:

According to R.C. Dutta, the vital cause of the decline of Indian cottage industries was the imposition of 10% duty on Indian clothes’ export and 2% duty on import of British clothes. As a result, Indian goods lost market in European market. Thus, Indian cottage industry was ruined due to step motherly attitude of EastIndia Commany. Acc. to Dadabhai Naoroji, “India was forced to be a land of poor people”. Cotton industry with an unequal competition ruined. As a result thousands of weavers and artisans were thrown out employment with machine made cheap products and were ruined.

Question 5. Make a list of Industrial Revolution : Inventors and Inventions.
Answer:

Inventor	Invention	Year
John Kay	Flying Shuttle	1733
James Hargreaves	Spinning Jenny	1765
Richard Arkwright	Spinning Frame	1769
James Watt	Steam Engine	1775
Samuel Crompton	Spinning Mule	1779
Edmund Cartwright	Power loom	1785
John Fitch	Steam boat	1786
Eli Whitney	Cotton Gin	1793
Humphry Davy	First Electric Light	1809
Samuel E.B. Morse	Telegraph	1836
Elias Howe	Sewing machine	1851
Alexander Graham Bell	Telephone	1876
Thomas Edison	Phonograph	1877
Rendolf Diesel	Diesel Engine	1892

Question 6. Why did industrialisation start late in France than England?
Answer:
While England was having rapid industrialisation, France was lagging behind due to the following reasons:
(1) France was torn by revolution during the period 1789-1848; Socio-economic and political disorder was a major obstacle to industrialisation in France.

(2) Another hindrance to industrialisation was the non- availability of coal. Industrialisation made steady progress in mid-eighteenth century when the coalfiels were tapped.

(3) Another cause of late industrialisation was that France suffered from transport crisis. Raw materials could not be easily brought to
the industrial towns for Iack of transport, nor manufactured goods could be sent to the market.

(4) Moreover, the people of France had a medieval outlook. They had contempt for persons who earned money by their own labours, landholding and taking part in administration were regarded as virtues. This medieval outlook of life was a hindrance to industrial growth.

(5) The industrialists of France were not encouraged by the rulers of France. Lack ofcapital, scarcity of coal, undeveloped banking system slackened the process of industrialisation in France.

Question 7. Give an account of the Chartist Movement in England.
Answer: The Chartist Movement is an important chapter in the history of working class movement in England. The London Working Men’‘s Association was founded in 1836 by William Novett This organisation presented a large petition to the British Parliament which was known as ‘People’s Charter’.

It said :
(1) Members of Parliament must be annually elected.
(2) There must be equal voting rights.
(3) Electoral areas must have equal population figure.
(4) Voting right based on qualification should be ballot.
(5) Elected members of Parliament must be granted some allowances.

The association threatened the Government that if the demands made in the Charter are rejected, they will call general strike all over the country and paralyse the Government. The Government tried to pacify the workers by passing a series of welfare acts in 1838. The Chartist movement left its influence and served as an inspiration to later workers, movements.

Question 8. What is ‘Peterloo Massacre’?
Answer: Inthe early period of Industrial Revolution the condition of the workers in factories was miserable. The workers’ organisations in England resorted to strikes and other forms of violence to improve their material condition. The Tory Government passed prohibitory acts against working class meetings and denied them the right of Habeus Corpus. The workers could not be suppressed. Thousands of workers started a march from Manchester towards the Parliament House in London in 1819 in order to put forward their demands; they carried blankets on their shoulders for sleeping at night. This was ridiculed by Tory newspaper as ‘March of the Blanketeers’. The army fired on these unarmed workers and killed eleven of them at St. Peters. Thousands of them were wounded. The press of London condemned this massacre and ridiculed it as ‘Peterloo massacre’, a name invented to rhyme with Waterloo. The Government under pressure changed its attitude and withdrew the Combination Act and Anti-Trade Union Act.

Question 9. Write a note on Berlin Congress (1878).
Answer: The Eastern Question was not solved by the Crimean War (1854-56) and the Peace of Paris. During the nationalist movement in Bulgaria, the Turkish army killed many Bulgarians. Russia defeated Turkey and imposed the Treaty of San Stephano| (1877) on Turkey. England and other European powers opposed this Treaty of San Stephano. In the international conference convened at Berlin in 1878 known as Berlin Congress, Bismarck acted as President. The terms of the Treaty of San Stephano were altered and a new pact, Berlin Treaty (1878) was signed.

According to it :
(1) Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania were declared free.
(2) Russia was given Bessarabia. She also got the provinces of Batum, Kars and Armenia.
(3) England got the island of Cyprus. England assured the safety of the Turkish empire.
(4) The Sultan of Turkey promised to grant full religious freedom. (5) Serbia was to enjoy semi-independent status under nominal Turkish suzerainty.
(6) Moldavia and Wallachia were also to enjoy autonomy under nominal Turkish rule.

Question 10. What do you mean by ‘Cutting of the Chinese Melon’?
Answer: In the mid-nineteenth century different European powers like Britain, France, Russia made attempts to penetrate into the Chinese empire. After 1860 the ambition of the European powers continued to grow. They now wanted more territories. In 1873 Russia, England and France obtained bases of territories or spheres of influence in China. Japan too followed their example and made war on China (1894-95) in.

Which China was defeated. The weakness of China stood more distinct than ever after her defeat at the hands of littlke known Japan. This encouraged the western powers to make fresh bids for territorial gains in China. But it was soon found that the gains obtained by one power at China’s expense, made other powers jealous. In other words, many powers wanted to cut China into slices, as if it were a melon. European powers like Britain, Russia, Germany and France were the main contenders for the partition of China.

Question 11. How were the ‘Triple Alliance’ and ‘Triple Entente’ formed?
Answer: Before War World I .two opposite alliances developed due to Bismarck’s diplomacy. These two opposite alliances were-Triple Alliance and Triple Entente.

Triple Alliance (1882) :

In 1879 Germany entered into an alliance with Austria.Hungary. In 1882 Italy joined the Austria-German alliance. As a result, the alliance
came to be known as the Triple Alliance.

Triple Entente (1907) :

German foreign policy changed after Bismarck’s death. Germany ignored Russia, and so, Russia began to lean towards France. Meanwhile, England tried to enter into an alliance with Germany but failed. So, in 1904, England made an alliance with France. At last with the signing of the Anglo—Russian convention, the Triple Entente came into existence in 1907.

Question 12. To waht extent did imperialist rivalry lead to the outbreak of the First World War?
Answer: The growth of economy and expansion trade gave birth to the idea of imperalism. It is a policy by which a country dominates over other country and her people. Hobson, an English economic historian, expounded the theory that capitalism led to Imperalism which further led to the great war. V.I. Lenin pointed out that in a capitalist economy, there is no control of Govermment surplus-production of goods.

The capitalist forced their government to capture new coloniés where they could get monopoly market for their surplus goods. The competition for capture of colonies led to imperalism which led to First World War.According to the above thinkers, Britiain and France had captured vast colonies in India, China, Srilanka, Indochina and also in Africa. Germany wanted to capture some colonies which gave rise to confilict between old colonial power like Britiain and France and newly emerging powers like Germany. The competition among colonial powers for colonies prepared road to world war |.

Question 13. Write a short note on the revolution in industrial technology.
Answer:
Revolution in Industrial Technology :

The Industrial Revolution ushered in immense changes in the industrial technology which is called a revolution. In manufacturing industry the most technologically changed industry were the textile industries. In textiles it was the cotton industry that had been revolutionized by the early years of the nineteenth century. In iron industry the traditional charcoal-fired furnaces was completely displaced. Fundamental difference in the new industrial order was the development of a cheap, portable source of power. James Watt’s invention of steam power made the steam engine the prime mover for all kinds of machinery. In building industry too there were important changes in techniques. The use of timber was replaced by greater use of stone.

Question 14. How did Industrial Revolution lead to the rise of new cities in England ?
Answer:
Rise of New Cities :
Varied were the changes in the life of the people, particularly the working people caused by the Industrial Revolution. No longer did the workers labour outdoors as farmers. The majority of the people worked in factories and they generally lived in large, crowded cities. England was the first industrial power. At the same time, this was the country in which the urban population was pretty much more than the rural population. In course of industrialization, London apart other big industrial towns such as Birmingham, Manchester, Newcastle, etc. grew up in England.

These cities had very large populations even by the measures of those times. Workers, however, did not move from farms to cities overnight. This was a gradual process. In cities living was not attractive. Most| workers lived in small, one-family houses. Houses were built side to side and back to back so that there were no windows except in the front of each house. The housing was filthy, unsanitary and airless. This kind of new cities in England were buitlt up due to the Industrial Revolution.

Question 15. How did the Industrial Revolution lead to the development of a bourgeoisie-capitalistic political system in England?
Answer:
Development of a Bourgeoisie-Capitalist Political System :

Capitalism developed along with the changes of the Industrial Revolution. The term bourgeoisie denotes the social class whose concern was the preservation of capital and to ensure the continuity of their economic supremacy. In a capitalist system profit is the primary motive. Profit is the difference between expenses and income. Capital will accumulate with the increase in profit. For example, capitalists expect the expenses to be less than the income. The part of the profit could be reinvested to make further profit. The profit motive was certainly the greatest encouragement for rapid development of manufacturing industries and businesses of many kinds. The rapid development of capitalism in the nineteenth century helped the bourgeoisie to consolidate their wealth and power.

Because of enormous wealth at their disposal, the bourgeoisie was unwilling to accept the lack of rights and political power in the
monarchical system of Government. In a word, they aspired for a major role in politics by participation in the Government. Thus there developed a political system in which the bourgeoisie could participate in the administration of the, country. Parliamentary system of Government was the answer to this. An example of this is England. By the Reform Bill of 1832 in England, the seats in Parliament were
redistributed to grant representation from the new industrial centres.

Question 16. How was the Suez Canal built? What was the importance of it?
Answer:
The Suez Canal :

For centuries men had dreamt of linking the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea by means of a canal. But there was too much difference of levels in the two so that it was considered an impossible task. When Napoleon Bonaparte visited Egypt in 1799 he envisioned the building of a waterway across the Isthmus of Suez. But no plan for such a canal could be undertaken seriously till 1854 when a French diplomat, Ferdinand de Lesseps, obtained permission from the then ruler of Egypt, to start the venture.

The Suez Canal was completed in 1869 by a company named Suez Canal Company. England was willing to control the sea route to India, so England was the major shareholder of the company and thus brought the Canal under its control. Opening of the Suez Canal made carrying cargo between East and West easier and it made the development of international trade faster. Another impact of the opening of the Suez Canal was that it encouraged the European search for colonies in the closing years of the nineteenth century.

Question 17. Comment on the economic aspect of colonial expansionism.
Answer:
Economic Aspect of Colonial Expansion :

With the advancement of the nineteenth century, the European countries became more and more interested and active in overseas expansion.

1. The Industrial Revolution gave birth to the capitalist system of production. Under the system maximization of profit was the primary motive of production. When the major European powers had become industrialized, it was not possible to sell the products to one another. Hence the industrialized countries started exploring new markets and buyers for selling the goods they were producing.

2. Larger markets for selling the surplus products were needed as the industrialized nations of Europe sought to protect their own industries. The industrialized nations for protection of their industries raised the tariff or tax barrier against each other. In this way, it was ensured that one industrialized country could not sell its manufacturers to another industrialized country.

3. Another incentive for colonial expansion was the tendency to export surplus capital from the industrialized nations of Europe to under developed countries where rates of interest were usually higher than at home.

4. European countries found markets for selling their surplus goods in Asia and Africa where industrialization had not taken place. Political domination had to take place in order to protect the market from other European rivals.

5. In addition to markets, the European countries needed raw materials to feed their own industries. As all that was needed could not be procured locally.

The European countries had to look out for such countries where the:
raw materials were available at a cheap price, There were plentiful amounts of raw materials in Asia and Africa, which attracted the European countries to establish political domination over the two continents.

Question 18. Write a short note on Jingoistic Nationalism.
Answer:
Jingoistic Nationalism :
Nationalism in the late nineteenth century came to be associated with chauvinism or jingoism. Some European nations developed themyth of their superiority over other peoples. Not only that, in the second half of the nineteenth century imperialism became a fashion of the age. The power and prestige of a European nation depended on the colonies it had acquired. Even the writers of the time were in favour of the idea of imperialism. Moreover, many Europeans favoured imperialism as a civilizing mission. They considered imperialism as a way to bring civilization to the uncivilized backward peoples of the world.

For example, Jules Ferry of France said “superior races have the duty of civilizing the inferior races”, Likewise Rudyard Kipling of England promoted the idea of developed countries like Britain specially shouldering what he called ‘white man’s burden’. That is to say, the white people (meaning the Englishmen) should discharge their responsibility of civilizing the backward peoples of the world. The above reasons prompted imperialism by the European powers. The weak governments of the countries of Africa and Asia became the soft targets for the European powers.

Question 19. Make a brief overview of the First World War.
Answer:
A Brief Overview of the First World War: The contestants in the First World War were :

The Triple Alliance or the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria and Turkey) and the Entente Powers (Russia, France,
Britain, Italy, the USA, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and Greece).

1. Schlieffen Plan :

At the beginning of the war, the German armies operated according to the Schlieffen Plan. The Plan intended to ensure a German victory over Franco-Russian alliance by holding up any Russian advance westwards.

2. The Western Front :

In 1914 the Germans decided to concentrate their war efforts on attacking Russia in the east. At the same time, measures were taken to defend the Western Front.

3. The Eastern Front :

Fighting on the Eastern Front began with the Russian invasion of East Prussia and Austria in 1914. After initial Russian success, the German troops were hurried from the Western Front that successfully stopped the Russian forces.

4. End of the War :

At an enormous cost to both sides in men and materials, Germany ultimately surrendered. An armistice was signed in November 1918. At the Paris Peace Conference (1919) injustciable terms were imposed on the defeated powers of the Triple Alliance.

Question 20. Make a comparative study of Industrial Revolution in England and the Continent.
Answer:
Comparative Discussion on Industrial Revolutions in England and the Continent :

After the restoration of peace in Europe in 1815, machine production was extended to the Continent. At the initial stage the English capital was easilyavailable for the industrial enterprises in the Continent, and English engineers supplied the necessary technological knowledge. This may be illustrated by a few examples. Shortly after the introduction of railways in England the Belgian Parliament adopted a plan for the construction of railways. The plan was drawn up by the English engineer, George Stephenson. Moreover, the project was implemented with the financial help made available by England as a loan. e An important aspect of industrialization in France was the role of the French Government. While in England the Industrial Revolution had been the work of the capitalist class, in France industrialization was achieved mainly through Government initiative.

In fact, in the construction of railways the required money was made available by the Government . e In Germany as well the railways were built with the additional aid of English capital. However, in Germany unlike England, Belgium and France railway construction was doen before the real beginning of industrialization. The most important feature of industrialization in Russia was that the industries were mostly established with the aid of foreign capital. According to one estimate, by 1914 some 2000 millions of rubles (Russian Currency) of foreign money had been invested in Russia. Thus Russia was absolutely dependent on foreign capital and her industry remained majorly weak.

Question 21. Give an account of the development of telegraph system.
Answer: Telegram is the device or system for transmitting messages to a distant place by making and breaking electrical connection. It was the first form of communication that could be sent over a great distance. Its creation was one of the key inventions to the industrial age. The use of telegram became very popular from the middle of the 19th century. The telegram system played an important part in establishing and expanding colonies by the industrially developed countries.

In 1850 the first experimental electric telegram line was started between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour. In 1851 it was opened for the use of the British East India Company. In 1854 telegram link was established between Calcutta and Agra, Bombay and Madras. A telegram line of 20,000 miles was established in America in 1851. In 1866 when Atlantic Cable was installed, link could be established between England and America. As a result England’s imperialistic rule was consolidated in America.

Telegram was also introduced in the colonies of Africa. A company of Denmark established telegram system in China in 1871. In 1872 the first telegram system was introduced in Australia and later on in Malay, Vietnam and other places. As a result of the introduction of telegram, the European powers were able to establish quick control over the colonies. Foreign control over the colonies was strengthened. Trade of the industrialised countries was increased.

Question 22. Give an account of the socialist movement in Europe.
Answer: The Industrial Revolution led to the decline of small scale industries and encouraged the rise of the factory system. The living condition of the workers of the factories was terrible. The socialists raised their voices of protest against the dismal condition of the workers created by industrialisation.

(1) Robert Owen, a humanitarian factory-owner, upheld the view that the capitalists should share a portion of their profits with his employees. As a factory owner, he introduced many benefits for the workers.

(2) Fourier, a Frenchman pleaded for a new social organisation based .on cooperative communities.

(3) Another socialist thinker was St. Simon who advocated that the state should assume control of production and distribution.

(4) Proudhon wanted to abolish private ownership of Property.

(5) Louis Blanc, a French thinker advocated that the state must come forward to protect the rights of workers and make laws. He condemned accumulation of unlimited, profit of the employer and advocated that profit should be equitably divided between the landlord and the workers.

(6) Other Socialists were Philip Bunarothen, August Blaqui. They condemned competition which led to exploitation of workers.

(7) The greatest advocates of socialism were Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. To them history was a class struggle especially between the upper middle classes and the proletariat. In the Communist Manifesto Marx made an appeal to the workers of the world to unite.

Question 23. What were the effects of British industrialisation on India?
Answer: The principal motive for the coming of the English East India Company was to participate in and make profits from trade but over time India was reduced to the status of a British colony. Indian silk and cotton had a wide market in Britain but with the coming of the
Industrial. Revolution the whole scenario changed.

The effects of British industrialisation on India were :

(1) India was flooded with cheap machine-made goods whereby Indian textiles lost their market in India also.

(2) Laws were passed in Britain to prohibit and restrict the sale of Indian goods.

(3) India was reduced to the level of supplier of raw materials (e.g. cotton, silk, indigo) and importer of British machine-made goods.
(4) Desire for new markets for British goods resulted in Britain’s undertaking fresh conquest in India.

(5) Free and unrestricted supply of British goods proved detrimental to the Indian handicrafts as they were faced with unequal competition of machine made goods.

(6) Self sufficiency of Indian villages came to an end.

(7) There was stagnation in Indian agriculture. The British did  nothing to improve Indian agriculture.

Question 24. What were the causes of the ‘Scramble for Africa’ ?
Answer: During the 1800s, there was a rush among the European countries to establish their colonies in Africa which is known as the ‘Race for Africa’ or the ‘Scramble for Africa’.

There were many causes of the scramble for Africa which are discussed below :

(1) The Industrial Revolution first started in England and then spread to other parts of Europe. The factories which were established to produce different types of things needed raw materials such as cotton, coal, iron ore and others. Africa was a very rich source of all such raw materials. So the various European countries competed with each other to establish their colonies in Africa.

(2) After the Industrial Revolution, when new machines were introduced, the rate of production increased manifold. They not only met the demand of the people but also generated surplus goods. The Europeans required a big market to sell these extra goods and a vast country like Africa was a good market for them.

(3) Africa is rich in gold, diamonds, rubies and precious stones. The Europeans took Africa to be a rich source for making money.

(4) There were some other causes for the scramble for Africa. Some countries desired to establish their colonies only because other countries already had their colonies in Africa.

(5) Moreover, there were some countries which thought that the strength of a country depends on the number of colonies it had. So they wanted to establish their colonies in Africa.

Question 25. What policy did Mussolini take to fulfil his imperial design in Ethiopia?
Answer: Mussolini, the Fascist dictator of Italy, became hungry for colonies. Mussolini had been eager to bring the East African country of Ethiopia (Abyssinia) under Italian sway and to exploit its raw materials and minerals. An agreement was reached in 1925 between Italy and Britain which promised Italy certain concessions in Ethiopia. Ethiopia vainly protested to the League of Nations against the foreign sphere of influence in Ethiopia. In 1928 a treaty of perpetual friendship and arbitration was concluded between Italy and Ethiopia. When Haile Selassie became the emperor of Ethiopia, he turned down the request of Italy for concessions and favour.

In 1934 there occurred a clash between the Ethiopian force and Italian troops near the villagers of Walwal. The Italian Government demanded an apology and compensation from the Ethiopian Government. Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations for protection. At the League Council’s suggestions representatives of Britain, France and Italy met at Paris (1935). Britain and France agreed to give Italy extensive economic rights in Ethiopia. While the League Commission was in Abyssinia, Italy launched an attack on Abyssinia. The League Council declared Italy an aggressor nation and imposed economic blockade on Italy. Partial economic sanction could not put any pressure upon Italy. Italy defied the League of Nations and resigned from its membership. In 1936 Ethiopia was formally annexed to Italy.

Question 26. What was the role of Suez Canal in the development of communication and transportation system?
Answer: Along with the expansion of industrialisation, attention of the European countries was drawn to the use of waterways for carrying goods like coal, iron, etc. So side by side with the existing waterways canals began to be constructed. Industrialised countries in different parts of the world constructed a number of artificial canals to make journey faster and easier. The most important of all these canals was the Suez Canal. It was difficult for the western industrialised countries to maintain commercial relationship with the eastern countries covering long distances. It was also a huge wastage of time and money. To make journey between the East and the West faster digging of the Suez Canal through Egypt by France began in 1859.

To maintain easy communication with India England was very keen to establish control over the Suez Canal. By the joint venture of England and France Condomonian was established in 1876. As a result there was the dominance of England and France in the region. In 1869 the Canal was opened commercially and ships began to pass through the Suez Canal. From 1869 England, France, Germany, Denmark, Belgium, Spain, Portugal and other European countries began to use this canal extensively to maintain trade relations with the eastern countries. Universal Suez Canal Company took responsibility of the Canal for 99 years on the basis of a contract.

To maintain the security of the Suez Canal, the British Government got the right to station British soldiers in this region upto 1956. So though the Suez Canal was an integral part of Egypt, it lost control over the Suez Canal and its adjacent areas. The European countries could easily keep close contact with the eastern countries through the Suez Canal. Imperialist control over the eastern countries was much more strengthened. British control over India became stronger. Through the control of Suez Canal region Anglo-French supremacy in middle and east Africa was gradually strengthened.

Question 27. What was the role of Karl Marx in the spread of socialism?
Answer: In the first half of 19th century the ideals of Utopian Socialism were very popular, but Utopian Socialism failed to show the right path to the society. In the second half of 19th century Karl Marx (1818-83) made popular his ideas of scientific socialism which is also known as Marxism. As he was a radical thinker he was banished from his homeland Prussia and he took shelter first in France and then in Brussels in Belgium. In 1843 he moved to Paris where he formed his lifelong friendship with Friederich Engels (1820-95) and established the Communist League witn his help. In 1864, he convened the International Working Men’s Association which was also known as the First International. Marx, as the leader of this organisation, tried to lay down the strategy and tactics for the unification of the workers of the world.

In 1848, Marx and Engels brought out the famous Communist Manifesto. Marx wrote that few men who owned the factories exploited workers because these people depended on them. Marx wanted working people to revolt. If they did so, the wealth could be distributed among all, and not remain concentrated in the hands of a few people. While in London he brought out his great work ‘Das Capital’ in 1867 and established his claim to be regarded as the founder of modern socialism. In this book capitalism was criticised and class struggle was emphasised. The book is called the ‘Bible of Socialism’.

The important principles of Marxism are :
(1) Historical materialism
(2) Surplus capitalism
(3) Class struggle, and
(4) Revolution. Karl Marx did not live to see the fulfilment of his dream. He had given hope to the oppressed section of the people all over the world. The value of Marxism lies in the hope and aspiration it has aroused among the suffering humanity holding out to them the prospect of a better and happier world to live in.

Chapter 4 Europe In The 19th Century: Conflict 0f Nationalist And Monarchial Ideas 8 Marks Questions And Answers:

Question 1. What were the economic, political and social effects of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: Industrialization brought about unforeseen consequences. The personal relationship that had existed earlier between the employed and the employee waslost as a result of mechanization. The mass of workers started migrating to cities where large factories were established.

1. Social Consequences :

Social Classes :

In England where industrialization had its beginning and progressed rapidly the social consequences were also felt by all alike. Industrial Revolution gave rise to two classes, namely industrial bourgeoisie and industrial proletariat. The industrial bourgeoisie (middle class) required enormous capital and funds from profiteering and exploitation. The position of the industrial proletariat (working class), on the other hand, was one of extreme hardship. This working class gradually emerged with the growth of new industries. Initially, they had no experience of political struggle and remained unorganized. Leaving aside the two classes mentioned above, the remaining classes like the nobility, peasantry, etc. played a minor role in the society. But the middle class and the working class of
people became as the two most important social classes.

2. Rise of New Cities :

The Industrial Revolution brought about significant changes in the life of the people, particularly the working people. No longer did the workers labour outdoors as farmers. The majority of the people hustled in factories and they generally lived in large, crowded cities. England was the first industrial power. At the same time this was the country in which the urban population was pretty much more than the rural population. In course of industrialization, London apart other big industrial towns such as Birmingham, Manchester Newcastle, etc. grew up in England. These cities had very large populations by the standards of those times. Workers, however, did not move from farms to cities over night. This was a gradual process. In cities living was not attractive. Most workers lived in small, one family houses. Houses were built side to side and back to back so that there were no windows except in the front of each house. The housing was filthy, unsanitary and airless. This was the kind of cities built up after the Industrial Revolution.

3. Migration from Rural Areas to the Urban Centres :

The Industrial Revolution also brought about a shift in the population. People gradually moved from rural areas to the cities. Before the Industrial Revolution majority of the population lived in villages as it was dependent on agriculture or was attached to land in one way or
the other. With the growth of industrialization, the scenario changed completely. The centre of economic life departed from village and went to cities. The new cities that had grown were important centres of industry. Consequently there was a shift of the population. People gradually moved from villages to cities. This was inevitable as factories were located in cities where people could find jobs. According to one estimate, in England, less than 20% of the population remained attached to land after the process of industrialization.

4. Development of a Bourgeoisie-Capitalist Political System :

Capitalism developed along with the changes of the Industrial Revolution. The term bourgeoisie denotes the social class whose concern was the preservation of capital and to ensure the continuity of their economic supremacy. In a capitalist system profit is the primary motive. The difference between expenses and income is profit. Capital will accumulate with increase in profit. For example, capitalists usually think the expenses to be less than the income. The part of the profit (difference between expenses and income) could be reinvested to make further profit. The profit motive proved to be greatest inducement and incentive for rapid development of manufacturing industries and businesses of many kinds. The rapid development of capitalism in the nineteenth century helped the bourgeoisie to consolidate their wealth and power.

With enormous wealth at their disposal, the bourgeoisie was determined to fight against the lack of rights and political power in the monarchical system of Government. In a word, they aspired for a major role in politics by participation in the Government. Thus there developed a political system in which the bourgeoisie could participate in the administration of the country. Parliamentary system of Government was the answer to this. An example of this can be found in Britain. By the Reform Bill of 1832 in England the seats in Parliament were redistributed to grant representation from the new industrial centres.

5. Inequality of Distributing the resources: Rise of New classes :

During the late nineteenth century as industries expanded the capitalists continued to make immense profit. As they became richer, the gulf separating them from the working class grew wider. By the end of the nineteenth century there was an end to the time when there was personal contact between the employers and the employees, or say, owners of industry and the working people. Inequality between the two went on increasing day by day. The workers lived in cities in unhealthy living conditions while the wealthy factory owners lived in the elegant residential areas of the cities. The life of the rich was not same as that of the working class people. There was another group of people who were neither rich nor poor; they were the middle class.

The middle class included government officials, professionals, teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc. The people gradually became aware of the economic differences due to which different classes were separated. The economic differences took expression, for example, in travel by railways. There had been three or even four different classes of passenger tickets. The wealthier people travelled in first class and the poor people in the third or fourth class. The economic disparity also engendered to social differences. There were separate waiting rooms in the railway stations for people traveling in different classes so that people traveling with tickets of different prices would not have to bother about coming in contact with one another.

Question 2. Write an essay on the critiques of the industrial society.
Answer:
Critiques of the Industrial Society :

The social and economic changes made by the Industrial Revolution caused and helped in boosting the growth of the science of economics or political economy, as it was called. In the eighteenth century various theories were developed by economists for the improvement of the economic condition of the poor. Against those theories arose the socialist point of view.

1. The Socialist Critiques :

Some reformers believed that a new political and economic system was needed for emancipation of the lot of the common people. Such reformers were called the Socialists. The socialists criticised the evils associated with the Industrial Revolution. They proposed to do away with private right or ownership in either capital or property. In a word, control over production and distribution based on social ownership of the means of production may be termed as socialism. Socialism is diametrically opposite of capitalism. The socialists at the first instance were concerned with England as the evils of industrialization had surfaced first there. Of the socialists the most important one was the leading English socialist, Robert Owen. Besides, Frenchmen like Saint Simon, Louis Blanc and others were notable socialists of the nineteenth century. Robert Owen was an industrialist. He adopted certain measures to eradicate the evils of the capitalist system of production.

In his own factory Owen reduced the hours of labour, did not employ children and introduced a pleasant working condition. He also gave some part of the profits to the workers of his factory. But the later experiments of the same sort by Owen and others were not so satisfactory. In France the socialists like Saint Simon, Fourier and Louis Blanc tried to improve the condition of the workers. But their idealistic schemes were not practical. However, the early socialists were able to create a public opinion against the capitalist system of production.

2. Critiques by Karl Hein Reich Marx and Frederich Engels :

The early socialists, however, had no influence in the beginning. But towards the second half of the nineteenth century, socialism became an important ideal of philosophy in Europe. This was due to a German named Karl Hein Reich Marx, popularly known as Karl Marx. He had a different idea about socialism. His theories became the basis for the communism of the present day. He was banished from France in 1845, he from there went to Brussels, where with hard labour and in collaboration with Friederich Engels, he wrote a famous book entitled Das Kapital (1867-94). In the book he enunciated his philosophy of Scientific Socialism (or Communism).

Discarding all non-revolutionary postulations of socialism Marx and Engels went about to spread his revolutionary thesis through the media of many institutions. The famous Communist Manifesto written by him jointly with Engels was published in 1848. The Das Kapital and Marx’s other writings including the Communist Manifesto are the basis for the politico-economic system known variously as Scientific Socialism, Marxism or Communism.

(1) Difference Between Early Socialists and Marx :

Socialism as taught by Marx and that of the early socialists differed in two ways. The early socialists believed in gradual and peaceful development to establish an ideal condition for the workers. But Karl Marx made a forecast that a violent uprising would enable the workers to capture the political power that would be used to secure their own welfare. The early socialists opined that people should work within the framework of the capitalistic system for the development of the condition of the workers. But Marx

predicted an inevitable destruction of the capitalistic system. Marx considered the industrial workers as the force of change that would destroy capitalism and establish socialism. He also believed that the root cause of this was the change through class conflict or struggle between two opposing economic orders.

(2) The Ideas of Marx and Engels :

Marx and Engels condemned capitalism. Both of them considered it to be a system whereby rich men own factories and other business establishments and pay wages to other men to do hard labour for them. They predicted that a time would come .very soon when the workers would rise up against their employers, the owners of factories, and establish a socialist state. In such a state the Government and industry would be controlled by the workers. Neither Marx nor Engels lived to see their ideas materialized. In many countries, however, Marxist revolutionaries began developing workers’ revolutions. Attempts were also made to overthrow the existing governments and set up socialist or communist states in other parts of the world.

Question 3. How did Industrial Revolution lead to colonial expansion?
Answer:
Colonial Expansion as an Outcome of Industrial Revolution :

The Industrial Revolution resulted in the development of industries. Due to the invention of machines, the production of goods increased by leaps and bounds. Consequently, a new economic system developed that came to be known as the capitalist system. Under capitalism, the main motive behind of production was ‘profit’. To ensure maximization of profit the capitalists followed two methods. One was. to increase production of goods, and the other was to offer minimum wages to the workers. But such courses created a problem.

The low wages to the workers meant low purchasing power of the workers who constituted the majority of the population. Thus the huge production of goods with the help of machines remained unsold as the local people were unable to consume or purchase. So the industrialized European countries needed new markets and buyers for the goods their industries were producing. Again, the European countries could not sell their surplus goods to one another. For, with the spread of the Industrial Revolution in Europe all the industrialized countries had been facing the same problem of having surplus goods.

In such a situation the European countries began exploring markets overseas. Asia and Africa, where industrialization had not taken place, offered the best markets for selling the surplus goods of the European countries. In addition to markets, the industrialized countries of Europe needed raw materials at cheaper rates for running their industries. All this favoured the growth of colonial expansionism of the European powers. Thus the Industrial Revolution made European countries depend on Asian and African countries for their economic and industrial development. This led to the building of colonial empires by the European powers.

Question 4. Write an essay on the Eurpean colonies outside Europe.
Answer:
The European Colonies Outside Europe :

The most important cause that led to establishment of colonies in Asia and Africa was the absence of industrialization in these two continents. Nation-states in the modern sense of the term were also absent there. Besides, during the nineteenth century, the Governments of the countries in Asia and Africa were very weak. The rulers there didn’t care to stem the tide of the foreigners in their countries. All this encouraged the European powers to establish their colonies in different parts of Asia and Africa. England and France were the two leading nations that established colonies outside Europe. Besides, Portugal, Holland (the Dutch), Germany and Russia were other European powers that adopted the same policy.

England :

By the second half of the eighteenth century England (Britain) emerged as the foremost colonial power in the world. It was the mistress of all lands north of the American continent The British overseas possession continued to grow. Particularly after she won war against France (1763), England firmly established herself in India. Meanwhile, the battle of Plassey in 1757 gave a firm footing to a British colonial empire in India. After the Revolt of 1857 the British Government took over direct control of India. It may be noted here that till 1857 the British possession in India had been under the English East India Company.

However, in 1877 the British Queen Victoria took the title ‘Empress of India’. The British colonial establishment in India brought about many changes in the Indian socio—economic life. Outside India Penang, Malacca, Singapore, Ceylon, Burma came under the British possession in South-East Asia. Simultaneously, the entire continent of Australia was colonized by England. Even more important than the land empire that England had built was the command over the sea that gave her paramountcy over all rival powers.

France :

France, besides continuing to hold a few trading posts on the Indian coast, built up a colonial empire in Indo-China (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam). In 1899 France leased Kwangchow from China and obtained an advantageous position in some Chinese provinces. According to Carlton J. H. Hayes, by 1914 France ruled over more than twenty million Asians. Holland (The Dutch) The Dutch colonial empire was greatly extended through the conquest of the islands of Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, major portion of New Guinea, etc. Altogether the Dutch by 1914 dominated fifty-four million Asians. Portugal and other Powers   Portugal still held some trading posts in India. The port of Macao in China and half of the island of Timor were under its possession. Russia, another European power, held Siberia and pushed her frontier through west-central Asia to the borders of India. Germany in 1880 captured of a portion ofNew Guinea. Also she leased Kiaochow from China in 1898.

Question 5. Give an account of the transformation of India from an exporter to an importer. Why did India get the epithet ‘the jewel in the crown of the British Empire’?
Answer: Transformation of India from an Exporter to an Importer:

After the English came to rule over Indian territories, their primary motive was to extend market for British goods. Previously Indian handicrafts had a steady market in Europe. Particularly, India was the world’s principal producer and exporter of cotton textiles. But the Industrial Revolution in England completely changed her economic relations with India. With the help of modern machines England developed her industry that produced huge quantity of goods. The products of England entered into Indian markets. The Indian hand-made goods were not able to compete with the cheaper machine made goods produced in the factories of England. Thus India not only lost foreign markets for her manufactures but also saw her own shops flooded with the goods produced in England.

Deprived of exporting her manufactures India was now forced to export raw materials which was the major need of the industrial establishments of England. The raw materials like cotton, raw silk or plantation products like indigo, tea and other things were in short supply in England. But in order to run the industries, abundant supply of raw materials was essential and India being a colony of England was guided by the needs of the British industry. Thus India, previously an exporter of finished products under the British colonial rule, was ransformed into a country that imported machine-made products from England.

India as the ‘Jewel’ in the Crown of the British Empire :

In view of the richness of the Indian resources, the British as colonial rulers found it as an important country for extraction. The British found India as a source of several materials which they could extract to make their own country richer and wealthy. Besides draining out India’s wealth in different forms, the English industrialists recognised the country as a rich source of raw materials to feed the British industries at a cheap cost. Moreover, the British found the country a beautiful place to travel. The scenic beauty of the countryside as also the presence of several historical sites attracted the people of England for tourism. In view of all this ‘Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of England (1874-1881) named India as ‘the brightest Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire’.

Question 6. Write an essay on the scramble for Africa.
Answer:
Africa :

Up to the middle of the nineteenth century, the interior of Africa was not exposed to the outside world. Africa was known as the Dark Continent. Only in the coastal regions of Africa trading settlements were established by the European powers. Yet till 1875 less than one-tenth of Africa came under European sway. In the next few years, however, the entire continent was captured and divided among European powers who built up their colonial empires in the occupied territories. he years 1879 to 1886 were a time of extensive colonial rivalry amongst the European powers in Africa.

The Scramble was on. A characteristic of the Scramble was that Britain was involved in rivalry with virtually every other European power at one stage or another. There was, of course an anti-British element to it. This is not surprising since Britain had used her séa-power to assert a sort of ‘paramountcy’ over most of Africa’s coasts in the mid-nineteenth century’ Egypt became a contentious issue between France and Britain.

Britain, in order to make sure that her loan (in the making of the Suez Canal) would be repaid, was also anxious to protect the sea – route to India-occupied Egypt in 1882. Large-scale European annexation in Africa began in 1884. In that year the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck called a conference (Berlin Conference). In the conference decisions were taken for completion of European conquest of Africa. After dividing Africa amongst themselves, the colonial powers of Europe began draining the wealth of gold, copper, rubber, spices, etc.

from Africa. In area further south of Africa the Boers resisted the annexation of territories by the British troops. However, after the defeat of the Boers in the Boer War (1899-1902) all the Boer republics (South Africa) came under British sway. The Boer War destroyed the mood of ‘jingo imperialism’ in Britain. The continental press rejoiced every setback to British arms. It revealed how unpopular the leading imperial power had become. Britain’s colonial empire in Africa grew at times by defeating all those African countries who opposed.

In occupying Sudan the British troops killed thousands of Sudanese (1898). Soon after, Britain gained control of Uganda, East Africa, Rhodesia, Gold Coast, etc. While England consolidated her colonial gains in Africa other European countries also completed the process of their colonization. For example, Portugal established control over Angola, Guinea and Mozambique. France had captured the’ greater part of the African continent, especially in the Sahara and West Africa.

Germany controlled parts of West Africa. Italy gained control of Eritrea, Somaliland and Libya. Spain did not give up her control over Rio de Oro. It may be said that by 1914 European colonization was complete. If we compare between imperialism in China and the Scramble for Africa, it may be said that in China a genuine economic imperialism may be observed, The European powers exercised pressure on the Chinese Government to open up the country to western trade and investment. But the feature of the Scramble for Africa was the domination of European control over vast tracts of African territory without any immediate profitability.

Question 7. What were the different crises that led to the World War I ?
Answer: 1872 Bismarck had formed the Three Emperor’s League or Drei-Kaiserbund between the rulers of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. But when in 1878 Russian interests clashed with Austria in the Balkans in consequence of the Russo- Turkish War, Russia withdrew from the League. In compensation, Bismarck in 1879concluded with Austria-Hungary a treaty of reciprocal protection in case Russia should attack either power. In 1882 when Italy joined Germany and Austria, it came to be called Triple Alliance.

Fearing that Russia might draw closer to France, Bismarck contracted Reinsurance Treaties of 1881 and 1887 with Russia and cultivated friendly relations with England. After 1890, when Germany failed to renew the treaty with Russia, the latter concluded an alliance with France in 1895. It bound both parties in the event of a German attack upon either to come to one another’s assistance with a large army. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Britain had made vain attempts to form a relation with Germany.

In 1902 Britain’s isolation was ended when she concluded an alliance with Japan. Thereafter in 1904, Britain concluded with France the Entente Cordiale, a cordial understanding. By this agreement, France recognised British control over Egypt while Britain promised not to oppose French claims in Morocco. In 1907, Britain concluded a similar entente with Russia and settled their conflicting interests in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. Thus was born the Triple Entente between England, France and Russia. From 1907 Europe was grouped, somewhat artificially into two armed camps.

Moroccan Crisis :

The major powers of Europe clashed over territorial interests. Morocco, a backward country, bordering on the French empire in Africa, became the scene of international rivalry. The independence of Morocco had been guaranteed by an international Congress at Madrid in 1880. But the French were anxious to gain control of Morocco. French control of Morocco would round off her large African empire stretching from Tunisia, Algeria, then to Morocco and through the Saharan desert hinterland to French West Africa. The French Foreign Minister Delcasse had obtained the assent of Italy in 1900 and Great Britain in 1904; and he had just reached an agreement with Spain giving the latter a protectorate over the part not appropriated by France.

Germany, anxious to weaken the Entente between France and Britain, decided to exploit the Moroccan question for this purpose. Taking advantage of Russia’s defeat by the Japanese when the former could give no support to France, the Kaiser (William IT) landed at Tangier in Morocco at the end of March 1905. He dramatically declared the Sultan’s independence in whose lands all foreign powers were to enjoy equal rights. Since Germany had no direct interest in Morocco, this was a provocative act. The French appeared to give way. The Germans demanded the removal of Delcasse, the French Foreign Minister and the architect of Entente. In June 1905 he

was forced to resign. France also agreed to Germany’s demand for an international conference to settle Morocco’s question. The conference met at Algeciras in Spain in January 1906. While France’s special position in Morocco was recognised by the majority of powers, the French annexation of Morocco was forbidden and the ‘open door’ theoretically established. The settlement of 1906 did not solve the Moroccan crisis. A second crisis arose in 1908 when three German deserters from the French Foreign Legion were sheltered by the German consul at Casablanca. The incident ended in arbitration at the Hague Tribunal which was unfavourable to Germany (November 1908). In February 1909 France and Germany signed a Declaration known as the ‘Morocco Pact’. This recognised France’s special political influence in Morocco, while giving to Germany equal economic opportunities.

Agadir Crisis :

But the Franco-German agreement was not observed. The French discriminated against German trade and the Germans protested against the tightening of French control. The domestic situation of Morocco was also not stable. The Sultan was overthrown in 1908 and his brother usurped the throne. Though the new Sultan was recognised by the powers, he was not obeyed by many of his subjects. He appealed to France for aid. In April 1911 France sent troops to Fez, the Moroccan capital, to restore order. This action annoyed Germany. The Foreign Minister Alfred Von Kiderlen Wachter, without warning, despatched the German gunboat Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir in July 1911. Kiderlen’s action was intended to be a ‘bluff. He demanded from France a large slice of the French Congo in return for her abandoning political designs in Morocco.

This menacing action puzzled Europe. To the Western Powers, German claim seemed as a mere pretext for military action. On July 21, 1911, Grey, the British Foreign Secretary, categorically told the German ambassador that Britain thought Germany’s demands for the Congo excessive. The British Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lloyd George, in a public speech, threatened to take action if Britain was disregarded in a matter affecting its interests. Encouraged by the British attitude, the French refused to make any concession. In the end, however, tension was relaxed when an accord was reached in the second week of October.

Finally an agreement was signed on November 4,1911. France was allowed to establish her protectorate over Morocco on the condition that the ‘open door’ was maintained. In compensation, Germany obtained two large strips of French Congolese territory. The Agadir crisis in 1911 served to quicken anti-German feeling in France and helped to consolidate the friendship between France and Britain. On the other hand, it accentuated Anglo- German rivalry and inflamed public opinion in Germany in the cause of national prestige.

The Balkan Crisis:

In the Balkans, the national aspirations of new-born states threatened the Ottoman rule in Europe. A pan—Slav movement began in the Balkans under Serbia. This was supported by Russia ‘who regarded Serbia as a sort of outpost of the Balkans calculated to strengthen her supremacy in the Near East. But Russian claims in the Balkans were contested by Austria. In 1908 she annexed the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina which greatly enraged Serbia. This also proved a serious setback to Russia’s prestige. Though Russia had been humiliated, she began in 1909 the reconstruction of her armed forces on a large scale. In 1912 a league was formed between Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria.

Its object was to prevent any further increase in the threatening Austo-German control of the peninsula. The two great Powers   Austria and Russia most interested in the Balkans intervened. An international conference which met at London in May 1913 restored peace by creating an independent Albania and compensating Serbia with territory in the interior. The creation of an independent Albania cut off Serbia from the sea. During the Second Balkan war, Austria planned to launch an attack upon Serbia. But she was held back by Germany and Italy. The Austro-Serbian feud was greatly aggravated. The influence of Russia in the Balkans had changed the balance of power. After the Second Balkan War Russia was preparing further alternations in her favour. Germany could not passively watch the establishment of absolute Russian hegemony in the Balkans.

Question 8. Give an account of the industrial development of England and her neighbouring countries.
Answer:
(1) Industrial development of England :

During the years 1950-1870 the proportion of Western European trade which was purely internal decreased. The change is commonly described, for the United Kingdom, as her becoming ‘the workshop of the world’- a change which was well on the way by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851, but which was to become of supreme importance, both for Britain and for Europe, by 1871. What had been true for the cotton industry in the first half of the century became more and more true for the heavy industries and for the ship building and engineering industries in the third quarter of the century.

Their prosperity depended on imported raw materials or on exported manufactured goods or on both. In general, Britain came to rely for essential food stuffs expecially grain—upon imports. She paid for these imports by exporting industrial products, by shipping and insurance services and by interest upon her capital investments abroad. Britain committed herself fully to being an industrial state.

In consequence, she became a crucial factor in the whole economy of the world.In the 1850 many of the railways in the Western Europe were built by British contractors, partly with British and partly with local capital. In the following decade, Western European enterprise completed the railroad networks, expanded home industries, and mechanised manufacture. Meanwhile, after the financial crisis of 1857 and the Indian Mutiny of the same year, British interests moved on to the outerzone of raw material supplies. The great age of British railway building in India began to be financed almost entirely by British capital and in Argentina and Brazil the first railway were built in 1850s, with the new bulk of railroads and during the 1860s, of ships—which it had become a great new industry of Britain to build—the two zones became more and more closely interconnected.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 was the symbol of the demand for quicker transit between the centre and the periphery of the new economic complex. Though it was built with the French capital and by French enterprise, more than half the shipping that passed through it was British. Moreover, Britain, because of her world wide colonial connections, set the pace in forging new economic links between the inner and the outer zones. After the middle of the century, the colonies were turned from remote outposts and bases, difficult of access, into a more closely knit mesh of economic interests.

(2) France :

France, like Britain, got most of her raw cotton from United States and cotton imports made the fortune of La Harve as a port. During the second Empire, France’s imports tended to exceed her imports, and she was sending capital abroad heavily. But this was for the first time, and most of it went into railways, canals, mines and government bonds. Internally theré was great concentration in the control of some industries, most notably in iron. The famous comite des Forges was founded in 1864 and its interests were éxtended to Belgium and Germany. Great families like the Pereiras and the Foulds controlled large sectors of national industry and business. French colonial possessions were increasing too, though less spectacular than Britain’s. Algeria had been completely taken over by 1857.

Though its products were too similar to France’s own for it served the same purposes as were served by Britain colonies, it became a good market for French cotton goods. Tahiti and Ivory Coast had been added, even before 1850, and the Second Empire sent an expedition to Peking in 1859-1860 and to Syria in 1861. Explorers to West Africa, and new settlements to Dahomey and the Guinea Coast. New Caledonia was occupied in 1853 and after the capture of Saigon in Indo-China in 1859 three provinces of Coachin-China were annexed and a protectorate was established over Cambodia. In these ways France, like Britain, became indisputably a world colonial power with national interests strading both in the inner and outer zones of the world economy. She differed from Britain in that her colonies were not used primarily for settlement, being mainly tropical or semi-tropical character, and her industrial development no less than her geographical position, anchored her firmly in Europe.

(3) Belgium :

Until 1860’s Belgium was the only European country to keep pace with Britain in industrial growth. In her resources of coal, iron and zinc she was particularly fortunate, and she enjoyed, as did Britain, the advantage of the early establishment of iron and engineering industries. By 1870 she too had adopted a policy af free trade as regards the import of food and raw materials. By that date her own mineral resources of iron and zinc were being exhausted, but she remained a manufacturing and exploring country because she had the technicians and skilled workers, the industrial plant, enterprising management and business

Organisatian, and good communications. She exported heavy equipment such as machines locomotives, and rails, as well as lighter goods such as glass and textiles. In 1860′ she was exporting capital for the construction of railways in Spain, Italy, the Balkans and even South America. On balance she was, like Britain, a heavy importer af food, ” particularly wheat and cattle feed. After her separation from the Netherlands, Belgium lacked colonies until she acquired the rich territory of the Congo in the last quarter of the century.

(4) Russia :

The forces of change fermenting in Russian life by 1871 were the consequence of the reforms af Tsar Alexander II rather than the result of any marked industrial development. The Crimean War (1854-1886) led toa rapid growth of railroads. A special body called the General Company of Russian Railways ramated them and by 1870 there were more than 1,06,000 kilometrés of track, combined with the emancipatian of serfs, even this moderate amount of railroad construction was enough to carry Russia forward, for the first time into a money economy.

But even then industry remained subservient to the land, and factory workers aften went back to agricultural labour in the summer. By Western or German standards industrial progress in Russia was slow, industrial organisation primitive, until at least at the end of the century. In mining, transport and the building industries, a favourite method of organisation was the cartel or cooperative labour group. Each member performed his agreed share of the work in return for an agreed share of the earnings, and a leader conducted the bargaining for the whole group.

Travelling artels of carpenters or masons, numbering anything from 20 to 200, moved from their villages to the towns each year, completing the work contracted for and then returning to the villages for the winter, spinning and weaving, metal work and wood work, were often organised along similar lines in the villages themselves by the peasants working in their own homes or in the co-operative workshops. These peculiarly Russian modes of production had many admirable features. They served to strengthen the bargaining power of the otherwise.

Helpless workers ensured a good level of craftsmanship and industriousness and prevented widespread unemployment. But they linked industry very closely to an agriculture that was primitive and to a domestic system that resisted mechanization. The general retarding of the economic development of Russia in these years was to have far-reaching consequences in the twentieth century.

Question 9. Brief discuss the development of industry in Germany.
Answer:
Industrial development in Germany :

Germany outplaced all other nations in the production of wealth. If the output of France’s blast furnace increased six fold between 1870 and 1904, that of Germany’s grew ten fold. By exploiting the rich mineral resources of the Ruhr, the Saar, and Alsace-Lorraine, as well as the newly unified labour power of the Reich, Germany by 1914 had become the greatest industrial nation in Europe. The ratio of industrial potential between Germany and her two Western neighbours at that date has been estimated as Germany three, Britain two and France one. This rapid ascendency of Germany in the economic life of Europe was the most significant feature of the pre- war generation. Moreover, whereas France manufactured for home rather than world markets, and her industrial structure of small farms slowed down standardization and total output, Germany manufactured increasingly for export.

This made her the chief European rival to Great Britain as the ‘worshop of the world’ as well as banking, insurance and shipping. This rivalry added greatly to the international fears and tensions that sprang from other considerations of national security, naval power and colonial possessions. The rule of the Iron Chancellor Bismarck inaugurated an age of iron and steel-commodities which the Reich, as he forged it, was especially well- equipped to produce. Within the territories of the Reich a rapid expansion of all means of transport and communication—-of road, railroad and water ways, mail and telegraph service—welded the country into one great economic unit. The 11,000 kilometres of railways in 1860 became 19500 by 1870, 43000 by 1890 and 61,000 by 1910. Between 1879 and 1884 most of the Prussia’s roads were brought under state control.

Germany’s coal output multiplied nearly seven fold between 1877 and 1913, and her output of lignite, ten fold. The marriage of coal and iron gave her the greatest iron and steel industry in Europe. The firms of Krupp, Thyssen, Stumm- Halberg arid Donnersmark developed huge steel empires. British coal production kept ahead of German, but in the output of pig-iron Germany overtook the United Kingdom before 1900. After 1878 English discovery of the Thomas Gilchrist process for smelting ore made the phosphoric iron ores of Lorraine available for German steel manufacturing, and was partly responsible for its rapid expansion. The heavy industries of the Ruhr, the Saar, Lorraine and Silesia became the very foundation of German prosperity and power in Europe.

German electrical and chemical industries expanded no less impressively. Warner Von Siemens, who invented the electric dynamo, built up the firm of Siemens and Halske, which specialised in heavy incurrent and in 1905 merged into the Siemens- Schuckert Werke Combine. Imil Rathenau created the German Edison Company of 1883, which later became the famous AEG (Allgemeine Elektrizitats Gasselschaft). Between them these two gigantic concerns literally electrified Germany, and by 1906 this new industry was employing more than 1,00,000 people. In 1913 electrical equipment and electrical goods of all kinds were among Germany’s most valuable exports. Her chemical industries prospered partly because of her excellent scientific education could be married to rich mineral resources.

With the production of wide variety of industrial and agricultural chemicals, ranging from sulphuric acid and ammonia to pyrites and potassium salts, there grew up important national industries in dyes and fertilizers as well as the explosives and armaments. The number of people employed in the chemical industries nearly quadrupled between 1885 and 1913, the years of most rapid expansion. The combination these two especially modern electrical and chemical industries modernized Germany’s whole industrial equipment, and gave her immense advantages over other nations. It was inevitable in these circumstances that German trade should come to rival that of United Kingdom in European markets. The completion of the railway. network in Europe brought Germany immense advantages. It also converted her geographical position, previously a handicap, into a positive asset.

It no longer mattered that several of her rivers ran northwards into the Baltic, nor that mountains hammed her in on the south. As the great central land power in Europe, she became the focus of the whole European network of railroads, with access by rail to Russia and Turkey, by tunnel to Italy, the Balkans and the Mediterranean ports, by steamship to Atlantic and Pacific. From 1880 onwards the Reich also promoted the reconstruction of its already good internal canal system and widened and extended waterways to take steamer traffic. The Kiel Canal was built more for strategic than for economic reasons. From 1886 onwards the great Hamburg-Amerika line was expanded by Albert Ballin. The ports and harbours of Hamburg and Bremen had to be repeatedly extended and even between 1900 and 1914 their tonnage of shipping was doubled, when the war began, the German merchant fleet was the second largest in the world, exceeded only by Great Britains.

Its steam fleet had come to exceed that of France during 1880’s and by 1910 was three times as great, and the total tonnage of the
German merchant marine in 1913 was nearly 490 times greater than its tonnage in 1870. In 1913 the value of German exports to all foreign and colonial countries was a little less than two and a half billion dollars; that of British exports was a little more than this figure. French foreign trade was in value little more than half the British, Russian only half the French and even less than that of Belgium. But the most important overriding fact in the fifteen years before 1914 was that world trade as a whole was rapidly expanding and a very high proportion of it was European trade. It was Germany’s share of this European and world phenomenon, her place in a rapidly expanding global economy, that gave her an irrefutable claim to be a world power.

Question 10. Give an exposition of Marxian socialism or scientific socialism.
Answer:
(1) Marxian Socialism :

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the earlier brands of socialism were swallowed up by the now theory of history propounded by Karl Marx. He was the son of a Jewish lawyer of Germany. For revolutionary activities, he was forced to leave Germany and to go to Paris in 1843. There he met Engels, the son of a wealthy Prussian manufacturer, and their life long collaboration in writing and other activities began. Marx stayed at Brussels for some time and after 1849 moved to London where he spent the rest of his life of exile.

(2) The Communist Manifesto :

Marx and Engels constructed a philosophy of “scientific socialism” by analysing the strong forces and impulses which govern human nature and mould its environment. It is the business of social philosophy to discover these forces and not to describe panaceas or to work out the details of an Utopia as the earlier socialists had done. His theory, with all. its consequences, embodied in the Communist Manifesto which appeared in 1848, and which has been aptly described as “the birth-cry of modern socialism.” It begins by declaring that “the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” It then proceeds to describe in some details the evolution of history as the inevitable result of the struggle between those who have and those who have not, leading ultimately to the dictatorship of the proletariat.

The Manifesto is thus a ringing call to the labouring class to rise in revolt against the tyranny of the capitalist class. The“s Manifesto is a document whose influence has not been matched by any other in modern history except the French Declaration of the Rights of Man. The teachings of Marx and Engels were further elaborated in the Das Capital, of which the first volume was published by Marx in 1867 and two other volumes after his death, by Engels. This massive treatise became, and has since remained, the Bible of the socialist the world over.

(3) Economic interpretation of history :

The philosophy of history as propounded by Marx is based upon “economic determinism” or economic interpretation of history. In his opinion the fundamental impulse of life is economic, and economic factors have always determined the course of historical development, in all aspects of human life. Among the economic factors, the most important are the means of production and the manner in which they are exploited. Those who control the means of production dominate the society, and it is their interest so to fashion the laws and institutions as to perpetuate their social and political pre-eminence. Thus arises the division of society into those who control and those who are controlled, those who have and those who have not.

It is from this division of the society into two antagonistic sections that there arises class war and history is a record of such class struggles. Marx points out that the present society has been evolved gradually out of many class struggles in the past. There had been struggles between freeman and slave, between lord and serf, between the landed aristocracy and the bourgeoisie. History is simply the record of how one class has gained wealth and political power only to be overthrown and succeeded by another class. The Industrial Revolution has destroyed the power and political influence of the old aristocracy and magnified those of the bourgeoise, the middle-class capitalists.

But it has also created a class of wretched wage—earners; the proletarians, who are being mercilessly exploited by the capitalists. Hence these two classes are set in mutual hostility with the result that a severe conflict between the two is inevitable. This would be the last and final struggle leading to a terrible revolution, which would establish the dictatorship of the proletariat. This would be ushered in a classless, socialist state. The class struggle would come to an end for there would be only one class.

(4) Theory of surplus value :

Economic interpretation of history and class war are the two main principles of Marxian Socialism. Marx next directs his attack upon capital through the economic theory of surplus value. According to it, all wealth is the product of labour, and labour is the only measure of value. Hence workmen have the right to the whole produce of labour. “Lastly, Marx is of opinion that capitalism is digging its own grave. Its inevitable tendency is the progressive concentration of wealth in the hands of increasingly fewer men, the big capitalists swallowing up the little ones. The result of this tendency would be to swell the number of the proletariat, so that, society would come to be composed of only two classes sharply differentiated by increasing wealth and increasing misery. The only
logical outcome of this state of things is revolution in which the many will dispossess he few, and inaugurate the communist state. The social revolution which will bring about the fall of capitalism is thus inevitable.

(5) International character of Marx’s socialism :

Another feature of Marxian socialism is its international character. Marx appeals to working men of all countries. He holds that labourers of one country have far more in common with the labourers of other countries than they have with the capitalists of their own. To promote this unified interest of the labourers Marx took a leading part in organising “the International Workingmen’s Association” which met in London in 1864 and which is known as the First International. It was attended by delegates from most of the countries of Europe and was pledged to the advocacy of Marxian teachings. For several years it held annual congresses in different European towns and advocated socialistic measures, but in the seventies several events conspired to bring about the failure of the First International.

The first blow came when Bakunin and his anarchist followers joined it. This led to a clash of programmes, giving rise to bitter internal dissensions. In the end the anarchists were expelled. The failure of the communist uprising of 1871 in Paris with which Marx heartily sympathised, discredited the International in the eyes of those who stood for law and order. Attacked from without and torn within by rival factions the First International lost its vitality and died of inanition. Its last congress was hold at Geneva in 1873. The international organisation of socialism wag sought to be revived in 1889 when the Second International was founded. But it was no more successful than the first. It collapsed with the outbreak of the Great War. The Third International was orgationised by the Russian communists in 1919 at Moscow.

(6) Influence of Socialism :

The failure of the International meant by no means the failure of Marxian socialism. Marx had brought down Socialism from the clouds, had clearly defined its aims and methods, had made it a living force in every country. Specially this was the case in Germany. There, under the brilliant leadership of Ferdinand Lassalle, a Social Democratic Party grew up which in course of time became the largest party in Germany. It became the model for similar organisation for the spread of Marxian socialism in other countries. Even an unbending autocrat like Bismarck had to bow before the storm and had to pass measures in conformity with the principles of Socialism. He nationalised the railways and established asystem of old age pensions and workmen’s insurance. After Lassalle the ablest leader of the Social Democratic party was George Ebert, a saddler who rose to be the first President of the German Republic in 1919.

In England the cause of socialism was represented by the Fabian Society and the Independent Labour Party. As a matter of fact the working class movement was one of the chief features of the forty years preceding the Great War. Every country has a socialist party and nearly every statesman has to contend with socialism. Legislation to prevent the many abuses of the factory system has been undertaken in almost every civilised state. Education, health, sanitation and schemes for the welfare of workmen, such as, old age pensions and insurance against the vicissitudes of life, occupy an ever-increasing share of the legislator’s attention. In foreign affairs, however, the influence of the socialists is negligible.

Their internationalism has been eclipsed by the militant nationalism of the period. They are opposed to militarism and imperialism but hitherto their cry against them has been in the wilderness. It should be noticed that although socialism is an important factor in politics, and rival parties bid against one another for the support of the working class, it was till 1914 urging a purely propagandist war. But the capture of the Russian state by Lenin in 1917 and the Bolsheviks made it clear that Marx was no more doctrinaire but exportor of a faith that could be translated in to practice.

In general, Britain, however, had asserted and reinforced her naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean and the Straits, and France had opened new door for her diplomacy of recovery and her future policy of colonialism. Territorial gains such as Russia’s occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina were of little profit. If the legacy of inflamed, frustrated Balkan nationalism was to continue to embroil all the powers in future crisis and wars. International tenion was increased, not eased, by the events of these years. The new balance of power, now clearly centred on Germany, was destined to preserve the peace for another whole generation. But it was doomed to be the most uneasy and unstable peace, subject to recurrent crises and threats of war. The next general European Congress met forty years later, not in Berlin but in Paris, and as it were to be no representatives of the Dreikaiserbund.

Question 11. Give an account of the partition of Africa.
Answer:
(1) Introduction :

In 1780’s, except for a few coastal areas, Africa was still a dark and little known continent. Of all the underdeveloped of the regions of the world, none offered such a vast wealth in raw materials, such golden opportunities for trade as the continent of Africa. From 1850 onwards explorers like David Living stone and Stanley revealed to the world the untapped wealth in the rubber and tropical products locked up in the heart of the continent. The ‘grab for Africa, began and between the years 1875 and 1900, practically the whole of the continent had been partitioned among the European powers—Great Britain, Russia, France Belgium Germany and Italy. The ‘Scramble for Africa’ led to serious diplomatic complications among these nations.

(2) Scramble for Africa :

The ‘Scramble for Africa’ began with international Congress at Berlin in 1885. This Congress permitted king Leopold II of Belgium to erect his holdings in Africa. Into the Congress Free State, Leopold poured considerable capital. He soon reaped a rich reward. Later, due to pressure of public opinion, he transferred the Congo Free State to the Belgian Government. It was henceforth called the Belgian Congo. The Congo was merely a start. Within a brief span of 27 years, beginning in 1885 and ending in 1912, the whole of Africa except Ethiopia and Liberia, was taken over by the European countries. In the general scramble, Great Britain and Germany came off with the richest prizes.

(1) Great Britain’s Share :

The lion’s share in the partition went to Britain and to France. Before 1880, Britain already held the Cape colony at the extreme south. England secured the Cape Colony from the Dutch at the Congress of Vienna. The Dutch or the Boers who had difference with the British migrated to north and established the colonies of Transval and Orange Free State. As both the British and the Boers were threatened by native tribes, the British annexed Natal and the New Boer Colonies. This led to two Boer Wars in which Britain defeated the Boers. However, in 1907, they were granted autonomy and the states of Natal, Transval. Orange Free State and Cape Colony were joined into the union of South Africa.

Britain also established control over Egypt by virtue of her buying shares in the Suez Canal and conquered Sudan. It addition, she secured Zanzibar, Uganda, the Gold Coast, Nyasaland and Rhodesia and British East Africa. On the whole, she secured a territory larger in area than the whole of Europe and extending in an almost continuous line from the Cape to Cairo.

(2) France’s Share :
France secured Algeria and a large territory in North-West Africa (Sahara). She established a protectorate over Tunis and brought Morocco entirely under her influence.

(3) Germany’s share :
Germany secured Togoland, Cameron, German East Africa and German South-West Africa.

(4) Belgium’s share :
Belgium’s share was Congo Basin. It is perhaps the richest area of all because of the rubber wealth of the Congo Basin.

(5) Italy’s share :
Italy got Eritrea and Tripoli.

(6) Portugal’s share :
Portugal secured Mozambique, Angola and Guines.

(3) Trouble Sports :
(1) Fashoda :

In 1883, a revolt broke out in Sudan and Britain occupied it. This brought about complications with France. The French Major Merchand marched his army to Fashoda on the Upper Nile which was in the British sphere of influence. This incident seemed likely to lead to a European War. In the end, France withdrew and smooth relations were established between the two countries in the Anglo-French Entente, 1904.

(2) Tunis :

Trouble arose in 1881 between France and Italy over the question of Tunis. Italy denied to secure Tunis and the action of France drove her to join the alliance of Germany and Austria which became the Triple Alliance. However, Italy needed the help of France to secure hold on Tripoli. So in 1902, she concluded a secret alliance with France which diminished the importance of the Triple Alliance.

(3) Morocco :

The ambitious policies of German Emperor Kaiser William IT forced England to abandon her policy of splendid isolation and she concluded the Dual Entente. This breach was completed by the Morocco crisis. France forced the Sultan of Morocco to introduce reforms, but the Sultan took shelter under assurance from the Kaiser to protect his independence. The matter was settled in 1906 in the Algeciars Conference. France with the support of Britain established a protectorate over Morocco. British attitude on the Morocco question widened the gulf between England and Germany. Thus the scramble for Africa played a considerable part in the formation of the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance in Europe.

Question 12. Give an account of the subjugation of China by Western Imperialism.

Answer:
(1) Introduction :

China is one of the oldest nations of the world and is more extensive and probably more popular than Europe. She was highly civilised long before Europe. Her people were devoted to the peaceful pursuits of industry and despised the arts of war. China had always lived a life of isolation hating the outside world. She had no diplomatic relations with any country and no foreign ambassadors lived in Peking. Foreigners were permitted to trade in only one Chinese port, Canton, and even there under severe restrictions. The Chinese desired nothing better than to be let alone. But this was not to be in the Modern Age. As the nineteenth century progressed, the isolation of China was gradually shattered and China was forcibly ‘opened’ by the newly industrialised Great Powers of Europe by a series of aggression of territory and trading privileges and to enter into dipolomatic intercourse.

(1) The Opium War :

First Opium War; 1839-1842 :

The process of European agression which forced open the doors of China to European influence, began in 1840, with the so-called ‘Opium War’ waged by Great Britain against the Chinese Empire. The Chinese Government had forbidden the importation of opium as injurious to their people. The British traders at Canton it is persisted in bringing it from India into China as they had no wish to give up the enormous profits of the opium trade. In 1839, Chinese Government appointed a special commissioner to check smuggling. He seized and destroyed 20,000 chests of opium at Canton. Thereupon, the First Opium War broke out. It lasted for two years and the British bombered several Chinese cities on the coast. The war ended in a victory for Great Britain. The Chinese sued for peace and concluded the treaty of Nanking. The terms of the treaty ofNanking (1842)

That brought the First Opium War to a close were as follows:
(1) China was forced to pay a large indemnity.
(2) The city of Hong Kong was ceded to Britain.
(3) The four ports of Amoy, Ningpo, Foochow and Shanghai were thrown open to foreign trade.
(4) By the principle of most favoured nation clause, the French, the Germans, the Dutch and the Russians received the above privileges.
(5) They were also granted ‘extra-territorial’ rights by which the Chinese laws did not apply to foreigners.

(2) The Treaty of Wanghsia (1844) :

The United States sent Caleb Cushing to make a commercial treaty with China and accordingly the treaty of Wanghsia was concluded in 1844. The number of the treaty ports was increased to over forty and China was obliged to abandon her policy of isolation and to send and receive ambassadors. Thus, the fruits of British victory was shared with other Western powers—America, Russia, France, Belgium Prussia, Dutch and the Portuguese. At last the doors of MChina were opened to foreign influence.

(3) The Second Opium War; 1856-1860 :

In 1856, both France and Great Britain waged war on China. The former wanted to avenge the murder of a missionary and the latter the arrest of a crew sailing under a British flag as pirates by a Chinese official. The British again occupied Canton, the combined Franco-British forces captured Tientsin and advanced towards Peking, the capital of the Chinese Empire. The Second Opium War ended by the Treaty of Tientsin, 1860. By the Treaty of Tientsin,

China agreed to the following conditions :
(1) To open six additional ports including Tientsin to foreign trade.
(2) To legalise the opium traffic.
(3) To receive foreign ministers at Peking.
(4) To tolerate and protect Christian missionaries.
(5) To guarantee the safety of Europeans travelling in the interior of China.

(4) Russia secures Amur District :

In this very year, 1860, Russia extorted from China the Amur coastal district in the far north-east. Then Russia founded the port
of Vladivostok and used it to radiate her influence in Manchuria.

(5) Further Dismemberment :

More steps towards the dismemberment of the Chinese Empire were taken in 1890’s. They were inaugurated by the Sino—Japanese War of 1894-1895 war. This was a period of critical importance in China’s relationwith Europe. The immediate cause of the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1894 was the relation of the two powers with Korea. After her defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, the alarmed Chinese Government made peace with Japan in 1895 at Shimonoseki. China paid a large war indemnity to Japan and in addition, ceded to her Port Arthur, the Liaotung Peninsula, the island of Formosa and the Pescadores Islands. China also recognised the complete independence of Korea.

(6) European Intervention :

In the hour of its triumph, Japan war deprived of the fruits of her victory by European intervention. In particular Russia with the support of France and Germany forced Japan to restore Port Arthur and the Liaotung Peninsula to China.

(7) Germany and Shantung :

In 1897, two German missionaries were murdered in the province of Shantung. Germany took advantage of it and by way of redress, secured from China a ninety-nine year lease of the fine harbour of Kiauchau and extensive commercial and financial privileges in the whole province of Shantung. Shantung became a German ‘sphere of influence’.

(8) Russia secures Port Arthur :

The action of Germany encouraged Russia to make further demands. She acquired from China a lease for 25 years of Port Arthur, the strongest position in Eastern China. In addition, Russia obtained permission to extend the Trans Siberian Railway to Viadivastak.

(9) Britain and France secure Ports :

Britain occupied the naval strong hold of Weihaiwei and france secured the Bay of Kwangchaw in South China.

(10) Sphere of Influence :

The Western Imperialists carved out ‘sphere of influence’—Britain in Yantse Valley, Russia in Manchuria and Mongolia, France in South-West China, Japan in Fukien and Germany in Shantung. It seemed in the summer of 1898 that China was about to undergo the fate of Africa.

(11) The Open Door Policy of U.S.A. :

The actual partitioning and annexation of China by the Great Powers were prevented by the rivalry among the imperial powers themselves. Britain and USA opposed all ideas of partition. In 1899 John Hay, the Secretary of State of the United State proclaimed of famous ‘Open Door Doctrine’. This Doctrine did not abrogate any of the privileges that the Powers had already secured in China. But it was laid down that all parts of China should be open on equal terms to the citizens of all foreign countries for commerce and investment The policy was acceptable to all and China was saved from annexation. Although she continued as an independent country, her independence was only nominal.

Question 13. What were the conditions favourable for Industrial Revolution in England?
Answer: The Industrial Revolution started in England, because of the fact that certain essential conditions prevailed in England more completely than in any other country.

They were as follows :

(1) Capital :

For intensive industrialisation, capital in‘ large quantities is necessary to build factories and machines to hire workers and to buy raw materials. This was made available in England by the following agencies—the Bank of England, the London Money Market, the sound system of coinage and Paper Money and Joint | Stock Banks. It was further provided by the efficient handling of governmental finances. Thus the formation of joint stock corporations for industry, commerce and finance was made simple and easy.

(2) Labour :
Workers for the new industries come from a number of sources. The British population was growing very rapidly and in addition, there was immigration of continental and Irish labour in England.

(3) Techniques :
England developed techniques, processes and machines necessary for large-scale industries.

(4) Resources :
England possessed just the resources needed for industrialisation. Its climate was damp and highly suitable for cotton industry. Its water resources were ample. Above all, England was rich in iron and coal.

(5) Transportation :
England had many ports and extensive shipping for seaborne transport. In addition, she constructed a network of roads and canals.

(6) Markets :
The union of England, Scotland and Ireland provided an extensive home market free of tariffs. Moreover, England had established markets all over Europe, in the New World, in Africa and Asia. She had no serious competitors. From these places flowed in raw materials in abundance. India supplied cheap cotton.

Question 14. What were the Great inventions that favoured the Industrial Revolution?
Answer:
(1) Weaving and Spinning :

The 18th century came to be known as the century of inventions. In 1738, John Kay of Lancashire invented the Fly Shuttle which doubled the output. In 1764 a man called Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny which increased the production of yarn. Next came Arkwright who made the Water Frame, a spinning machine worked by water power. It could spin a hundred threads at a time. In 1779, Samuel Crompton brought together the best feature of Hargreaves and Arkwright machines and it came to be known as the Mule which in its modern improved form carries 2000 spindles. The inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright and Crompton gave the English textile industries a stimulating that was truely remarkable. In 1785 Cartwright invented a powerloom worked by water and this completely modernised the cotton industry.

(2) Coal and Iron :

The old handlooms had been made of wood but the new machines were made of iron and steel. This increased the demand for iron, which in turn necessitated the invention of machinery for increasing the output of iron. In 1735, Abraham Darby discovered the process of smelting iron ore and coke. Before the end of the century, the modern blast furnace and iron foundry were established. Watt’s steam pump overcame the problem of floods and Humphrey Davy’s ‘Safety Lamp’ reduced the danger of underground explosions in coal mines. Thus Darby, Waitt and Davy laid the foundation of modern coal and iron industry.

(3) Steam :

The greatest achievement of James Watt was the invention of effective steam pump for mining operations. In 1785 he produced a steam engine ‘Beelzebub’ which could turn belts and wheels on any machine. As a result steam power rapidly displaced water power in driving the new spinning and weaving machines. The Age of Steam had arrived. James Watt was, in truth, ‘the father of modern industry’.

(4) Communications :

In 1814, George Stephenson, the creator of the locomotive, constructed a steam engine to run on rails. In 1830, Stephenson’s engine, the ‘Rocket’ travelled at 35 miles an hour. Soon in England there was established a network of railways. The first steam boat was launched in the Clyde canal. In 1819, an American ship, the Savannah crossed the Atlantic. Modern road—making engineering began with Metcalf, the blind road maker. After him came Telford, a Scot by birth. Macadam, another Scottish engineer, established in 1827, the ‘mechanised’ road made by small broken rolled and bitten hard. Macadam’s system held the field until the coming of the modern concrete road. The beginning of hundreds of miles of canals was begun by James Brindley. In 1761, he constructed the Bridgewater Canal. In 1777, the Grand Canal was dug.

Question 15. What were the effects of the Industrial revolution?
Answer: The effects of the Industrial revolution were far-reaching and widespread.
Good effects-Economic results :

(1) Increased Production :
Manual labour was replaced by elaborate machinery worked by power which resulted in increased production.

(2) Improvement of agriculture :
Increase of production created a great demand for raw materials which led to an increase in agricultural output by the application of scientific methods.

(3) Reduction in prices :
Increase of production reduced the prices of articles and greater comforts were made available for greater number of people.

Evil effects :
(1) Rise of Capitalism :
Large-scale industries require larger capital and hence it led to the rise of capitalism, the evil effect of which is the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few.

(2) Low Wages :
The motive of the capitalist being greater profits in the earlier stage of the Industrial Revolution, low wages and long hours of work were common features.

(3) Unemployment :
The displacement of cotton industries by machines created unemployment.

(4) Imperialism :
The demand for raw materials and markets resulted in a race for colonies and imperialistic rivalries among the nations of Europe.

(4) Social Results :

(1) Unhygienic condition of living :
Large-scale industries led to the concentration of population in towns. Overpopulation and crowding resulted in unhygienic conditions of living, especially in the slums.

(2) Specialisation :
Division of labour and specialisation characteristic of modern industry is monotonous for the labourer. He began to find relief.in vices like drink, gambling and the yellow press.

(3) Employment of children and women :
In the earlier stages children and women were employed in dangerous jobs and were treated cruelly.

(5) Political Results :

The Industrial Revolution divided society. into two distinct groups—the rich middle class-bourgeoisie comprising of manufacturers, merchants, bankers and professional men on the one hand; and the wage-earning proletariat consisting of mill and factory workers on the other. The gap between employer and employee gave rise to many of our present-day economic and social problems. The evil effects of society led to humanitarian movements for the betterment of the conditions of labourers such as the methodist movement. As workers grew more and more conscious of their weight in the life of the country, they began to demand political rights and representation in the Government by organising themselves into Trade Unions. Some of such movements can be mentioned, the Chartist Movement and the various Franchise Acts in England. Thus, it led to the growth of democracy.

(6) Rise of New Doctrines :

Laissez-faire :

The nineteenth century was dominated by the philosophy of laissez- faire or unrestrained competition propounded by Adam Smith. It demanded free competition and least interference on the part of the state. Laissez-faire is extreme individualism.

Socialism :

The opposite of Laissez-faire is Socialism whose best exponent is Karl Marx. Socialism demanded abolition of private ownership of meens of production and advocates state ownership. It is the result of class rivalry between the capitalists and the working class.

Question 16. Give an account of the western bid for supremacy in China.
Answer: For thousands of years since the beginning of her history China lived in a state of isolation but the western powers were keen to establish contact with her. In the mid-nineteenth century, Britain and U.S.A made attempts to penetrate into the Chinese empire. Opium was introduced in China by the English traders. Opium in large quantities was imported in China by the British. All classes of Chinese people gradually became addicted to opium. The Chinese Government issued orders putting a bar on the import of opium. War broke out when the Chinese seized British vessels carrying opium and destroyed their cargo. In the First Opium War (1839-42) the Chinese were defeated by the British and the Treaty of Nanking was concluded between Britain and China. The Treaty of Nanking

(1) Legalized the opium trade,
(2) Opened up five ports including Canton to foreign trade,
(3) Ceded Hong Kong to the British,
(4) Proclaimed that the British subjects would no longer be subject to Chinese law and
(5) Made China pay war indemnity.

France and England took advantage of China’s weakness and declared war:
The Second Opium War (1857-58) like the first war ended in China’s defeat. The Tientsin Treaty (1861) which ended the war

(1) Opened eleven more ports to foreign trade,
(2) Compelled China to set up foreign mission in Beijing,
(3) Pay heavy war indemnity and
(4) Admit that foreign residents in China would be under the laws of respective countries and not the laws of China.

After 1860 the ambition of the European powers continued to grow. They now wanted more territories. Russia, France and England obtained bases of territories or spheres of influence in China, Japan too followed their example and declared war on China (1894-95) and compelled China to surrender. The weakness of China encouraged the western powers to make fresh bids for territorial gains in China, but it was soon found that the gains obtained by one power at China’s expense made other powers jealous. In other words, while many powers wanted to cut China into slices as if it was a melon, the interests of one power came into conflict with those of others.

The western powers were torn with jealousies against one another to such an extent that they had little hesitation in accepting the Hay Memorandum (1901)which recommended
(1) Equal opportunities for all nations to trade in China,
(2) That the western powers should throw their respective spheres of influence open to all, and above all,
(3) They should guarantee the territorial integrity of China. Thus China was saved from being partitioned among the western powers.

 

WBBSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Environment

Chapter 1 Some Aspects of the French Revolution Introduction

The French Revolution of 1789 is a landmark event in the history of the world. It took place during the reign of the Bourbon king Louis XVI who believed in an absolute monarchy. Faulty taxation, social injustice, the tax burden on 3rd estate, etc. were the main causes of the French Revolution.

During the reign of Louis 16, there was an acute economic crisis in 1788 in Frace. To tide over the crises, the finance minister proposed that taxes should be imposed on the aristocracy and clergy. As a result, the aristocratic class broke into rebellion. Louis 16 summoned the meeting of the States General, the representative assembly after a long 174 years.

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Louis XVI wanted the support of the members to impose taxes. But he failed in his mission and closed the meeting room of the states-general of the representative of the 3rd estate assembled at the nearby tennis court and took an oath not to disperse till drafting a new constitution for France.

While the new constitution was being drafted, a large mob attacked the Bastille, the state prison on 14 July 1789 and set the prisoners free. The states-Gsneral a new name of constituent Assembly and declared the Rights of the man and citizen. The king was made a constitution at the head and his absolute power was taken away. The king tried to escape from France but he was brought back as a virtual prisoner.

In 1792 a body known as the National Convention met and drew up a revised constitution, abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. The king was found guilty in 1793 and was guillotined.

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To save France from external invasion and internal rebellion of monarchy, the Jacobin republican Govt introduced the Reign of Terror, which was linked from Sept 1793 to July 1794. More than 2,00,000 people were executed. With the execution of Robespierre, the Reign of Terror came to an end. In 1795, a new Govt known as Directory came to power. Its authority was vested in a body of five directors later on Napolean Bonaparte Overthrer was the directory and assumed supreme power.

Some Aspects of the French Revolution Very Short Answer Type :

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 1. Name a foreign country which participated in the American War of Independence.
Answer: France participated in the American War of Independence.

Question 2. Most of the burden of taxation fell on which estate in France?
Answer: The entire burden of taxation fell on the Third Estate in France.

Question 3. Who were sans culottes?
Answer: The sans-culottes were urban workers and wage earners.

Question 4. Who was the Finance Minister of Louis XVI?
Answer: Calonne was the Finance Minister of Louis XVI.

Question 5. Who was Diderot?
Answer: Denis Diderot was a French Encyclopaedist.

Question 6. Who was the spokesman for the laissez-faire doctrine?
Answer: Quesnay, the greatest among the physiocrats, was the spokesman of the aissez-faire doctrine.

Question 7. Who is the author of the “Persian Letters”?
Answer: Montesquieu wrote the ‘Persian Letters’.

Question 8. Name a composition by Voltaire.
Answer: A work by Voltaire is ‘Letters on the English’.

Question 9. Who is the author of “The Social Contract”?
Answer: Jean Jacques Rousseau is the author of ‘The Social Contract’.

Question 10. Which Estate of the States General demanded the introduction of a vote per individual?
Answer: The Third Estate of the States-General demanded the introduction of a vote per individual.

Question 11. When did the Tennis Court Oath take place?
Answer: The Tennis Court Oath took place on 20th June 1789.

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Question 12. When did the French Constituent Assembly issue a declaration which abolished feudalism in Europe?
Answer: In 1789 the French Constituent Assembly issued a declaration which abolished feudalism in Europe.

Question 13. What was taken as a model to prepare the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen?
Answer: The Bill of Rights of England (1689) was taken as a model to prepare the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

Question 14. The members of the Jacobin Club belonged to which Estate?
Answer: The members of the Jacobin Club belonged mainly to the Third Estate.

Question 15. Name one merit of the Reign of Terror.
Answer: One of the positive outcomes of the Reign of Terror was the abolition of slavery.

Question 16. Who was the author of Candide?
Answer: Voltaire wrote Candide.

Question 17. What is a guillotine?
Answer: It is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded.

Question 18. Name some people who took part in drafting the Constitution of 1791.
Answer: Some important leaders who took part in drafting the Constitution of 1791 were Mounier, Barneve, Lafayette, Mirabeau and Talleyrand.

Question 19. Who said, “After me the deluge”?
Answer: Louis XV, the king of France said, “After me the deluge”.

Question 20. Who was the King of France when the French Revolution broke out?
Answer: Louis XVI was the King of France when the French Revolution broke out.

Question 21. What was the period of rule of Louis XVI?
Answer: The period of rule of Louis XVI was 1774-1793.

Question 22. What was the States-General?
Answer: The States-General was the Assembly of France which consisted of the representatives of the three estates of the French society that passed legislations.

Question 23. When was the States-General summoned by King Louis XVI?
Answer: The states general was summoned by King Louis XVI on 5 May 1789.

Question 24. What were the three estates into which French society was divided?
Answer: The Three Estates into which French society was divided were the First Estate, the Second Estate and the Third Estate.

Question 25. What was ‘Vingtiemes7?
Answer: ‘Vingtiemes’ was the income tax paid by the peasants of France during the old regime.

Question 26. What is ‘Tithe7?
Answer: ‘Tithe’ was a tax on religion imposed on the members of the Third Estate by the Church.

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Question 27. What is ‘Corvee7?
Answer: The French peasants during the old regime were forced to render free labour for the renovation of roads and buildings. This was known as ‘corvee’.

Question 28. What is ‘The contract of Poissey7?
Answer: The Church of France controlled 1/5 of the landed property of France and paid a voluntary tax to the Government by a contract known as the Contract of Poissy.

Question 29. Name two philosophers of the French Revolution.
Answer: Two philosophers of the French Revolution were Rousseau and Montesquieu.

Question 30. Who were the physiocrats?
Answer: The physiocrats were economists who demanded free trade, free enterprise and privatisation of industry and trade.

Question 31. Who was the leader of the physiocrats of France?
Answer: Francois Quesnay was the leader of the physiocrats of France.

Question 32. Why was the Bastille hated by the people of France?
Answer: The Bastille was hated by the people of France because it stood for the despotic power of the monarch and also symbolised the oppression of the people by the autocratic French kings.

Question 33. What was the ‘assignats7?
Answer: The Constituent Assembly confiscated all properties of the church and keeping those as security, issued a kind of paper note called ‘assignats’.

Question 34. Who was the founder of the Patriotic Party?
Answer: The founder of the Patriotic Party was Abbe Sieyes.

Question 35. What do you mean by the Civil List introduced by the Constituent Assembly?
Answer: The Civil List was introduced by the Constituent Assembly to determine the royal expenditure which could not exceed the amount allotted in the list.

Question 36. Name two leaders of the Jacobin Party.
Answer: Two leaders of the Jacobin Party were Danton and Robespierre.

Question 37. What was the law enforced by the Revolutionary Tribunal?
Answer: The law enforced by the Revolutionary Tribunal was the ‘Law of Suspects’.

Question 38. What was the new system of administration introduced by the National Convention?
Answer: The new system of administration introduced by the National Convention was the Directory.

Question 39. When did Napoleon become the First Consul?
Answer: Napoleon became the First Consul in 1799.

Question 40. Name some French thinkers who influenced the French Revolution.
Answer: Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, Quesney, D’ Alembert, and Turgot were
some philosophers of the French Revolution.

Question 41. Name some of the well-known Physiocrats.
Answer: Quesnay and Turgot.

Question 42. Who compiled the famous Encyclopaedia or the Universal Dictionary in France?
Answer: Diderot and D’ Alembert

Question 43. Name the dynasty which ruled in Austro-Hungary at the time of the French Revolution.
Answer: Hapsburg.

Wb Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 44. What were the functions of the Parliament in Pre-Revolutionary France?
Answer: The functions of the Parliament in Pre-Revolutionary France were to sanction
new taxes and enact new laws.

Question 45. What class of people led the Revolution in its early stage?
Answer: The Revolution in its early stage was the work of the bourgeoisie and not of the peasantry.

Question 46. Name at least two of the Finance Ministers of Louis XV who wanted to reform the state of finance of France.
Answer: Turgot and Necker.

Question 47. What is the period of the history of Europe just preceding the French Revolution of 1789 known as?
Answer: The Age of Enlightened Despotism or the Age of Repentance of Monarchy.

Question 48. What are the characteristics of the Age of Enlightened Despotism?
Answer: The main characteristics of enlightened despotism are rationalism and humanity.

Question 49. Name some of the prominent thinkers of the age of Enlightened Despotism.
Answer: Montesquieu, Rousseau and Voltaire are some of the famous thinkers of the Age of Enlightened Despotism.

Question 50. What do you mean by the old Regime (Ancien Regime)?
Answer: The form of Government prevailing throughout Europe before the outbreak of the French Revolution is known as the old Regime.

Question 51. Name the dynasty which ruled in Prussia at the time of the French Revolution.
Answer: Hohenzollern dynasty ruled in Austria at the time of the French Revolution.

Question 52. Name the dynasty which ruled in Russia at the time of the French Revolution.
Answer: Hanoverian dynasty.

Question 53. Name the dynasty which ruled in France at the time of the French Revolution.
Answer: The Bourbon dynasty ruled in France at the time of the French Revolution.

Question 54. Who was the ruling prince in France when the Revolution started in 1789?
Answer: Louis 14 was the ruling king of France when the Revolution started in 1789.

Question 55. What was the name of the property tax in France?
Answer: The name of property tax in France is Taille.

Question 56. What were the main principles of the French Revolution?
Answer: The main principles of the French Revolution were liberty, equality and fraternity.

Question 57. What was the nature of the French Revolution?
Answer: The nature of the French Revolution was more social than political.

Question 58. In which year did Louis XVI succeed to the throne of France?
Answer: Louis 16 succeeded to the throne in 1774 A.D.

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Question 59. What were the causes of the fall the of monarchy in France?
Answer: The weakness of the king, the intrigues of the emigres and the foreign war destroyed the monarchy of France.

Question 60. What was the first step of the National Convention of France that met in 1792?
Answer: The first act of the National Convention was the abolition of the monarchy and the declaration of France as a Republic.

Question 61. When was the Committee of Public Safety formed?
Answer: In 1793, during the Reign of Terror, the Committee of Public Safety was formed.

Some Aspects of the French Revolution 2 Marks Questions And Answers

Question 1. What do you know of Voltaire?
Answer:

Louis Marie Arouet, better known as Voltaire was the most powerful writer of the Age of Enlightened Despotism. His farcical and brilliant pen touched every field—social, political and religious. His wit and satire as well as the humanity of his appeal made an irresistible impression upon men and focussed their attention on the glaring evils and abuses of the time.

His Letters and Philosophiques made him popular in Europe and this popularity remained unchanged till his death in 1778.

Question 2. What do you know of Jean Jacques Rousseau ?
Answer:

Russian was a great French philosopher who prepared the mental climate for the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. In his epoch-making work, The Social Contract, published in 1762, he summarizes his ideas on social and political organisation.

He holds that the State owes its origin to the contact of people among themselves, and so its Government should be the expression of the general will of the people. His insistence on the rights of the people was a stout blow to the prevailing autocratic system of Government and his book soon became the gospel of democracy.

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Question 3. Name some French thinkers who influenced the French Revolution.
Answer:

Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, Quesnay, D’Alembert, and Turgot were some of the thinkers who influenced the French Revolution.

Question 4. Who were the Physiocrats?
Answer:

The idea of enlightenment also influenced the economic thoughts of the time. In France there arose a new school of economists known as Physiocrats who attached the prevalent mercantile system with the insistence of the State control over trade and commerce. Their slogan was laissez-faire or let alone.

Question 5. Name some of the Enlightened Despots of Europe in the second half of the 18th century.
Answer:

Frederick 2 of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, Maria Theresa Joseph 2 of Austria and Charles 3 of Spain.

Joseph 2 of Austria is considered the best of the Enlightened Despots.

Question 6. What was the condition of France on the eve of the Revolution?
Answer:

France on the eve of the Revolution was decadent and devastated. Fler’s military prestige was shattered when she was crushed in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763). The disaster caused the loss of her colonies, loss of her trade and almost irreparable damage to her finances.

The French monarchy which owed its strength to the military glory it had given to the nation, became discredited. Murmurs of discontent became increasingly vocal and the monarchical organisation of France became the target of bitter criticism.

Question 7. What were the causes of the initial success of the French Revolution?
Answer:

Most of the Governments of Central Europe were hopelessly decadent. Germany’s two leading powers, Austria and Prussia, were generally enemies and always rivals. Italy was a country always divided against itself.

Besides, three of the chief continental monarchs (Russia, Austria and Prussia) had their eyes fixed more upon the plunder obtainable in Poland than on the rush of the events in France. This, to a large extent, contributed to the initial success of the French Revolution.

WB Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 8. Why was the relationship between the lord and the vassal an anachronism in France?
Answer:

In France, the feudal system had become worn out and defective and feudal privileges had outlived the duties which had gone hand in hand with them. Hence the feudal rights were more irritating in France because, in return for them, the French nobles owed no duty to their tenants. So the relationship between the lord and the vassal in France was an anachronism.

Question 9. What part did the serfs and peasants take in the French Revolution?
Answer:

In France, the peasants or serfs were under the influence of the middle-class leaders imbued with new and progressive ideas and they actively participated in the Revolution.

Question 10. What was the main difference between the privileged and unprivileged classes on the eve of the French Revolution, 1789?
Answer:

The privileged class enjoyed a total or partial exemption from taxation and had also the monopoly of honours and emoluments. On the other hand, the Third Estate practically bore the whole burden of taxation and was sometimes excluded from all places of authority.

The differential treatment accorded to the two classes may be summed up in these words: The privileged classes had rights but were free from obligations, whereas the unprivileged classes had no rights but were saddled with galling obligations.

Question 11. What was the main cause of the Revolution?
Answer:

The financial question was the main cause of the Revolution. The revolution was precipitated by the economic factor, the train which had been laid by philosophy was firmed by finance.

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Question 12. How far was Louis XVI responsible for the French Revolution?
Answer:

Louis 14, though well-intentioned, was weak-willed and irresolute. He sincerely desired to introduce necessary reforms but failed because did not have the gift to overcome the obstinate resistance of the privileged classes whose vested interests were threatened by any scheme of reform.

Question 13. What foreign ideas did influence the French people on the eve of the Revolution of 1789?
Answer:

The flow of ideas which directed French people towards the Revolution was composed of two streams—one English the other American. The intellectual antecedents of the French Revolution were largely derived from English inspiration. The philosophy of John Locke and the example of the English Revolution of 1688 were influential factors discrediting the Regime in France.

Question 14. Why did Louis XVI summon the States General? When did it meet?
Answer:

Louis 16 was compelled to summon the States General to meet the financial difficulty. The States General met on May 5, 1789.

Question 15. What was the nature and composition of the States General?
Answer:

The States General or the Feudal Parliament of France was a three-chambered body composed of the elected representatives of the three orders or ‘estates’- the clergy, the nobles and the commons or the Third Estate.

In 1789, when the States-General met after 176 years the Third Estate was allowed to send as many members as the two other orders combined. However, the voting rights were to be by orders and not by individuals. So the privileged orders were sure to win the game.

Question 16. What were the demands of the Third Estate about the system of voting in the States General? Or, What was the procedure of voting at the States General? What changes were brought into it at the Constituent Assembly?
Answer:

The Third Estate demanded that the three orders were to meet as a single Chamber in the States General in which each individual should have one vote. As the Third Estate had been permitted to send twice as many members as either the clergy or the nobility, the substitution of individual votes for a vote by order meant the transfer of votes from the privileged classes to the commons.

So the nobility and the clergy offered a stubborn resistance but the commons remained firm. At last, after much contention, the Third Estate took the momentous decision of declaring itself the National Assembly on June 17, 1789.

Question 17. Who was Marie Antoinette? Why was she hated by the people of France?
Answer:

French Emperor Louis 16’s dominating Queen Marie Antoinette was the daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria. She was beautiful and gracious, but strong, willful and intriguing.

She lavished public money on her friends and amusements. Huge estates and pensions were conferred on her worthless friends. For this, she became the most hated member of the royal family.

Question 18. What was Bastille? When was it stormed? What was its significance?
Answer:

The Bastille was the State prison in France. It was stormed by the populace of Paris on July 14, 1789. The fall of Bastille was everywhere regarded in France as a triumph of liberty and produced widespread enthusiasm.

Question 19. What is the Tennis Court Oath?
Answer: When the Third Estate declared the States General as a National Assembly and arrogated to itself the right of granting proposals for taxation and recasting the Constitution, Louis XVI closed the doors of the Assembly on June 20, 1789. The deputies of the Third Estate found the gates of the hall of their meeting place closed by the royal order.

Indignation ran high among the deputies of the Assembly. At the suggestion of Dr Guillotine, the deputies assembled at the nearby Tennis Court and took the famous Tennis Court Oath of 1789. By this Oath, the members of the National Assembly promised not to separate till they had drawn up a Constitution for France and established it on a firm foundation

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Question 20. What do you know of the rising of the Communes?
Answer:

Following the Parisian Revolution, every city and country township was seized with revolutionary zeal. In every town, National Guards were elected. The whole administration was grabbed by the municipalities. The municipalities formed compacts with one another so that France became a federation of communes and the royal authority may vanish.

Question 21. How did the Constituent Assembly of France meet?
Answer:

Having destroyed the feudal privileges of the nobles as well as the old Constitution, the National Assembly set about framing the future Constitution of France. Henceforth, the body came to be known as the Constituent Assembly and its chief work was the making of the Constitution.

Question 22. When was the first Constitution of revolutionary France framed? Who took the leading part in framing it?
Answer:

The Constituent Assembly of France worked out a Constitution which was finally adopted in 1791. By it, France was to be governed by a king and a Parliament known as the Legislative Assembly. Mirabeau took the leading part in framing this Constitution.

Question 23. What were the basic principles of the new Constitution of France? Or, When was the Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen adopted?
Answer:

The Assembly in imitation of the American usage formulated the principle on which the new Constitution of France was to be based. These were enshrined in the famous ‘Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen, which proclaimed “Men are born free and remain free and are equal in rights”, and the sovereignty resides in the people.

The Declaration was adopted on August 26, 1789, to protect the liberty of the nation against the crown and its ministers.

Question 24. What was the Civil Constitution of the clergy?
Answer:

By the Civil Constitution of the clergy, the old dioceses were abolished and each of the new departments or provinces was made a bishopric. Bishops and priests were to be elected by popular vote and were to be paid by the State. The Pope lost all his authority over the clergy and the clergy were turned into so many salaried State officials.

Question 25. What do you know of Mirabeau?
Answer:

A noble by birth, Mirabeau was rejected by his order but he was elected to the States General by the Third Estate and threw himself, heart and soul, into the revolutionary movement. He was the only practical statesman of the day. He wanted to harmonize Monarchy and the Revolution. But he died in 1791 and with him perished the greatest man of the revolutionary epoch and the last hope of the French Monarchy.

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Question 26. What do you know of the Jacobin Club?
Answer:

The Jacobin club was at first moderate and offered a meeting place for the Constitutional and educational elements. But with the progress of the revolution, it became more and more radical, especially with the ascendency of Robespierre as the leader. The Jacobin club had its daughter societies spread all over France and soon it developed into a great power of organisation and concerted action.

Question 27. What do you know of the Girondists?
Answer:

The Girondists, so-called from the district from which many of their leaders come, were moderate Republicans. They were a group of eloquent youngmen, sincerely enthusiastic about establishing a republic in France. But they were quite unpractical in their conduct Theirs was their leader.

Question 28. What is the Declaration of Pillnitz?
Answer:

The Declaration of Pillnitz issued on August 27, 1791, declared that the cause of the French King was the cause of all the monarchs of Europe and expressed the willingness of Austria and Prussia to undertake armed intervention if other monarchs of Europe would join them.

Question 29. When was the first coalition against France organised? How many coalitions were formed against France at this time?
Answer:

In 1793, the European powers formed the first coalition against France. Its members were England, Holland, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia and Spain. Four coalitions were formed against France in this period.

Question30. What do you know of the Reign of Terror?
Answer:

With the expulsion of the Girondists from the Convention, leaders of the moderate republican party disappeared from the Assembly and the phase of the Revolution, known as the Reign of Terror began under Jacobin It was the darkest and the most terrible period of the Revolution. It lasted from June 2, 1793, to July 1794. Robespierre became virtually the dictator of France during the period.

Question 31. What was the chief machinery of the Reign of Terror?
Answer:

The chief machinery of the Reign of Terror was:

(1) The Committee of Public Safety;
(2) The Law of Suspects;
(3) The Revolutionary Tribunal and
(4) The Square of Revolution.

Question 32. Name some of the prominent persons who were guillotined during the period of the Reign of Terror.
Answer:

The most prominent victims of the Reign of Terror were Marie Antoinette, the captive queen, Madam Roland, the guiding spirit of the Girondists, the Duke of Orleans, Danton, etc.

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 Question 33. What do you know of Danton?
Answer:

Danton was one of the ablest leaders of the first period of the French Revolution. It was only owing to his splendid energy that France was saved from the Prussian invasion in 1792 and got a strong Government In the very end he protested against needless severity in France and the reckless policy which branded and armed the whole of Europe against her. With his fall France lost a statesman who could possibly have dominated the course of events.

Question 34. What do you know of Robespierre?
Answer:

Though not the author of the Reign of Terror, Robespierre was undoubtedly the most active promoter of it. His great ambition was to set up a reign of virtue, through the medium of democracy and he regarded terror as the best means of establishing it. But at last, the opposition was organised against Robespierre and the Convention outlawed him and his adherents. They were arrested on July 27, 1794, and Robespierre was executed the very next day.

Question 35. Who were the Physiocrats? Who propounded the new economic idea?
Answer:

The ideas of enlightenment also influenced the economic thoughts of that time. In France there arose a new school of economics known as the Physiocrats who attached the prevailing mercantile system with the insistence on the state control of trade and commerce.

Their slogan was laissez-faire or let alone. In other words, they pleaded for the non-interference of the state with trade and commerce, which they held, should be lent to the free operation of economic laws. Quesnay was the originator of this new idea.

Question 36. How many divisions wass French society divided when the French Revolution began?
Answer:

French society was divided into two classes. The privileged and the unprivileged. The privileged class included the nobility and the higher clergy and the unprivileged class included the bourgeoisie or the middle-class citizens, the labourers and the peasants. They formed what was called the Third Estate.

Question 37. What do you know of the Cordelier Club?
Answer: The Cordelier Club, led by Danton, was radical from the very beginning. Its members were recruited from the lower orders of society, so it was the hotbed republicanism.

Question 38. What was the nature of monarchy in France before the outbreak of the French Revolution?
Answer:

The despotic monarchy prevailed in France before the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. The French monarchs believed in the divine right of kingship and regarded themselves to be the representatives of God on earth. He did not consider himself responsible to anybody for his actions and ruled willfully. His word was the law of the country.

Question 39. Who was Turgot?
Answer:

Turgot was appointed by Louis XVI to the post of Finance Minister to improve the economic condition of France. He wanted to minimise the state expenses and so he chalked out a detailed programme to improve the economic condition of France. He also intended to impose taxes on the priests and the nobles who were exempted from all sorts of taxes. He was opposed by the queen and the nobles and was removed from his office.

Question40. Who was Necker?
Answer: Necker was the second finance minister appointed by Louis XVI to improve the economic condition of France. At that time, due to the participation of France in the American War of Independence, the treasury of France became empty. Necker proposed equal taxation on all classes to fill the treasury. Queen Antoinette criticised him as a miser and the King removed him from his office due to the excessive influence of the Queen.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 1 Questions And Answers

Question 41. Who was Calonne?
Answer:

Calonne was appointed by Louis XVI to the office of Finance Minister after Necker was removed. Calonne did not wish to displease the King’s family. So he took huge loans to compensate for the deficit of the royal treasury. Soon he realised that the Government could not work based on his policy so he called a meeting of the Assembly of Notables and the King accepted his proposal.

Question 42. Who was Brienne? ‘
Answer:

Louis 16, the king of France, appointed Brienne as his Finance Minister. He did not succeed in solving the economic problems in France. He proposed some new taxes which were opposed by the Parliament of Paris.

Question 43. Why was the treasury of France empty when Louis 16 ascended the throne of France?
Answer:

Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. Along with this was the constant cost of maintaining an extravagant court at Versailles. So, the treasury of France was almost empty when Louis 16 ascended the throne of France.

Question 44. How did the American War of Independence affect France’s debt situation?
Answer:

The French Government supported the thirteen colonies of America in their war of independence against Great Britain. This added more than one billion lives (units of currency in France) to the national debt which increased to more than two billion lives with interest

Question 45. What was the ‘Assembly of Notables’?
Answer:

The Assembly of Notables was the assembly of the nobles, priests and magistrates who were appointed by the King himself. The Assembly lacked the representation of the general public because all the members were appointed by the King.

Question 46. What was the ‘States-General’?
Answer:

The ‘States-Gsneral’ was a political and legislative body to which the three estates of French society sent their representatives. In France during the Old Regime, the king did not have the power to impose taxes. Rather he had to call a meeting of the States-General to pass the proposals for new taxes.

Question 47. Who was John Locke?
Answer:

John Locke was a popular and progressive French philosopher who prepared the mental atmosphere for the outbreak of the French Revolution. He refuted the doctrine of the divine and the absolute right of the monarch in his book ‘Two Treatises of Government’.

 Question 48. What was the significance of the fall of the Bastille?
Answer:

(1) The fall of the Bastille (14 July 1789) proved that the king had no longer any control over Paris, France’s capital
(2) The attack and destruction of the Bastille was a moral victory for the people of France over the autocratic monarchy.
(3) It was a victory of liberal values over the absolute monarchy.
(4) It created an atmosphere of horror and terror among the absolute monarchs of Europe.

Question 49. Differentiate between active and passive citizens of France.
Answer:

Men who were above 25 years of age and who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens and they had the right to vote. The remaining men and women of France who could not fulfil the above criteria and did not have the right to cast their vote were called passive citizens.

Question 50. Which estates of the French society gained from the Constitution of 1791? Which estates were dissatisfied and why?
Answer:

Members of the Third Estate of French society gained from the Constitution of 1791. Members of the First and Second Estate were dissatisfied because their privileges were abolished and instead they had to pay taxes in proportion to their means.

Question 51. What do you mean by ‘Cahiers’?
Answer:

All the delegates who came from different parts of France to attend the session of the States-Gsneral in the grand hall of the Royal Palace of Versailles on 5 May 1789 brought with them their complaints, memorandums and demands of their respective areas. These were known as Cahiers.

Question 52. What were the different political parties in the National Convention?
Answer:

The four different political parties in the National Convention were :

(1) The Constitutionalists,
(2) The Girondins,
(3) The Jacobins and
(4) The Moderates.

Question 53. Which incident is known as the ‘Second French Revolution’?
Answer:

On the morning of 10 August 1792, the members of the Jacobin Club stormed the Palace of Tuileries, massacred the king’s guards and held the king hostage for several hours. Later, they voted to imprison the king’s family. The dethronement of the king virtually made France a ‘Republic’. Historians have called this incident of 10 August 1792 the ‘Second French Revolution’.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 1 Questions And Answers

Question 54. Who were the members of the Jacobin Club?
Answer:

The members of the Jacobin Club were from poor classes. They included small shopkeepers, artisans like shoemakers, watchmakers, pastry cooks and daily wage earners.

Question 55. Why were the Jacobins so named?
Answer:

The members of the old Breton Club began to hold their meetings in the • church named ‘Jacob’. The members of this club came to be called the Jacobins.

Question 56. Who were the Girondins?
Answer:

The Girondins, one of the four political parties in the National Convention, played a prominent role in the French Revolution. The significant leaders of the party were Brissot, Condorcet, Petain and Madam Rolland and their chief aim was to establish a republican form of Government in France. Though they were staunch revolutionaries, they did not support violence, lawlessness and anarchy.

Question 57. Describe the incident of the storming of the Palace of Tuileries.
Answer:

On the morning of 10 August 1792, the members of the Jacobin Club stormed the Palace of Tuileries, massacred the king’s guards and held the king hostage for several hours. Later, they voted to imprison the king’s family.

Question 58. Why was the Reign of Terror introduced?
Answer:

On 21 January 1793 when King Louis XVI of France was executed, there were outbursts of rebellion from the king’s supporters. Besides, monarchical countries such as Britain, Holland, Prussia and Austria formed a coalition and declared war against the republican Government of France.

The National Convention tried to protect the country from internal threats and external aggression by setting up an emergency Government and following a strategy of terror where all opposition was ruthlessly suppressed. This period from September 5, 1793 – July 27, 1794, is called the Reign of Terror.

Question 59. What was the ‘Thermidorian Reaction’?
Answer:

The reaction which took place in France after the death of Robespierre, the leader of the Reign of Terror, is known as the ‘Thermidorian Reaction’. By this time the terrorists were put to death and the Reign of Terror and Paris Commune were dissolved.

All the subordinate machinery of the Reign of Terror was abolished. The prisoners whose guilt was in doubt were released and the National Guards were reorganised. All this stemmed from the reaction of the middle class.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 1 Questions And Answers

Question 60. What was Tipu Sultan’s relationship with the Jacobin Club?
Answer:

The Jacobin Club, the largest and most powerful political club of the French f Revolution, had an Indian ruler, Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, among its associates. He was the founder-member of the Jacobin club in India.

He actively supported the proposal of the French soldiers at Seringapatam to set up a Jacobin club in 1797 and when it was established, he ordered a salute of 2300 cannons and 500 rockets to celebrate the occasion.

Question 61. What was the Brunswick Manifesto?
Answer:

King Louis XVI tried to restore the monarchy in France with foreign help. When the Parisian mob attacked the Tuileries Palace and humiliated the king, the king tried to flee to Austria along with his wife.

In August 1792, the Duke of Brunswick, the general appointed by the Austro-Prussian Government, issued a manifesto and warned France that any injury or insult to any member of the royal family would be severely dealt with. This is known as the Brunswick Manifesto.

Question 62. What was the Directory? Why was it dismissed?
Answer:

After the fall of the Jacobins, a new Constitution was formed that denied the right to vote to citizens without property. It provided two Legislative Councils which appointed a Directory with five members. However, the Directors often clashed with the Legislative Councils and were finally dismissed. Political instability resulted which led to the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

Question 63. What laws were made to improve the status of women in French society?
Answer:

The revolutionary Government in France introduced some laws to improve the lives of women in France.

(1) Schooling was made compulsory for all girls.
(2) Women could be trained for jobs, could run small businesses or become artists.
(3) Fathers could no longer force their daughters to marry against their will.
(4) Divorce was made legal and could be applied for by both men and women.

Some Aspects of the French Revolution 4 Marks Questions & Answers

Question 1. What do you mean by ‘ancient regime’?
Answer:

The term ‘ancient regime’ (old system) is used to describe the conservative society and institutions of France before the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789. Before the revolution, France was ruled by the autocrats of the Bourbon dynasty. They believed in autocratic rule, centralised administration, inherited privilege of the nobility, exploitation of commoners and the support of corrupt churches, etc. The rights of the king were absolute.

He was not accountable to the nobility, the church or any institution of the state. All these were the features of the ‘ancient regime’. The ‘ancient regime’ was thus based on a medieval social structure. The French Revolution marked the end of the ‘ancient regime’.

Question 2. How far were the Bourbon monarchs responsible for the outbreak of the French Revolution?
Answer:

France was ruled by the Bourbon dynasty at the time of the French Revolution. The Bourbon monarchs believed in an absolute monarchy. There was, however, the States-General which was a representative assembly but its session was never summoned after 1614. Louis 14 carried the autocracy of the French monarchy to the highest pitch by declaring that the state, is itself.

The next king, Louis 15, enforced arbitrary legislation and involved France in foreign wars at his whims. The next king, Louis 16, was fickle-minded and failed to introduce necessary reforms. He failed to control corruption or remove the privileges of the aristocracy. Thus the Bourbon monarchs were responsible for the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Question 3. What was the role of Voltaire in the outbreak of the French Revolution?
Answer:

Voltaire was one of the most important French philosophers who played a very significant role in the outbreak of the French Revolution. He wrote satirical articles against the evils and defects of the French Government. He was twice imprisoned for his satirical writings. He rejected the supremacy of the church outright and held the clergy responsible for spreading blind faith among the people.

He protested against the corrupt and luxurious life of the clergy and denounced the church as an ‘infamous thing’. He was against the religious dogmas of the priests. He vehemently criticised all kinds of oppression, exploitation, blind beliefs and evil practices. He was an advocate of individual freedom.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 1 Questions And Answers

Question 4. Who was Diderot?
Answer:

Diderot was an important philosopher of France who contributed greatly to the outbreak of the French Revolution. He violently opposed all ancient institutions. In 1792, he edited an Encyclopaedia which had twelve volumes. Between 1751 and 1772 seventeen editions of this book were published.

This encyclopaedia gave birth to rationalism in France. He attacked the king’s autocracy, the privileges of the nobility and the church, the defective tax system, the slave system and the blind faith of the French people. He was imprisoned by the French Government because of his fearless thoughts and writings.

Question 5. How did the economic thinkers criticize the economic policy of the French Government?
Answer: The. economic thinkers of France criticized the economic policy of the French Government. They came out with new economic ideas. Economic thinkers like the physiocrats strongly criticized the mercantile doctrine and advocated free trade, free enterprise, and privatization of trade and industry.

Quesnay, the most outstanding of the physiocrats, and his professor Adam Smith were the spokesmen of the doctrine of free trade (Laissez-faire) and the removal of state control so far prevalent in the field of trade and commerce. They came forward with a rational exposition of economic laws.

Question 6. What was the influence of the Glorious Revolution and the American War of Independence on the outbreak of the French Revolution?
Answer:

The constitutional monarchy and the sovereignty of the people that were established in England by the Glorious Revolution of 1688 deeply inspired the French. In addition, the American War of Independence also influenced the French. The war of independence continued for eight years from 1775 to 1783.

France took part in it to help America and crush England, its old enemy. France’s participation proved very harmful for France itself because it caused a severe financial blow to France. The French soldiers who took part in the war returned to their own country after the end of the war and brought back revolutionary thoughts.

The people of France realised that no reform would be effective in France as long as the nobles and priests were present in the country. They lost faith in the administrative machinery for bringing about a change. So they resorted to revolution.

Question 7. Who were the ‘sans-culottes’?
Answer:

The ‘sans-culottes’ belonged to the third estate of French society. They included small shopkeepers, artisans such as pastry cooks, shoemakers, printers, watchmakers as well as daily wage-earners and servants. They used to wear long-striped trousers.

This was to differentiate them from the fashionable groups in French society, especially nobles who wore knee breeches. They wore, in addition, the red cap that symbolised liberty. Food riots were started by them. On 10 August 1792, they attacked and entered the Royal Palace at Tuileries.

Question 8. What was the position of the bourgeoisie in French society?
Answer:

French society was divided into two classes :

(1) The privileged and

(2) The unprivileged. The ‘bourgeoisie’ belonged to the unprivileged class. The bourgeoisie or the middle class was rich and consisted of physicians, lawyers, philosophers and professors. Heavy taxes were levied on them by the Government but they did not enjoy any privileges such as those enjoyed by the aristocracy. They were not appointed to any high posts despite their capability and so they were discontented. They were determined to go to any extreme limit to bring liberty and equality in society and the way they chose was to bring down the aristocratic privileges. The French Revolution was really led by the bourgeoisie because it was they who organised the people and inspired them to revolt.

Question9. What was the ‘Tennis Court Oath’?
Answer:

The States-Gsneral, an assembly that drafted and passed legislation in France, was summoned by Louis XVI on 12 June 1789. The conflict started with the voting system of the States-Gsneral. The nobles and the priests wanted voting by order while the members of the Third Estate demanded that votes should be counted individually and the States-Gen era I should be recognised as the National Assembly of France.

On 20 June 1789, the king closed the meeting room of the Third Estate and posted armed soldiers at the entrance. When the representatives of the Third Estate reached the meeting hall, they were stunned to see the doors shut. So they ’assembled at the nearby tennis court and took an oath not to move from there until they had prepared a new constitution for the country. At last, the king agreed to the proposal of one vote per head.

Question 10. What rumour spread in Paris on the morning of 14 July 1789? What was the reaction of the people?
Answer:

On the morning of 14 July 1789, rumours spread among the people that the king would soon order his army to open fire upon the citizens. As a result, about 7000 men and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a people’s militia. A group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city of Paris and stormed the fortress prison, the Bastille in the hope of finding hoarded ammunition.

Question 11. Give an account of King Louis XVI’s attempt to escape from France.
Answer:

Mirabeau, the ablest leader in the National Assembly, had a good relationship with King Louis 16. Mirabeau died in 1791 and the king became very perturbed. In the meantime, other European monarchs were preparing to attack France. Louis 16, to reestablish autocracy in France, tried to escape to Austria along with his family on the night of 21 June 1791.

Class 9 History Question Answer

Question 12. How did the French Constituent Assembly limit the powers of the king?
Answer:

The Constituent Assembly declared France to be a constitutional monarchy.

(1) The king lost his divine right of kingship. He was treated as the ‘first servant of the state’ and became a salaried head of the state.

(2) He became the head of the administrative or executive department according to the doctrine of separation of powers.

(3) He did not have any power to wage war or to make treaties with any country.

(4) He lost control over the provincial Governments as well.

Question 13. What was said in the ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen’?
Answer:

On 26 August 1789, the French Constituent Assembly drew up a ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen’. It said :

(1) All men are born free, remain free and have equal rights.

(2) All citizens are equal in the eyes of the law.

(3) The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation.

(4) Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others.

(5) property right is a sacred law. The property of any person cannot be usurped without payment of proper compensation.

(6) Rights consist of expressing a free opinion, freedom of the individual and freedom of religious belief.

(7) No individual shall exploit others. (8) No one can be arrested or imprisoned by the police unless proven guilty in the eyes of the law. In short, the declaration emphasized the three basic principles of the French Revolution-Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.

Question 14. When and how was the feudal system abolished in France?
Answer:

On 4 August 1789, the French Constituent Assembly issued a declaration which abolished feudalism from France. The declaration was as follows :

(1) Henceforth feudalism with all its privileges would be abolished.

(2) The feudal class would lose all its inherited social and political privileges.

(3) The church taxes like tithes and other ecclesiastical privileges were to be renounced.

(4) The serf system, all forms of feudal taxes, forced labour or corvee and manorial system were to be abolished.

Question 15. Describe the revolt of the peasants in rural France after the failure of the Bastille.
Answer:

After the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, the peasants of France who had been suffering under feudal tyranny rose in revolt. They burnt the houses of the landlords as well as the churches. They destroyed the manor houses and burnt the documents containing records of manorial dues.

Manor officials were also murdered. Manorial lands were forcibly occupied and rich peasants were driven out. There were rumours that the landlords of the manors had hired people to destroy the ripened crops.

This caused panic among the peasants who attacked the castles of noblemen. They looted hoarded grains from the market As a result a large number of nobles fled their homes and migrated to neighbouring countries.

Question 16. What is the ‘September Massacre’?
Answer:

The leaders of the Jacobins including Marat and Danton began the hunt for the enemies of the French Revolution. They began to kill the royalists who were in jail. Every house was searched. Any person suspected to be a supporter of the king was at once put to death.

This massacre continued from 2 September to 6 September 1792. About 1600 people were murdered during this period. This act of murder by the Jacobins was extremely hateful and unjust

Question 17. What do you mean by ‘The Revolutionary Tribunal’ introduced during the Reign of Terror?
Answer:

One of the instruments of the Reign of Terror was the Revolutionary Tribunal. The function of the Revolutionary Tribunal was to punish persons held under the Law of Suspects. Nobody could appeal against the decision of this court. Justice was almost always denied as the judges were directed to make their decisions hastily without going deep into the case.

Question 18. Mention two leaders of the French Revolution.
Answer:

The leaders of the French Revolution mostly came from the middle classes in France. The first man who distinguished himself in the States Assembly was Comte de Mirabeau who, however, belonged to the nobility. He persuaded King Louis 16 to set up a constitutional monarchy in France.

Another distinguished leader of the early nineties was Robespierre. He played the most important part in bringing Louis XVI to trial, declaring that the king ‘must die so that the country may live’.

Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 19. What was the ‘Law of Suspects’?
Answer:

The Law of Suspects was one of the instruments through which the Committee of Public Safety executed the Reign of Terror. This law empowered the police to arrest any individual on mere suspicion of anti-revolutionary activities. The suspected persons were then sent for trial. Not one of the persons sent for trial by the Revolutionary Tribunal was declared innocent—every one of them was sent to the guillotine.

Question 20. How far were the evils of absolutism responsible for the French Revolution? Or, How the Bourbon monarchy was responsible for the French Revolution?
Answer:

The Government of France was a highly centralised monarchy. The representative institutions that France had at one time possessed, had either been destroyed or brought under King’s control. The States-Genera I (the feudal Parliament of France) had ceased to exist.

Hence the king ruled as an absolute monarch. His function was to command and that of the people was to obey. All the functions of Government being absorbed by the King required a ruler of exceptional ability to carry on the duties of the royal office. Louis XIV, whatever might have been his defects, was never wanting in assiduity and anxious care for the good of his country.

But his successor, Louis XV, was weak and frivolous, enjoying the sweets of the royal office while shirking the responsibilities attached to it. The consequences of a centralised Government under an incapable ruler soon manifested themselves. The office of governing fell to a greedy horde of courtiers, who sacrificed every interest of the State to advance their selfish ends.

To the evils of corrupt administration were added the evils of oppression. Anybody might be imprisoned by the mere issue of warrants called letters de cachet, one of the most odious features of the Old Regime. A Government at once corrupt and arbitrary could not but produce widespread discontent and the people remained in absolute silence.

Question 21. What was the condition of the third estate in France?
Answer:

Below the two privileged orders, there was the vast majority of the population called the Third Estate. It was not a homogeneous body. It comprised the bourgeoisie or the upper middle class, the artisans and the peasants.

(1) The Bourgeoisie or the upper middle class formed the well-to-do, intelligent and energetic section of the community. They were practical businessmen who had piled up wealth and secured a monopoly of municipal appointments. Conscious that they were as good as the nobles, they keenly resented the existing system under which they were made to feel in numerous ways their social inferiority. Although their interests differed from those of the other members of the Third Estate, they were a discontented class and wanted political and social reforms.

(2) The artisans and labourers, although belonging to the Third Estate, were much worse off than the bourgeoisie. They were completely at the mercy of the rich middle class which controlled commerce and industry through guilds and similar close corporations.

(3) The condition of the peasantry, which formed by far the largest section of the population, was deplorable in the extreme. The peasant had to pay rent to his feudal lord, tithes to the Church and taxes to the king. The whole burden of taxation fell with a crushing weight upon him, especially since the privileged orders were more or less exempted from taxation.

To crown his misery, he was subjected to the most galling feudal obligations. He had to submit to compulsory labour for making or repairing roads (Corvee), had to grind his corn in the lord’s mill, and had to calmly endure the sight of his young crops being trampled by his lord’s hunting party. He could not erect fences to shut out the game from the fields. In a word, what with unjust taxes, with feudal obligations, the peasant lived on the verge of disaster with starvation often staring him in the face.

Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 22. Were the bourgeoisie the makers of the French Revolution?
Answer:

The French Revolution originated with the Third Estate but there is some difference of opinion as to which of the Third Estate, the bourgeoisie or the peasantry, took the initiative in bringing about the Revolution. Some writers believe that the oppressed peasantry of France, guided by the extremity of their sufferings, was driven to make this revolution. This view, according to Prof. Hearnshaw, is not correct. He points out that the French peasants were distinctly better off than the peasants of Germany, Spain, Russia and Poland.

Their main grievance was not exclusion from political power but the disproportionately heavy burden of national taxation which they had to bear. They had no idea of participating in the affairs of the state and had neither the capacity nor the inclination for heroic action.

Hence, Hearnshaw thinks that the Revolution in its early stages was especially the work of the enlightened bourgeoisie. This class held most of the wealth of France, bore the main burden of taxation and supplied the bulk of the loans to the Government Moreover, this class suffered more directly than any other through maladministration and would be the greatest losers in the event of the threatened national bankruptcy.

Lastly, the bourgeoise formed the most educated and intelligent section of the community and had drunk deep the new ideas taught and spread by the French philosophers. Hence, it is quite natural that the revolutionary movement should originate with the enlightened bourgeoisie for this class had the greatest stake in the country and was more profoundly convinced than any other, of the injustice and anomaly of the Old Regime.

Question 23. Compare the French Revolution with the English Revolution.
Answer:

From the foregoing review of the condition of France, it will be easy to perceive that the French Revolution was quite unlike the English Revolution of the seventeenth century. The aims of the English revolutions (the Puritan Revolution of 1641 and the Glorious Revolution of 1688) were in the main political. The movement in England was directed against the illegal exercise of the royal prerogative.

It was the arbitrary power claimed and exercised by the Stuart kings on the strength of the theory of divine-right monarchy, that roused the hostility of the people and Parliament In a result, the people were satisfied when their rights and privileges were safeguarded by constitutional checks imposed upon the royal power. The motive force of the French Revolution, on the other hand, was social in the first instance and political in the second.

Long unaccustomed to self-government, the French people complained not so much of centralised despotism as of the despotism imposed on them by the existing social system. In France, the cleavage between class and class was wider than in England, and the privileged classes enjoyed exemptions and advantages wholly disproportionate to their services to the State. The result was that there existed in France invidious distinctions at once irritating and oppressive.

It was this social inequality which pinched the people most. So they wanted to abolish all privileges and throw careers open to talent. It is noteworthy that when Napoleon secured social equality the people did not grudge when he trampled down upon liberty.
Secondly, the English Revolution of 1688 was largely defensive and conservative in character.

One of its leading features is the vindication of the ancient rights of the people against the crown. The people made practical attempts to deal with these particular grievances. They did not set before them the task of framing a new constitution under the influence of new-fangled theories. Thus, there is little new in the Bill of Rights. There was no violent breach in the past.

The ancient laws were re-established and made more efficient. The French Revolution, on the other hand, was destructive in character. Intoxicated by the new ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity the French people sought to abolish the Old Regime root and branch and to bring about a new order of things.

They aimed at the wholesale reconstruction of the social and political systems on the principle of the absolute sovereignty of the people. Thus the movement was democratic while the English movement was parliamentary.

Question 24. Write a note on the Jacobin Club.
Answer:

The most conspicuous were the Jacobin Club and the Cordelier Club. These had originated at the very beginning of the Revolution but it was under the Legislative Assembly and its successor that they showed their power. The Jacobin Club was at first moderate and offered a meeting place for the constitutional and educated elements.

But, with the progress of the Revolution, it grew more and more radical, and conservative members like Lafayette and Mirabeau were dropped out or displaced. This left the room clear for the ascendency of Robespierre, a radical democrat, and he skilfully used the club as a means of binding together the radical opinion of the country.

The Jacobin Club had its daughter societies spread all over France and soon it developed great power for organisation and concerted action. It gradually became the rival of the Legislative Assembly itself, so great was its influence.

Class Ix History Question Answer

Question 25. Why did the French Monarchy collapse?
Answer:

The French people were by tradition attached to the Monarchy, and the Revolution, in the beginning, was not a republican movement. The target of the attack was not the Bourbon monarchy but privilege in all its forms. But circumstances combined first to discredit the monarchy and then to end it The intrigues of the emigres who sought to rouse Europe against the Revolution, made the king suspect For it was generally believed that their conduct was inspired by the king’s machinations.

This suspicion was heightened by the attempted flight to the king, as also by the threat of foreign intervention. The revolutionists believed, and that rightly, that the king was looking beyond the frontiers for help. The menacing manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick confirmed their suspicion. It identified the king with the enemies of the Revolution. Hence followed mob violence—the sack of the Tuileries-and the suspension of the king.

War and initial failure worsened the situation. The people realised the extreme anger which menaced the Revolution and all that it stood for. Hence a resolute minority, the Jacobins, determined to overthrow the king who served as the focus of foreign intervention. It was ‘under their pressure’ that the newly elected convention abolished kingship and set up a republic.

The foreign war was thus the immediate cause of the fall of the monarchy in France. Hence it has been remarked that the republic in France in 1792 was the result of two factors—the Prussian invasion and Parisian Jacobinism. Lastly, the weakness of Louis XVI and his wavering policy did much to bring about the collapse of the monarchy.

Question 26. Write an essay on the Girondins.
Answer:

They were a revolutionary party consisting of a group of ardent young orators, enthusiastically republican in sentiment They were so called because some of their prominent leaders were deputies representing the Department of Gironde. Their leader was Brissot, a journalist and a lawyer. In Vergniaud they had a polished and convincing orator and in Condorcet a brilliant scholar and philosopher. The inspiring genius of the party was Madame Roland whose beauty and enthusiasm made her salon the charming centre of their political discussion.

The Girondins were mostly recruited from the provinces. They were men of culture, full of noble zeal and lofty ideas but were more theorists than practical men of business. Their ardent republicanism was based upon classical models.

The Girondins were a strong party in the Legislative Assembly and soon they captured the ministry. Their policy was to consummate the Revolution by adopting a war policy. War, they thought, would expose the bad faith of the king by revealing his treasonable relations with the emigrant nobles who, from their safe position on the frontiers, were trying to seek foreign aid in order to destroy the revolution. Hence, from the first they did everything in their power to provoke a breach between France and her neighbours.

War came soon enough and the initial reverses of the French and the menacing proclamation of Brunswick led to the insurrection of the 10th of August, the deposition of the king and the summoning of the Convention to frame a new constitution for France.

The September massacre followed, which the Girondins did nothing to stop, though they denounced them later on. Henceforth the mob of Paris whose stronghold was the recently established revolutionary commune became all-powerful and dominated the course of the Revolution. The Jacobins who worked through and by the people came to the front and became the rivals of the Girondins.

In the Convention, the two parties soon fell out with one another. Both parties were republicans but they differed in methods and morality. The Girondins were more radical in thought than in deed. The Jacobins, on the other hand, were ready and determined enough to adopt extreme measures to save the Revolution. The rift between the two parties became manifest on the question of the trial of the king. The Girondins were a provincial group and so they resented the supremacy of Paris.

To the Jacobins, the domination of Paris was necessary for the organisation of the national resources in the face of foreign invasion. Thus the cleavages between the two went on widening. But the military reverses of France sealed the political doom of the Girondins. As unpractical idealists, they were unequal to the stern realities of the war and the desertion of Dumouriez to the enemy was their deathly blow, for he had been one of them.

The Girondins fell because they had not organized themselves and so could not organize France. They have been variously described as “tragic idealists” and “sentimental windbags”; but there is no doubt that they expressed with singular eloquence the high ideals of 1789 and left behind imperishable memories as they mounted the scaffold chanting the Marseillaise, until, one by one, death stilled their voices.

Question 27. Write a short note on Robespierre.
Answer: A barrister of Artois and an inflexible exponent of Rousseau’s ideas, Robespierre had skilfully kept his name before the people and became the leader of the Jacobins. He opposed the war policy of the Girondins as he was clear-sighted enough to realise that war would lead to military dictatorship. To an ardent republican like him, this prospect was alarming. In 1793 the position of Paris was extremely critical on account of the revolt of the provinces and the invasion of the allied armies, and so the Committee of Public Safety had to be reconstructed, Danton being left out and Robespierre elected. Henceforth Robespierre’s influence was supreme and he became the virtual dictator of France. His rule was signalised by the increased activity of all the machinery of Terror.

It culminated in the enactment of that infamous law of the 10th June 1794, which increased the murderous efficiency of the Revolutionary Tribunal by dispensing with the formality of proof of guilt. Robespierre hilted alike the anarchical excess and revolting atheism of the Hebertists, as well as the policy of moderation advocated by the Dantonists or Indulgents, as they were called. He sent them all to the guillotine. He next inaugurated the worship of the Supreme Being and became the arch-priest of the new religion. His general aim was to found a republic of virtue and he thought that it could be done only by Terror. Robespierre is a curious and interesting study. He was a man of virtue, a hater of women, and incorruptible in the midst of bribers and the bribed.

At the same time, he was a narrow-minded egoist and an unimaginative fanatic who took everything which Rousseau wrote. Purity in appearance and uninspiring in speech, his power was due to an honest nature, intense conviction, and sincerity of purpose.

Question 28. Write a note on the calling of the States General.
Answer:

During the years 1787 and 1788, France was undergoing a serious crisis. The han/tests were bad and brought extreme social distress. But that this would develop rapidly into a revolution was anticipated by no one. Faced with this crisis, the King consented to summon the States General on 1 May 1789, the national Parliament of France which had not met since 1614. According to old custom, each Estate had voted as a unit, and two out of the three could carry any measure.

The members of the third estate demanded that the three orders were to meet as a single chamber in which each individual should have a vote. Their deputies numbered 621 against 285 for the nobles and 308 for the clergy, giving the third estate a slight majority.

When the States-General met at Versailles on 5 May 1789, the deputies were uncertain how to proceed. No reform programme was offered to them. The king ordered the deputies to vote as three separate bodies so that nobles and clergy together would be able to outvote the third estate.

The third estate refused to yield. For five weeks they urged members of the nobility and the clergy to join them in one great assembly. The commoners’ determination soon split the clergy, some of whom crossed over to join the third estate on 15, June. Two days later this already mixed group assumed the title of the National Assembly and invited the other orders to work together for the reform of France. With this step, the constitutional history of France took a decisive turn.

On 20 June 1789 when the members of the third estate went to the assembly hall, they found the entrance blocked by soldiers. Returning to the indoor tennis court nearby they solemnly swore not to separate until they had drawn a new constitution.

The ‘Tennis Court Oath’ was the actual beginning of the French Revolution as it marked defiance of the king. On 23rd June the king announced many important reforms in finance and administration but insisted that the three orders should meet separately. The nobility, triumphant, withdrew from the hall. But the third estate remained in gloomy silence.

Question 29. What was the immediate cause of the French Revolution?
Answer:

Immediate cause: The States General and the Tennis Court Oath :

Unable to face the financial crisis, Louis XVI was forced to summon the States General of France in 1789 which had not met for 175 years. Necker, who was earlier dismissed was recalled to head the ministry. The States General attempted to put an end to the arbitrary rule of the king.

Louis tried to abolish it and blocked its way to the meeting with soldiers. Thereupon, the members gathered in the adjoining tennis court and took the famous Tennis Court Oath, never to separate until the Constitution of the kingdom was established. In the Royal Session of June 23, the king ordered the Third Estate to withdraw. The Third Estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly.

Dismissal of Necker and the storming of the Bastille: On July 11, Necker was dismissed. The next day Paris flew to arms. On July 14, 1789, the Bastille was stormed by a mob. Thus began the French Revolution that involved Europe for 23 years of warfare, which was only to terminate with the fall of Napoleon.

Question 30. Make a critical estimate of the National Assembly during the French Revolution.
Answer:

(1) Criticism :
The new Constitution did not work well and did not last long. The king’s Veto, although not strong enough to protect aim was enough to irritate the legislature, if used.

(2) Estimate: The work of reform carried out by the National Constituent Assembly was on an enormous scale. Much of its constructive work, however, proved very weak. The members of the Constituent Assembly were guided more by logic and abstract principles than by knowledge and insight. Hence many of them were speedily destroyed. The Constitution, as framed by them, had serious defects. It showed a fatal distrust of executive authority.

The power left to the king was too weak to be efficient. The executive and the legislature were so sharply separated that communication between the king’s ministers and the representatives of the people was well-high impossible. Hence much room was left for mutual suspicion, and in case of divergence of aims, a deadlock or a revolution might be ensured. Secondly, the franchise was limited by property qualification.

This went against the principle of equality so grandiloquently proclaimed by the Declaration of Rights. The plan of a unicameral legislature and the system of election was in case judges proved unsatisfactory and had to be given up before long. But no error of the Constituent Assembly was so disastrous into effect as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. It produced a schism in the church and divided the people of France in their attitude towards the Revolution.

A large number of lower clergy who had greatly favoured the Revolution so far now turned against it for conscience’s sake. The seeds of division were sown and they produced civil war before long. Secondly, it estranged the King who had accepted the Revolution, although very reluctantly. The religious fibre in his nature was very strong and the denunciation of the Civil Constitution by the Pope made him very uneasy.

Notwithstanding these defects, the work of the Assembly was not a complete failure. The most abiding part of its work was the sweeping away of the old social system of privilege and inequality and the partial building up of a new social order based upon equality. Secondly, the department which it created to supersede the old provinces proved permanent and salutary. Provincial privileges and local traditions were swept away and this made for national unity.

Question 31. What were the efforts of Turgot Land Necker to improve finances?
Answer:

When France faced an acute financial crisis Louis XVI appointed Turgot to improve the country’s finances. Turgot adopted two strong measures to better the economic condition. Firstly he sought to affect the national economy and to develop public wealth to double the receipts.

He took steps to suppress useless expenditures and introduced free trade in corn by removing all customs barriers to internal commerce. Secondly, he also abolished trade guilds. These guilds restricted protection by limiting the number of workers in each line. Turgot’s measures had good results and promoted both the production and exchange of wealth.

Turgot did away with corvee and also special land tax payable by all proprietors was proposed to be substituted in its place. All these measures, if effectively carried out, would have made the taxation burden on the rich and the poor

at least equal. But Turgot met with fierce opposition from the nobles and courtiers, for the measures meant the curtailment of their privileges and some outdated rights. The nobles clamoured for Turgot’s dismissal. Louis 16 had to yield to their demand when it was forcefully backed by the Queen. After Turgot came to Necker, a Genevan banker, as the Director of Finance. But he had also to go because his measures were against the wishes and interests of the nobles and the courtiers.

It was nothing but the weakness of Louis 16 because of which two good financiers failed to improve the fast-deteriorating economy of France. Due to his weakness and unstable nature, the King failed to adapt himself to the needs of the time. He lacked the quality to take firm decisions on measures which could steer clear the ship of the French economy of the impending disaster.

Question 32. Critically estimate the achievements of the convention.
 Answer:

(1) Achievements of the Convention: Even amid the Terror, the Convention found time to make many significant contributions to the progress of revolutionary France. It introduced many social, political and religious reforms and paved the way for further necessary reforms. Its educational reforms are especially noteworthy.

Certain famous institutions were created such as the National School, the Polytechnic School, the Law and Medical School of Paris, the Consent/storey of Arts and Crafts, the National Archives, the Museum of Louvre, the National Library and the Institute.

Another achievement of the Convention was the framing of a new Constitution for France. The policy of the Convention following the Reign of Terror came to be summed up in the cry, “Death to the Terror and the Monarchy”. With this end in view, the Convention drew up a new Constitution, the third in six years.

The Constitution of 1795 was eminently the result of experience, not of abstract theorising. It established a bourgeois republic, as the Constitution of 1795 had established a bourgeois monarchy. The Republic was, therefore, in the hands of a privileged class, property being the privilege.

(2) Estimate: On October 26, 1795, the Convention declared itself dissolved. The Convention despite the notoriety on account of the Reign of Terror did imperishable service to civilisation. In the words of Hazen, “The Republic had its glorious trophies, its honourable records, from which later times were to derive inspiration and instruction.”

Question 33. Why did the French Revolution break out in France only and not in any other country?
Answer:

Different historians have put forward different theories as to why the Revolution broke out in France and not in any other country. However, it is possible to find out some common factors which made the Revolution in France inevitable.

(1) The miserable economic condition of the people of France and the poor management of finances by the Government of France contributed to the outbreak of the Revolution in France. The tottering economic structure of France was a very important cause for the outbreak of the Revolution.

(2) The burden of tax on the common people was much higher than anywhere else in Europe. So the intensity of discontent was much higher among the peasants in France than in other parts of Europe.

(3) The feudal system in France became worn out. In different European countries, feudal lords enjoyed privileges and performed their duties but in France, the feudal lords enjoyed rights and privileges without rendering any services to the king. The French people resented this system of unequal privileges and wanted to do away with this inequality in society.

(4) Backward agricultural and industrial conditions in France resulted in production which led to an excessive rise in food prices. This made the people of France burst into rebellion.

(5) The presence of the French philosophers who resented the privileges of the nobles and the absolutism of the French monarchy contributed to the outbreak of the Revolution only in France.

(6) Unlike in other countries, France had an enlightened middle class. It was they who organized the people and taught them to revolt.

Question 34. Describe the social structure of France before the outbreak of the French Revolution. 
Answer:

Before the outbreak of the French Revolution, the society in France was based on a medieval structure. Society was divided into three estates :

(1) First Estate: The clergy belonged to the First Estate. They enjoyed certain privileges by birth. They were exempted from paying taxes to the state. They owned 10%-15% of all the land in France. The corrupt lifestyle of the clergy was reflected in its attempts to impose mortuary fees, marriage fees and succession fees.

(2) Second Estate: The Second Estate in France was composed of the French aristocracy and the landed class. They were also exempted from paying taxes. They enjoyed a large part of landed resources in the countryside.

(3) Third Estate: About 90% of the population of the Third Estate were peasants. They had to work in the fields of their landlords as well as in their houses. They had to pay direct taxes like taille and also several indirect taxes like capitation, victims and so on. They also had to pay taxes on articles of everyday use. The Third Estate was the most exploited social class in 18th-century France.

Question 35. What were the two main classes into which French society was divided? Describe them.
Answer:

French society was divided into two main classes :

(1) the privileged and

(2) the unprivileged. The privileged class comprised the nobles, feudal lords and the higher clergy. They enjoyed all rights and privileges. All important posts were reserved for them. Apart from high posts in the administration, the sons of the nobles were appointed to lucrative posts in the church. They used to collect various taxes from the commoners while they were free from all sorts of taxation. They led a life of pleasure, luxury and immorality.

The unprivileged class consisted of peasants, tenants, labourers, artisans, small traders and shopkeepers. They were not given any privileges like the nobles. They had to pay taxes and were not appointed to any lucrative posts. The revenue collectors tortured them severely. In case of non-payment of dues, the revenue staff used to torture them. They were greatly discontented with the prevailing system of Government and the social system.

Question 36. “France was a museum of economic errors”. Discuss. Or, What were the economic causes of the outbreak of the French Revolution?
Answer:

The economic structure of France was one of the causes of the French Revolution.

(1) Louis 16, the ruler of France, drained the resources of the nation in successive wars.

(2) Due to the rise of population in France there was more demand for foodgrains. So the price of food soared and the poor could not afford to buy food. So the gap between the rich and the poor widened.

(3) There was a discriminatory tax system in France. The privileged class or the wealthier section of society paid no tax to the Government On the other hand, the unprivileged class had to bear the burden of taxation.

Only 4% of the total revenue collected by the Government was paid by the privileged class and 96% was paid by the unprivileged class. The Third Estate had to pay different kinds of taxes like taille (land tax), capitation (production tax), vingtiemes (income tax), glabella (salt tax), the tithe (religious tax), corvee (labour tax), aides (tax on wine, tobacco), and so on.

(4) Moreover, the method of realising the revenue was also faulty. The revenue was collected by the contractors who used to realise more than what was due from the farmers but they deposited in the royal treasury only a part of it and thus appropriated a good amount for their use. Thus whereas the peasants were exploited, the royal treasury was also being looted by the revenue officers. Due to the faulty economic structure of France, Adam Smith has remarked, “France was a museum of economic errors.”

Question 37. Describe the discriminatory tax system in France before the outbreak of the French Revolution.
Answer:

Before the outbreak of the French Revolution, French society was divided into two classes—the privileged and the non-privileged. The privileged class or the wealthier section of society paid no tax to the Government. On the other hand, the unprivileged class had to bear the entire burden of taxation. Only 4% of the total revenue collected by the Government was paid by the privileged class and 96% was paid by the unprivileged class.

Taille or direct land tax and tithes or religious tax were realised from the peasants. Vingtiemes or income tax, Gabella or salt tax, capitation or production tax were also realised from them. They had also to pay Aides or taxes on wine, tobacco, etc. The peasants had to work for the reconstruction of roads without any payment. This was known as corvee.

Again, they had to pay toll tax for using the same roads. Thus the French peasantry, which then constituted about 80% of the total population, had to deposit the lion’s share of their income to the king’s treasury as direct or indirect tax. After paying 80% of their income in taxation, the peasants hardly had any money to meet the necessities of life.

Question 38. Did women in France play any role in the Revolution in 1789?
Answer:

From the very beginning, the women of France were active participants in the events related to the French Revolution of 1789. Most women did not have access to education or job training. Only the daughters of nobles or the wealthier members of the Third Estate could study at a convent On 5 October 1789.

The poorest women of France, angered by the price rise and the indifferent attitude of the King to their misery, led a long march of 12 miles on the highway from Paris to Versailles shouting ‘Bread! Bread! Bread!’ To voice their concerns and issues, women started their political clubs and newspapers.

About 60 women’s clubs came up in different cities in France. The ‘Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women’ was the most famous of these. Olympe de Gouges was one of the most politically active women of the revolutionary period in France.

The Constitution of 1791 reduced the rights of women. So they demanded the right to vote, the right to contest elections and hold political office. During the Reign of Terror, the French Government issued laws banning the political participation and activities of women and ordered the closure of women’s clubs. The fight for voting rights and equal wages continued. Finally, in 1946 women won the right to vote.

Question 39. What were the causes of agrarian revolt (or, the spread of rural unrest) in France in 1789? What is its importance?
Answer:

Various causes were responsible for the outbreak of the agrarian revolt in France in 1789. These are enumerated as follows :

(1) The immediate cause of the revolt of the peasantry was the ‘Great Fear’. The ‘Great Fear’ was the rumour that spread in villages that criminals and brigands had been sent against the peasantry by the nobility. It was the plan made by the nobility to avenge their defeat in the States-General.

(2) Another cause of the revolt of the peasants was the rise in the price of bread. A time came when higher prices could not procure bread.

(3) The fall of Bastille and other violent incidents in different parts of France provoked the peasants to break out in rebellion.

(4) The peasants who had been suffering for a long under feudal tyranny were disillusioned at the States-General meeting as they realised that it could not bring any change in their material life.

The importance of the agrarian revolt in France is as follows:

(1) It opened the eyes of the elected representatives of the people in the States-General.

(2) The violent incidents and the attacks upon the property of feudal lords by the rebel peasants convinced the elected representatives that for the security of their property, some concessions had to be granted.

(3) On August 14, 1789, the nobility and the clergy voluntarily renounced the privileges they had been enjoying for a long time. As a result, feudalism came to an end in France.

Question 40. Why did the aristocrats rebel in 1788?
Answer:

During the reign of Louis XVI, there was an acute economic crisis in France. To overcome the crisis, Finance Minister Briand proposed that taxes should be imposed on the aristocracy and the clergy. The king tried to force the Parlement of Paris to implement his new tax proposal by a special session called ‘lit de justice’.

However, according to the prevailing tax system in France, the aristocrats were exempted from paying any tax. This proposal of imposing taxes on the aristocrats enraged them. They broke out into revolt. They declared that the King could impose his new tax proposal only with the consent of the States-General.

They pointed out that if the king could abolish the long-established privileges of the nobility, privileges being the other side of prerogative, the King must be ready to part with his prerogative right. They insisted on summoning the States-General. This is known as the revolt of the aristocracy. In 1788, the aristocratic revolt served as the first step of the French Revolution. It was the first attack upon monarchical absolutism in France.

Question 41. What was the role of the Jacobins? What were the causes of the downfall of the Jacobins?
Answer:

After the downfall of the Girondins, the Jacobins captured power. The prominent members of the Jacobin party were Danton, Marat and Robespierre. To terrorise the supporters of the monarchy, they advocated the establishment of the Reign of Terror. The chief organs of the Reign of Terror were :

(1) The Committee of Public Safety

(2) The Committee of General Security

(3) Revolutionary Tribunal by which the suspects were put to death after a summary trial.

The chief weapons to establish control over the public of France were the ‘Law of Maximum’ and the Law of Suspects. Thousands of people were guillotined by the help of the law of Suspects’ on the grounds of mere suspicion. Many were punished for non-compliance with the Law of Maximum. Thus during the Reign of Terror, they let loose tremendous atrocities on the people and put an end to the Gironde who opposed their policy.

Various causes led to the downfall of the Jacobins.

(1) The differences of opinion among the Jacobins contributed to their downfall.

(2) The life and property of the people were not safe during the Reign of Terror and so the people opposed it

(3) The Jacobin leader Robespierre began to interfere in the religious beliefs of the people which hurt their feelings.

(4) The labourers were annoyed with the party as they had fixed their wages under the Law of Maximum.

(5) The machinery of the Reign of Terror alienated the sympathy of the people and the Jacobins lost their ground.

Question 42. What were the results of the French Revolution?
Answer:

The results of the French Revolution of 1789 are discussed below :

(1) The revolution brought an end to the privileges of the clergy and the nobility.

(2) It laid down that every nation should be free to choose its form of Government.

(3) It ended the arbitrary rule of the king and developed the idea of a people’s republic.

(4) It emphasised the principle of equality. All men were made equal in the eyes of the law.

(5) It asserted that each individual should have the liberty of speech, worship and personal liberty.

(6) To the liberals, the principle of civil equality and national sovereignty offered a model for an exploitation-free, progressive socio-political system.

(7) After the revolution, the sovereign will of the people gained importance. No Government could justify its existence unless it rested upon the consent of the
people.

(8) The political developments in 1789 in France made the conservatives apprehensive of a further outbreak of revolutionary fervour.

(9) The ideas of democracy, nationalism, liberalism and fraternity stirred the minds of the European people.(10) It inspired revolutionary movements in almost every country in Europe and in south and Central America.